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Scientific Library &.
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UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE |
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A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.
For Description and Working Drawings to Scale,
See Page 24
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AMATEUR WORK,
ILLUSTRATED.
EDITED BY THE AUTHOR OF
"EVERY MAN HIS OWN MECHANIC."
• \Aj
WITH LITHOGRAPHIC SUPPLEMENTS,
Containing Resigns, §kcichcs, nno forking gratoings,
AND
FIVE HUNDRED WOOD ENGRAVINGS IN THE TEXT.
Or. /.
Iionbon :
WARD, LOCK, & Co., WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C.
igeto |9orft: i0, bond street.
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INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
Bar, horizontal, and frame, 502, £03
Barometer, cistern, 14S
Barometer, siphon, 143
Barometer, stationary cistern, 149
Bath for sensitising solution, 57
Battery, Leclanehe, the, 415
Bell, electric, chattering, with all parts to-
gether, 323
Bell, electric, parts of an, 322, 323
Bell, electric, plan of common form of, 322
Bell, electric, position of parts of, 367
Bell, electric, pushes for, 518
Bell, electric, switches for, 519
Bell, electric, wires and connections of, 450,
451
Bench, German carpenter's, 430
Bench, shoemaker's, 29
Bench, wood-carver's, 275
Bench-lathe, 65
Blowpipe for inflating skins of caterpillars,
165
Blowpipes, amateur's, 273
Boards, bevelling for junctions, 338
Boat, life, plan of, 326
Boat, life, rowlock for, 327
Boat, life, side of carriage for, 327
Boat, Norwegian fishing, 483
Boit, Norwegian, sections of, 486
Boat, outline of section in wire, 180
Boat, section of keel of a, 180
Boat, stem of a, 180
Eook, groove and rounded hack of, 3C3
Bookbinder's work-tub, 362
Bookbinding, specimens of old, 247
Bookcase, home-made, 459
Bookcases, metal fittings for, 286
Bookshelves, hanging, and drawer, 230
Bookshelves, hanging, details of, 231
Boot, hand-sewn, inner sole of a, 299
Boot, hand- sewn, with welt sewn in, 299
Eoot, lasting a, 85
Brace, American drill, 96
Bracket for modelling in clay, 60
Brackets, wall, for corners, 137
Brush, wire, scratch, 10
Brushes, scratch, 205
Burner, low temperature, 184
Burner, solid flame, 184
Bust, pot-lid in mould for, 390
Cabinet, hanging wall, details of, 25
Cabinet, skeleton wall, details of, 177
Camera, dark slide for a, 303
Camera, sliding body, 32
Camera, section of, 32
Canoe, cleat for a, 227
Canoe, mainmast and sail for a, 227
Canoe, mizenmast and sail for a, 227
Canoe, paddle for a, 227
Canoe, rib of a, 227
Canoe, rudder for a, 227
Canoe, sections of a, 226
Canoe, shape of stem in, 181
Canoe, stem, keel, and sections of on bench,
181
Casting in plaster, tools for, 387
Catch, simple, for box, 386
Chair, Elizabethan, in carved oak, 306
Chair, home made, 458
Chair, old-fashioned, to strengthen leg of,
350
Chest of drawers in miniature, 68
Chest of drawers, details of, 67, 69
Chisel-shaped tool, for modelling, 12
Cistern, rain-water, 35
Clamp, bench, Murphy's, 144
Clay, applying to figure drawn on slab, 61
Clay, badly applied, 60
Clay, brackets modelled in, 108, 109
Clay, building up ed^e with, 60
Clay, diagram showing how to avoid burr
on edge of, 107
Clay, making small roll of, 60
Clay, patterns for modelling in, 156, 157
Clay, properly applied, 63
Clcck, common Dutch or German, 153
Clock, hall, movements of a, 77
Clock, Henry de Wyck's, 76
Clock-making, tools for, 152
Clocks, escapements of, 403
Clothes, folding horse for, 375
Clothes, rack for, 375
Cork-borer, a, 133
Corner cupboard, handy, 145
Crucible for charcoal, 131
Crucible, iron, simple, for charcoal, 291
Crwths, ancient, 72, 73
Cupboard, handy corner, 145
Cyanide solution, method of pouring out, 172
Dark lantern, home-made, 418
Dark room, plans and sections of n, 120, 121
Dark slide, shutter for, 303
Dark tent, the, 121
Desk, home-made, standing, 350 *'■
Diaper work for casting, 391
Dining room, sideboard for the, 49
Drawers, miniature chest of, 68
Drawers, details of, 67, 69
Drawings, working, appliances for produc-
ing, 8
Drill brace, American, 96
Echolin, Collins's, 506
Electric bell, see Bell, electric
Electro-plating, amateur's plant for, 97
Electro-plating, buffing wheel for, 262
Electro-plating, burnishers for, 263
Electro-plating, Daniell battery for, 80
Electro-plating, Walker battery for, 81
Fan-screen, method of putting together, 434
Fiddles, ancient patterns of, 72, 73
Filter, cask, 223
Filter, kitchen, 132
Filter, large compound, 133
Filter, ornamental, 133
Filter, photographic, stand for, 57
Filter, pocket, 222
Filter, tap, 222
Filter, tap, stirrup for, 222
Floors, designs for decorating, 243 ,
Folder at work, 362
Foot, diagram of measurements of a, 29
Forge, charcoal, for brazing band-saws, 315
Fountain, self-acting pneumatic, 144
Fountain, self-acting, Rushton's, 383
Fret-sawing machine, simple, 37
Fret-sawing, machines for, 500
Furnace, draft muffle, 185
Furnace injector, 185
Furnace ladle, 185
Gas-fitting, minor fittings for, 293 ■
Gas-fitting, sundries for, 411
Gas-fitting, taps for, 410
Gas-fitting, tongs for, 411
Gas-fitting, tools for, 196
Gas-fitting, unions and fittings for, 197
■•
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
Gas-tongs, illustration of using, 295
Giant Stride, elevation of, 370
Giant Stride, section of top of, 370
Gigue, ancient, 72
Greenhouse, .section of rafter for, 1£3
Grinding, tool holders for, 20, 21
Guards, insertion of, in biudn:g, :JG3
Gun, duck, arrangement for a, 479
Gymnasium, lawn, '102
Haemorrhage, methods of checking, 101
. Hail-clock, movement of a, 77
Hammer, binder's, 470
Handle, the drop, 308
Harmonium, bellows of, 339, 511
Harmonium, case of, 339
Harmonium, feeders for, 339
Harmonium, interior of, 339
Harmonium, sound-board for, 514
Hexagon, construction of a, 159
Hive, cheap bar-frame, sections of, 112, 113
Hive, details of, 113
■ Hoops, how to fix on tubs, 44
Horizontal Oar and frame, 502, 503
Horse, clothes-, new form of, 4-S2
Jar, deflagrating. 131
Joint-stool, old, 307
Keyboard, organ, details of, for making,
466, wi
Loat&Cty dark, home-made, 418
Lathe, an amateur's plain, 4
Lathe, ""bench, f5
Lathe, double-gear gnp-bed, 5
Latue, poppit-head of a, 423
Lathe, scratch- brush, 205
Lathe, screw-cutting, with overhead gear, 5
Lathe, single-speed gap-bed, 5
Lathes, headstocks and mandrels of, 200, 201
Lawn gymnasium, the, 402
Light, electric, cells for, 355
Light, electric, lamp for, 354, 463
Light, electric, method of connecting 355
'463 ;
Le'clanchd' battery, the, 415
Machine, circular and band-saw, combined,
314
Machine, simple fret-sawing, 37
Measure, spring tape, 169
Metals, use of hand-turning tools for, 251
Modelling, stand for, 12
Modelling, tools for, 12, 13
Modelling, turn-table for, 12
Nuta, manufacture of, for model engines
510, 511
Organ, Atiwigement of pipes, 2 JO
Organ, bellows for a small, 5 J, 53
Organ, bel owp, details of, 53
■ , design for a small, L21
Organ, front elevation of a small, 176
Organ, pedals for a small, 220
Organ, pipes of a small, 16
Organ, scale for pipes of a small, 190
Organ, sound-board of an, 116, 117
Organs, springs for an, 117
Org;in, stop action in a small, 431
Organ, wind-chest of a small, 116
Panels, carved, for modelling, 216, 217
Perambulator, a home-made, 443
Perambulator, details of, 443
Percolator, Buck's patent, 447
Photography, the plate and its accessories,
419
Picture-frame vice, patent, 144
Pipes, sections of, 16, 2S7
Pipes, organ, shortened, 287
Pliers, clock-maker's, 152
Plough, and cutting-knife, the, 515
Plumb and level, 189
Polygons, a scale for, 334
Polygons, diagrams showing how to con-
struct, 235
Press, binder's, home-made, 515
Press, printing, the " Model," 3s2
Press, sewing, 470, 471
Rain-water, tanks for collecting and storing,
447
Refrigerator, home-made, 338
Room, dark, plans and sections of a, 120,
121
Saw, band, American foot-power, 316
Saw, band, forge for brazing, 315
Saw, band, hand or steam, 315
Saw, band, hand power, 213
Saw, band, hand-power attachment, 314
Saw, band, small foot-power, 3'5
Saw, circular, hand-power, 212
Saw, circular, fences for, 315
Saws, positions of file in sharpening, 501
Screw-driver, clock-maker's, 152
Screw-drivers, small, for watch-makers, 48
Sewing books, method of, 470
Sewing stand, home-made, 515
Shoemaker's bench, the, 29
Sideboard, a dining-room, 49
Sideboard made from two old chests, 351
Slide rest, compound, 64
Sole, diagram of a, 84
Stained glass, designs for, 55
Stand, portable photographic, 33
Stand, portable, folded up, 33
Stand, studio, 33
Starrett's combination try-square and level,
48
Strings, violin, tests for, 439
Summer-house, plan and elevation of, 270,
271
Sui-dial for wall, 22
Swing, garden, frame and boat of 266, 267
Swing, portable, 474
Swing, portable, stake to hold guys of, 475
Sycamore trunk, section of, 168
Table, eight-legged, 307
Table, Jacobean, in carved oak, 306
Table, simple home-made, 455, 453
Table, three-legged occasional, a, 128, 129
Table, to strengthen le* of, 350
Telephone, amateur's, in section, 342
Telephone, Bell's, 343
Telephones, bells for, 495
Telephones, cells for, 495
Telephones, stations for, 495
Tent, the dark, 121
Three-legged occasional table, a, 128, 129
Timepiece, Queen Anne, 497
Tin cans, new uses for old, 273
Bird houses, 278
Bread-grater, 278
Flower-stand, 279
Hanging flower-pot, 273
Hanging log for flowers, 278
Rockery, 279
Vase for plants, 279
Tool-case, an amateur's, 258
Tool-holder, wooden, 242
Tool-holders for grinding, 20, 21
Tools, modelling, 12, 13
Tools, properly and improperly sharpened,
359
Tools, useful roll for, 478
Tools, wood-carver's, 276, 277
Try-square, Starrett's combination, 48
Tub, hoops on a wooden, 44
Tub, how to hoop a, 192
"Vase, how to make model of, 390
Velocipedes, cranks and pedals of, 435
Vices, clock-makers', 152
Violin, diagrams of front and back of a,
101
Violin, diagram of interior of a, 169
Violin, Chanot, 507
Violin, Howell's, 507
Violin, nail, 507
Violins, accessories and fittings for, 395
Violins, ancient, 72, 73
Violins, bridges for, 254
Violins, cases for, 399
Violins, diagram for making, 208
Violins, diagrams of thickness for, 209
Violins, /-holes, of different, 105
Violins, iulaying and purfling, 255
Violins, neck and scroll of, 254
"Wall-brackets, corner, 137
Wall-cabinet, hanging, details of, 25
Washstand, Spanish, 458
"Wire, steel, nippers for, 286
"Wood-carving, bench for, 275
"Wood-carving, tools for, 276, 277
"Wood, some enigmas in, 40
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DESIGN FOR JAPANESE FRET-WORK CABINET FOR CHINA OR BRIC-A-BRAC.
AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED.
INTRO D UCTOR Y.
T the completion of the First Volume of a new Magazine, for which may be claimed
the merit of being unique in itself and entirely novel in its aims and object, a few
words with respect to its rahon d'etre, and what has been accomplished during the
first year of its existence, may not be altogether out of place.
The present age is eminently practical, and the majority of those who live in it work with
a zeal and will that, speaking generally, were not to be found in the generation that has
almost passed away, or, where they did exist, expended their force in widely different
directions. To this sweeping assertion there are, as a matter of course, notable exceptions ;
but, as exceptions invariably do with regard to everything that is accepted and acknowledged
as a rule, these only serve to substantiate the truth of that which has been just advanced.
That the present age is practical, and perhaps practical to a degree that has never yet
been attained since the world was young, is to be attributed, on the part of some, to an
unhealthy craving for money as the means of acquiring luxuries of all kinds, and, on the part
of others, to a healthy desire to utilise their time to the utmost, and to help themselves by
doing many things for themselves, for which, to a great extent, they have hitherto been almost,
if not completely, dependent on others. Of these desires, the former degenerates into avarice
or self-indulgence ; but the latter blossoms into habits of thrift and manly independence and
self-dependence.
To attempt to trace the present desire to engage in active practical work to its origin and
Term, would occupy too much space, and is, moreover, altogether foreign to the purpose now
in view. It is sufficient to point out that the truth is self-evident, and declares itself in the
relish with which men of intellect and education, whether richer or poorer, turn to carpentry,
gardening, and the various constructive and decorative arts instead of seeking relaxation in
pursuits for which the exercise of thought and manual dexterity is by no means necessary.
This desire for work and increased knowledge — a marked characteristic of the present age,
as it has been remarked — whatever its beginning, has been of long and very gradual growth.
It has given rise to Technical Education for the artisan, and a general wish to make education
for all and every state and condition of life as technical and practical as it is possible to render
it. The pioneers of Technical Education were busy in many a little town in England long
before the leaven began to work in any way in the Metropolis, and the Press brought its
| energies to bear on advancing it, and City Guilds became its foster-fathers. The writer was
I one of these pioneers, for he was working in this direction full seven-and-twenty years ago in
a distant corner of the kingdom, impressing on a class of carpenters, joiners, coach-builders,
wheelwrights, and smiths that he had gathered together, that, if they would attain excellence
in their respective callings, it was absolutely essential for them to acquire a knowledge of
drawing, and be able, so to speak, to put their work on paper. A few years later, he was
endeavouring to show that book-work in all schools should be mingled with and relieved by
practical teaching in the most ordinary handicraft trades. The proposal was received coldly
and with a smile that implied pity for the proposer's weakness of mind and credulity. The
INTROD UCTOR Y.
fact, however, that the means of gaining a knowledge of carpentry are afforded in many large
schools at the present time, and the desire of so many to engage in handicraft work, have
combined to show that he was right ; and this has been substantially confirmed by the favour
with which " Every Man His Own Mechanic" has been received, which, in its turn, coupled
with expressions 9f desire for such a serial from many a different quarter, led to the production
of Amateur Work, Illustrated.
On all sides a wish for progress is evinced by able men, and the old Latin proverb,
" Bos optat ephippia" may in very truth be applied to the greater number of those who work
with hand or brain ; for the mechanic seeks to acquire the theoretical knowledge of the
brain-worker, while the latter longs to be possessed of the manual skill of the artisan. The
apprentice, who has everything to learn in his trade, and the skilled workman, who has learnt
everything as far as the modus operandi and rule of thumb are concerned, desire a knowledge
of theory and the why and wherefore : the one to gain a shorter cut to excellence, and the
other to assist his skill by technical knowledge, and thus to increase his earnings. On the
other hand, the clerk, the curate, and the struggling professional man and man of letters,
who in many cases are well up in theory, and know why this, that, and the other are, and
should be done in ordinary trades, and who can even offer suggestions worth having to
mechanics, when at work, finding themselves, of late years, falling to the rear, as far as position,
political status, and worldly progress are concerned, are beginning to try to help themselves,
and to this end are seeking practical instruction in what may be not inaptly expressed as the
how, and when, and in what way to do it. For the former much has been done in the shape
of technical works and trade journals ; for the latter, however, as yet but next to nothing has
been attempted. They can gather but little that they want from the books and papers
written and got up for workmen, because in all these a knowledge of the practical part of the
subject is presupposed, and the A B C of elementary work is consequently ignored. That
practical instruction is a popular want of the times with amateurs of the middle classes, and
that there are no existing books or serials that will satisfy their wants to the full, there is
more than sufficient evidence to show in the letters that have reached the Editor and
Publishers since the First Part of this Magazine was issued. It was, indeed, to fill up this
manifest hiatus in the literature of self-help that AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED, was
commenced, and in this is to be found its raison d'etre.
The contents of this Volume may be taken as being fairly typical and representative of
the subjects that will be brought under the consideration of the reader, in Amateur WORK,
ILLUSTRATED : to those, however, who seek to inquire more fully into the scope and purpose
of the Magazine, it may be said that in its pages from year to year it will be sought to treat
on all subjects that are embraced in the ever-widening Circle of the Industrial Arts that are
of interest to, and can be accomplished by, the Amateur. It will be sought in future Volumes,
as in this, to guide everyone who is willing and wishful to work, to everything that he may do, •
and can do, in all things connected with the House and its Surroundings, whose execution
and performance demand constructive skill and manual labour, and to show him, by means of
description and illustration, verbal and pictorial, simply but clearly, briefly but comprehen-
sively, technically but intelligibly, so that none can possibly fail to understand —
What is to be done. When it ought to be done. With what it should be done.
How it is to be done. Where it should be done. Who supplies the needful materials.
Who furnishes the necessary tools.
To dwell seriatim on everything and every kind of work that an Amateur artisan may
accomplish for himself, within the precincts of his home, within-doors and out-of-doors, and
INTROD UCTOR Y.
even beyond home limits, is manifestly impossible. It is sufficient — while saying that nothing
that can be accomplished by the Amateur by manual labour will be foreign to the purpose
of Amateur Work, Illustrated — to point to the following pages as a proof that
instruction — practical, technical, and theoretical — -which may be desirable, useful, and
necessary to the Amateur who is seeking for information, will be given in the Volumes yet to
come, as may be required, and as opportunity may offer, in every branch of the Building
Trade, and in various Arts and Simple Manufactures and Processes that may come within the
compass of his powers and ability. In short, as the present Volume furnishes ample proof,
there is no subject involving manual labour, more or less, on which the Amateur may require
information and guidance, that will be left untouched in AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED, in
which the writers will always endeavour to show how to obtain the greatest possible results
with the least possible expenditure
From month to month notices have been, and will be given, of New Inventions, Appliances,
Tools, and Machinery which are calculated to be useful to the Amateur as they may come or
be brought to the Editor's notice. This feature of the Magazine has been warmly commended
by correspondents, for it has been found to form, as it were, a link and means of intercom-
munication between Inventors and Manufacturers on the one hand, and Buyers on the other;
assisting the former to find a more extensive market for their specialities, and the latter a
more ready means of becoming acquainted with existing or forthcoming appliances that are
calculated to do them good service.
In " Amateurs in Council," provision has been made to satisfy inquiries of general
interest made by Subscribers. These queries, in special cases, are answered by Contributors
on the Staff who have acquired a claim to be considered authorities on the subjects on
which they write.
As many readers have expressed from time to time a wish that facilities could be afforded
for the sale or interchange of Tools, Appliances, etc., among Amateurs, a new and special
department has been organised for this purpose, under the name of AMATEUR-WORK SALE
and Exchange Register. This will be commenced in Part 12, which is the first part of
Volume II. Further particulars will be found in page 527 of this Volume.
The large folding Supplements which have been received with much favour, and which
have been found to be eminently practical and useful, will be continued. It will be sought,
however, to render them still more serviceable as Working Drawings to Scale, and to impart
such variety to them as will tend to render them acceptable to every section of Amateur
Workmen.
Lastly, it only remains to say that a cordial welcome will be given to practical communi-
cations from Amateurs who have followed up any special kind of work, be it what it may, and
who from actual knowledge can speak with authority with regard to what should be done and
what should be avoided, in the work they have made their speciality, and are willing to place
their experiences on record for the benefit of others. Such communications, it is desirable,
should take the form of Short Articles rather than of Letters. Amateurs are also requested to
comment freely on the information given, if they do not understand it, or find it faulty, or
contrary to their own experience. Macaulay has said that " Men are never so likely to settle a
question rightly as when they discuss it freely." As the best means, then, of coming at the
truth, free comment and discussion is invited, and to him who is willing to enter into such
friendly controversy, and to do his best to help others by putting before them what he has
managed to learn himself, there shall never be lacking the encouragement that is to be found
in the old and time-worn saying, Discit docendo The Editor.
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
By PAUL N. HASLVCK.
I. The Lathe : its Parts and General Principles.
HE following papers are intended to show,
in plain and definite terms, how an
amateur may make a plain, useful lathe.
The art of turning possesses many fasci-
nations for those whose time is occupied
in widely different channels ; and to have a lathe
becomes the ambition of most people who attempt to
dabble in mechanical
work. The prime cost of
a useful tool, put chased
from the manufacturers, is
often an item which effec-
tually deters the budding
turner, and nips his am-
bition in the bud. Hun-
dreds of pounds frequently
make up the sum total of
an outfit of turning appa-
ratus, and it is compara-
tively few that can afford
the cost of such a luxury.
A substantial lathe, such
as an amateur would re-
quire for plain turning,
would cost about ten
pounds. For this sum a
fairly good lathe could be
purchased. It would be a
5-inch centre, 3 feet 6 inch
bed, mounted on iron
standards, with fly-wheel,
treadle, etc., all complete
ready for use. Such a
lathe would form a foun-
dation, to which might be added extra appliances and
machinery almost without end.
As these papers are written for amateurs, it will be
advisable to make the reader properly acquainted with
the technical terms that are used. Very probably,
those who are studying the subject for the first time
will have already found some words and phrases
which, if not altogether incomprehensible, are at least
not perfectly understood. The subjects must be ex-
plained as they occur, though this may have the effect
of rendering the first few pages somewhat tedious to
those who are already acquainted with the subject.
The student will find the benefit of knowing all par-
ticulars when he is dealing with the tools themselves,
and it is for the tyro student that I write.
FIG. I. — AN AMATEUR S 1'LAIN LATHE.
Lathes are of various kinds ; their sizes and shapes
are innumerable. They are used for illimitable pur-
poses, each demanding some peculiarity. The axis for
watch-work, often less than one-hundredth of an inch
in diameter, and cannon, weighing scores of tons, are
both fashioned on lathes. It will be easy to under-
stand that between the two extremes many modifi-
cations are necessary. Wood-turners' lathes, running
at a speed one thousand times faster than metal-
turners' lathes, differ somewhat in their design and
construction. The tool required for the most accurate
class of work is more highly finished than that in
common use. The foregoing, and many other con-
siderations, determine pe-
culiarities in lathes which
may here be disregarded.
The general run of work
which is likely to engage
the services of an amateur
will require tools of gene-
ral rather than of special
utility.
Amateurs' lathes are
usually foot-lathes ; that
is, they are driven by foot
power, as distinguished
from power-lathes, which
are those driven by steam.
A foot-lathe has a treadle
for the feet to drive ; this
connected to a crank at-
tached to the fly-wheel,_
furnishes the rotary mo-
tion. From the fly-wheel
a band conveys the mo-
tion to the pulley on the
mandrel ; this latter is the
fundamental part of the
entire lathe. The man-
drel is fitted in bearings
to a frame, which is the mandrel-headstock, sometimes
called the fast headstock. A corresponding frame,
containing the back centre, is called the back-centre
or poppit headstock, and sometimes the loose head-
stock. These two headstocks and a T rest are the
essential parts of a lathe. They have to be fitted to
a bed, which may be of almost any material or
form. Cast-iron beds are used for the best quality
lathes, but wooden beds serve the purpose in many
cases. The bed is supported by legs or standards.
The principal varieties of beds are the double-flat
and the V and flat. The former is now most in use ;
it has a flat top, with a central slit ; the headstocks rest
on the flats, and a web on their under sides fits the slit ;
thus accuracy of axial continuity is preserved. The
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
-SINGLE-SPEED GAP-BED
LATHE.
V and flat has one side flat and the other shaped like
an inverted V ; the headstocks rest on the flat and
have a groove in them which fits the V, and in that
way preserves the axial continuity when the head-
stocks are moved. When a lathe is made for self-
acting screw-cutting motion, the double flat bed has
the sides of the bed
undercut at an angle,
or dove-tailed. This
dovetail allows the slide-
rest carriage to be fitted
to slide along the bed.
Lathe beds may be any
length. Small bench
lathes are sometimes
only thirty inches long.
Ordinary foot-lathes,
from 4 to 6-inch centre,
have beds from 3 feet
to 4 feet long.
The expression "so
many inches centre," means the height from the bed
to the centre of the mandrel. It shows how large a
diameter may be revolved on the lathe. A 5-inch
centre lathe will measure 5 inches from the top of
the bed to the centre of the mandrel, and a disc 10
inches in diameter is the largest that the lathe will
allow. Some lathes have gap-beds,
by means of which the nominal
Height of centre is increased con-
siderably. A piece of the bed is
made to remove from near the front
of the mandrel headstock, so that
a disc of much larger diameter may
be mounted. • Though these gap
beds offer some advantages, yet for
amateurs' use another plan is per-
haps preferable. It is to use blocks
on which to raise both the fast and
loose headstocks, and thus make
the lathe, for the time being, so
much higher. The T rest will re-
quire to be similarly elevated.
Bench-lathes are those which
have the bed fitted to short feet,
which are screwed on to a bench.
Such lathes dispense with the usual
standards, etc, and the fly-wheel and treadle are fixed
independently, usually to the floor. Table-lathes is
another name for these tools.
Back-gear, or double-gear, is an arrangement for
driving the mandrel very slowly. It is useful when
turning metal of large size, or that which is particularly
hard Usually it consists of a wheel and pinion on
the mandrel, and a wheel and pinion on a shaft in
FIG. 3.— DOUELE-GEAR GAP-BED
LATHE, WITH SLIDE REST.
bIG. 4.— SCREW-CUTTING LATHE, WITH
OVERHEAD GEAR.
bearings parallel with the mandrel. The pulley, instead
of being fixed to the mandrel, is allowed to run loose,
with its front edge close to the toothed wheel pre-
viously mentioned, and which is keyed firmly to the
mandrel. The small end of the pulley has the pinion
fixed to it. On the shaft a wheel and a pinion are
fixed ; these gear into
the pinion and the wheel
on the mandrel. When
the lathe is in motion,
the action is this : the
pulley is turned by the
band, the pinion fixed to
it turns the wheel on the
shaft, the ratio of motion
being decreased in pro-
portion to the respective
diameters. The pinion
on the shaft then drives
the wheel on the man-
drel, and so this latter is
propelled. The speed is diminished by means of the
gearing, so that from six to nine turns of the pulley
cause only one turn of the mandrel. This is back-
gearing. In general use, the shaft is moved out of
gear, and the mandrel-wheel connected to the pulley
by a bolt arrangement. When an extra heavy piece
of turning has to be executed, the
mandrel-wheel and pulley are dis-
connected and geared together by
the auxiliary shaft. For wood-
turning and light metal-work back-
gearing is an incumbrance. It is
only required for turning large
metal, for which a slow speed is
necessary.
Fig. 1 shows a plain lathe,
manufactured especially to suit the
requirements of amateurs, by
Messrs. Tangye, of Birmingham,
and Queen Victoria Street, London.
This is a cheap lathe, but the work-
manship and the materials are
good throughout. The mandril
headstock is cast solid with the
bed, to save expense in fitting. The
usual crank shaft is dispensed with,
the fly-wheel being fitted on a stud fixed to the left
hand standard. The treadle arrangement is similarly
simplified. The lathe illustrated is 3 J inch centre
has a 2 feet 6 inch bed, and costs ^5 15s. This design
is about the most inexpensive that can be procured as
a complete lathe on standards, ready for use.
Figs. 2 and 3 represent lathes of similar con
struction, both manufactured by Messrs. Tangye. The
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
first is very like Fig. I, but it has a gap-bed, and the
treadle swings on a long bar. Fig. 3 has the same
framework, but a double-geared headstock, costing
about £2 extra. A compound slide-rest is also shown
on the bed, this alone costs about £4.
Fig. 4 shows a screw-cutting lathe ; it has in addi-
tion overhead gearing, which is used to drive revolving
cutters in the slide-rest. This lathe is manufactured
by Messrs. Tangye, and possesses many noticeable
features. The crank shaft runs on friction rollers, and
extends beyond the standards. The treadle is con-
nected at both ends, and thus is rendered particularly
steady in action. Two fly-wheels are mounted on the
crank shaft : one for the usual purpose, the other on
the right being to drive the overhead shafting. Belts
are used instead of bands, though probably this is no
advantage. The details of the overhead cannot well
be explained without special illustrations, but a general
idea of its objects and construction may be inferred.
A moveable gap-piece is fitted to the bed, and on the
floor two face plates are shown — one the ordinary size,
the other the full diameter that the gap will allow. A
drip-can is shown on the slide-rest ; this is to lubricate
the work being turned. Such a lathe would cost
about ,£50.
The lathe that will be best adapted to the wants of
an amateur turner, who has little money to spend,
and which will serve most purposes, will be described
in detail. A wooden bed, mounted on a wooden
frame, will serve for the foundation. This can be
built by anyone who has attained some skill in plain
carpentry work. The headstocks may be purchased
complete, ready for mounting on the bed. The fly-
wheel and its cranked axle must also be bought, as
they cannot be made by an amateur without special
tools and machinery. There are means of making
the h=adstocks, which an amateur may adopt, and
these will be explained. A lathe of 4 or 5-inch centre
will be the most convenient size, and though these
dimensions will be adhered to, yet the scale may be
altered to suit larger or smaller. With a few words
on lathes with screw-cutting and overhead gearing, I
will conclude my first paper.
Civilization owes much to the lathe ; and, indeed,
the elements of the useful arts were originated by the
development of turnery. Spindles, cylinders, and all
machinery working with a rotary motion, are con-
structed on the lathe. Every branch of handicraft has
been improved, either in the manipulation or the
results obtained, by introducing rotary motion. The
ancient sledge, which slid on runners, gave place to
the wheeled car. The original form of printing press
has been superseded by cylinder machines, which
work with greater precision and at a speed incon-
ceivable by any other means. Steam-engines are
made almost exclusively on the lathe ; so that the
principal source of locomotion by land and water, and
the power which drives our innumerable factories, all
owe their existence to lathe work.
The domestic household contains articles of every
variety, which have been fashioned on the lathe, while
many others are the result of turnery in the second
degree. Pottery, in nearly all its forms, is made on
the potters' throw, which is a lathe in its most primitive
form. Furniture exhibits specimens of wood turnery
at every side. Recreation claims much of the turner's
art to supply its votaries with the wherewithal to
amuse themselves. Balls of all sorts and sizes are
wanted in various games of chance and of skill. The
billiard ball of to-day is perhaps the best example of
accuracy in plain turning that can be mentioned.
Mechanism and machinery of every description owes
its existence to the lathe, and civilization is, there-
fore, indebted to the art of turning for some of its
very elements.
All this is done by the lathe in its simplest forms.
If we consider the many different apparatus that are
used in conjunction with the lathe, and which would
be inapplicable without it, a far broader field is before
us. Screws are cut on the lathe with an accuracy and
precision unattainable by other means. Cog-wheels
of all sorts and sizes are made on the lathe. Chucks
that produce elliptical, cycloidal, and other geometri-
cal figures, are fitted to lathes. Geometric turning is
a development of the art almost akin to the fine arts.
Bank-note engraving is an example. In this, a mecha-
nical design is produced by lathe appliances so per-
fectly, that the skill of the forger is baffled. Ornamental
turning offers a field of unbounded limits for careful
experiment.
The importance of the lathe to the amateur cannot
be over-rated. Indeed, if he be possessed of a lathe
of sufficient size and power — say a lathe with 5-inch
centre and 6-feet bed, fitted with overhead motion for
driving drills, cutters, and moulding tools of various
forms ; with a circular saw and a fret saw, he has ap-
pliances which will enable him to produce all kinds
of elegant and useful articles of furniture, with a style
of ornament equal to, if not better, than that which is
met with in the trade. Every joint of a piece of fur-
niture, every groove for small panels or glass can be
made mechanically perfect in the lathe. Turned
shafts may be flattened on one or more surfaces,
parallel or at right angles, by cutters driven from the
overhead gearing ; and the same may be grooved,
when necessary for panels, etc. For example, the
oblong rectangular fabric of a wash-stand might be
composed of sides and legs, more or less ornamentally
turned in the lathe, and put together by means of
screw-joints with or without glue, presenting a compact
WORKING DRAWINGS: HOW TO PREPARE AND PRODUCE THEM.
and solid support for any kind of top that the
amateur might determine to place upon it.
Without the lathe, its congeneric tools, and the
multifarious productions emanated from them, we
should lack much that is now considered indis-
pensable. Our condition would be almost that of the
lowest status of human beings. Not only would all
the refinements of civilization vanish, but the very
necessaries of civilized life would be materially dimi-
nished. Woven fabrics would be wanting, and skin
would have to supply us with clothing. Shells and
gourds would take the place of our innumerable cups
and vessels. The tools and appliances that would
then be available for house-building would make the
hut a dwelling for magnates. Locomotion would be
practically at an end for long journeys. Artisans
would cease work for the want of tools, and the arts
would die. The lathe, therefore, claims a foremost
place amongst handicraftsmen. Our next chapter will
contain some working drawings of a lathe which will
be suited to the wants of an amateur.
{To be continued.)
-=>«==>*«=
WORKING DRAWINGS:
HOW TO PREPARE AND PRODUCE THEM.
S what has been aptly styled "thinking
upon paper" is so essential to success in
carrying out every kind of work of a
structural character, it may be desirable
at the very commencement of a magazine
devoted altogether to practical and technical work, to
give a few plain directions for the preparation of working
drawings, their constructionaccording to scale, and their
enlargement or reduction, according to circumstances,
from such drawings, sketches or diagrams that may be
brought under the reader's notice. It is desirable,
especially for articles of furniture when not too large,
and for all pieces of work comparatively small in size,
th it the amateur should construct for himself working
drawings of the object itself and all its details, of the
actual size in which it is designed to make it. For
work on an extended scale, such as for a shed, a fowl-
house, a greenhouse, or a pig-stye, it is impossible to
do this, and it will be sufficient to construct drawings
on a scale which bears but small proportion to the
actual dimensions. For all things, however, for which
working drawings of the actual size can be made they
should be made, and the amateur should make it a
rule to carry this out in every case in which it is practi-
cable and possible.
The importance of what has been advanced here
will be seen and acknowledged on reference to many
of the illustrations which appear in this, the first part
of Amateur Work, Illustrated. On reference to
some of these it will be seen that they are given on a
scale of so many inches, or perhaps even fractional
parts of an inch, to a foot. It is manifestly impossible
to produce them of their actual size in these pages,
which are limited to a certain size, and are furthermore
of uniform length and breadth throughout. All that
can be done then is to give them in miniature, as it
were, and to produce them in smaller sizes, preserving
nevertheless, the due proportions which exist between
the various lines of which each figure or diagram is
composed. And this, after all, is all that is absolutely
necessary, for, being in possession of these, the ama-
teur artisan, having selected the article which he
wishes to make, can produce working drawings of full
size for himself, and thus put on paper the semblance
of the work as it will be when completed, before he
proceeds to touch tool or timber in carrying out his
self-imposed task.
The appliances required in the first place are not
many : the most necessary amongst them are a large
drawing-board, at least three feet by two feet, a T square,
so called from its resemblance to the letter so called,
a set square, two or three pairs of compasses, and
some pencils and a piece of india-rubber. The draw-
ing-board is represented in the accompanying diagram
by the rectangle A BCD, the T square by e, and the set
square by F, F1, showing it in two different positions.
Now the first and chief requisite of a drawing-board
is that it shall be perfectly level, or be possessed of a
plain surface, and that its angles shall be right angles,
or, in other words, that every side shall be at right
angles to each of the sides that are adjacent to it.
For working drawings of large objects, if the amateur
have a room, or " den," that he can call his own, it is
useful to have a deal table, rectangular in form, which
can be used as a drawing-board, but what is laid down
as absolutely necessary for the drawing-board is neces-
sary also for the table — namely, that its surface be level,
and that the sides, taken in pairs all round, are at right
angles one to the other. A useful size for such a table
as this is four feet six inches by three feet six inches.
The squares, it is scarcely necessary to remark, can be
used with the same effect on the table, so long as it be
strictly rectangular, as on the drawing-board.
Now when a piece of paper is fastened down with
drawing-pins, of which the amateur artisan should
provide himself with a dozen, by the aid of the T
square straight lines may be drawn on the paper at
right angles to the sides or edges of the drawing-board,
and if a straight line be drawn on the paper by means
of the T square, and the square be then applied to
either of the adjacent edges of the drawing-board, and
a second straight line be drawn crossing the first line,
WORKING DRAWINGS: HOW TO PREPARE AND PRODUCE THEM,
□
FIG. 2.— COMPARISON OF DIMENSIONS IN ENLARGING DRAWINGS.
the two lines will manifestly be at right angles one to
another. The use of the T square will now be apparent,
and it only remains to speak of its construction. It
usually consists of a head or stock from 6 inches to 12
inches long, about 2 inches broad, and from a quarter
of an inch to half an inch in thickness, according to
size, to which a long, thin blade, as it is called, is firmly
screwed at right angles. These squares are usually
made of pear wood,
or mahogany. The
inner edge of the
stock is applied to
the edge of the
drawing board, and
the blade rests upon
the board itself, or
on the paper that is
fastened down to it,
and by moving the stock along the edge of the board,
the edge of the blade may be brought into any posi-
tion required.
The set square is a piece of wood triangular in
form, and is so made that one of its angles, G, is a
right angle, or 90°, its angle H two-thirds of a right
angle, or 6o°, and its angle K one-third of a right
angle, or 30°. One of the chief uses of the set square
is to draw straight
lines parallel to
each other, and at
right angles to the
T square. Thus in
Fig. 1, supposing
that the T square
belaid on theboard,
as ir the diagram,
and the short side
of the set square be
applied to the edge
L M of the T square,
and moved back-
wards and forwards
along it, any num-
ber of straight lines,
such as G K, may
be drawn at right
angles to L M, and
parallel to one another,
done if the set square
M
/ N
/a
FIG. I. — THE DRAWING BOARD, T SQUARE, AND SET SQUARE.
The same may also be
be placed as at F, and a
similar result may be obtained by a set square of
another form, shaped as at N, and shown by dotted
lines, in which one angle, O, is a right angle, and the
other angles, P and Q, equal angles of 45° each. By
the use of the set squares it is manifest that other
straight lines at angles other than right angles to the
edge L M of the T square, but parallel to each other
can be drawn. Such straight lines as these are shown
in Fig. 1, by the straight lines H K, Q P, and K1 h1. The
angles made by these straight lines with the straight
line L M, may be thus enumerated, beginning at the
left, and proceeding from left to right — namely, MHK
= 60°, K H L= I20°, M Q P= 135°, P Q L = 45°, M K1 H1
= 150^ and H1 K1I. = 3o°. A knowledge of these angles
will be found helpful, and save much work in deter-
mining angles with
the protractor. The
set square, it will be
seen, will, in many
cases, if not in all,
render the case of
what is called a
parallel rule unne-
cessary, though it
is handy to have
one or two of them.
Nothing need be said here about the compasses,
or dividers, and their use, as it may be safely assumed
that every reader of this knows what can be done,
and what to do with them. It is on the use and
construction of scales and the production of a working
drawing of actual size from a drawing on a smaller
scale, that it is more necessary to speak. Now, when
. it is said that a
drawing is on the
scale of an inch to
a foot, or of one
inch to one foot, all
that is meant is,
that every line that
measures exactly
one foot in the ob-
ject itself, or in a
working drawing of
the actual size of
the object, is exactly
one inch in the
drawing done on
the scale of one
inch to a foot, and
that all other lines
in the object, or
working drawing,
measure exactlysomanyfeet,cr fractional parts of afoot,
or both combined, as they are found to be in inches, or
fractional parts of an inch, or both combined, in the
drawing on the scale of an inch to a foot. In fact, in
making a working drawing from a drawing done on the
scale of one inch to a foot, every linear measurement in
the working drawing must be made twelve times as
great as the corresponding linear measurement in the
drawing on the smaller scale,because there are 12 inchej
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
to I foot. Similarly, if the smaller drawing be
done on a scale of ii inches to I foot, every
linear measurement in the small drawing must be in-
creased to eight times its length in the working drawing
of full size, because i^ inches are contained 8 times
in 12 inches. Similarly when drawings are done to a
scale of 2 inches, 3 inches, 4 inches, 6 inches, or 9
inches to I foot, for the sake of carrying out exem-
plification to the utmost, it is clear that these drawings
are respectively just one-sixth, one-fourth, one-third,
one-half, or three-fourths of the length they will assume
in the working drawing ; or, in other words, that the
linear measurements in the working drawings will be
six times, four times, three times, twice, or one and
one-third times as long as they are found respectively
in the sketches done to scale.
"When, therefore, the amateur artisan has occasion
to enlarge any drawing to form a working drawing
of the actual size of the object or article to be made,
all that he has to do is to arrive at a perfect under-
standing of the scale on which the sketch, drawing,
or drawing to scale is done, and make his drawing
accordingly. He must first determine what fractional
part of a foot his scale is, and increase every linear
measurement in the actual working drawing in the
proportion that the scale adopted bears to 1 foot, as it
has been explained above. And in reducing a work-
ing drawing to any stated scale, it is manifest that he
must proceed conversely, diminishing every linear
measurement to the proportion indicated by the scale,
whatever it may be to the foot.
In the above remarks, stress has been laid on the
word " linear " in conjunction with measurement, be-
cause superficial proportion and solid, or cubic, pro-
portion are altogether different to linear proportion,
and increase in a very much greater ratio. Suppose,
for example, that I wish to enlarge a in Fig. 2 to twice
its size as regards linear dimensions, or, in other
words, to increase its linear measurement twofold. It
then assumes the size shown in B ; but while the linear
dimensions are only twice as much in B as in A, the
superficial area of B is four times as great as that of
A ; and if A were a cube, the cubic or solid content of
B would be eight times as great as that of A. In the
same .way, the linear dimensions of c are three times
as great as those of A, and the linear dimensions of B
are four times as great as those of A ; but the super-
ficial area of C is nine times, and that of D sixteen
times as great as the superficial area of a ; while, if
these figures be taken as cubes, the solid content of C
would be twenty-seven times, and that of D sixty-four
times as great as the solid content of A. In speaking,
therefore, of the enlargement or reduction of the draw-
ing of any article, it must be remembered that it is
always linear measurement to which reference is made
and that area or bulk is never implied unless specially
mentioned ; for, as we have already seen, an object
which is merely three times as large every way as
another, when linear measurement is concerned, is in
reality twenty-seven times as great as the same object
when absolute bulk is taken into consideration ; and
the bulk of any article, when made, of the actual size
which it is desired to be according to its lineal dimen-
sions expressed in feet, is positively one hundred and
forty-four times as large, according to the superficial
dimensions of its parts, and seventeen hundred and
twenty-eight times as large in bulk as its model, con-
structed on a scale of 1 inch to 1 foot.
Of the mechanical part of the enlargement or
reduction of a drawing, or, in other words, the tracing
of the lines which together make up the enlargement
or reduction, as the case may be, nothing need be said
here, as the object of this paper is chiefly to explain
the nature of such work when considered according to
the scale on which it is, and the proportion on which
it is to be drawn, and to caution the amateur artisan
against any misconception of the principles involved.
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
By GEORGE EBWISSON.
I.- SIMPLE SILVERING.
The Process and the Materials, Tools, and Appli-
ances Required.
N most households may be found a numbei.
of small articles of brasst copper, or
German silver, that were once white and
bright like true silver, but now proclaim
their base composition. When the ar-
ticles happen to be in the form of spoons, forks, and
cruet-stands, they are still continued in use for com-
mon purposes, but if they happen to be in the form of
ornaments for personal adornment, such as locket^
brooches, ear-rings, chains, etc., their unsightly ap-
pearance (of a tint neither white nor yellow, but a
mixture of both) renders their owners averse to their
continued use as ornaments, and they are put away
out of sight in the bottom of a box, or are given to
the children to play with. Occasionally, a few of
those trinkets - relics of some souvenir from a friend
— are taken to the local jeweller to be resilvered, but
the price charged for the job exceeds the estimated
cost, and the owner finds that he or she can get new
articles for a price only a trifle above that charged for
re-plating the old ones. In many cases the new
articles are purchased under the name of "electro-
A 2
TO
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
plated goods," at a bargain, worn for a few weeks, when
they become yellow, and then thrown aside with dis-
gust, and a feeling of distrust of all electro-plated
articles. It may be well to state here that such
articles were never electro-plated, but merely whitened
with a film of silver no thicker than paint, put on by
a process similar to that we are now about to de-
scribe, and one quite within the province of the
amateur artisan to perform for himself. By this pro-
cess he may be able to renew the silver on his
ornaments as often as it is worn off, and thus preserve
their white respectable appearance for any length of
time.
It must be understood at the outset that this pro-
cess is only suitable for articles that are made to be
looked at, but not worn ; it is therefore altogether
unsuitable for silvering spoons, forks, chains, etc.,
exposed to wear. It is used chiefly to silver the dials
of clocks, gauges, and barometers when these are
made of metal, and may be used for brass mounts,
brackets, and similar ornamental articles. The silver
of the mixture is merely deposited on the base metal
by a chemical interchange of material, some of the
brass being dissolved and carried off in nearly an equal
proportion to the amount of silver deposited on the
metal, and when this is covered with silver, the action
ceases. It is well that the reader should know how to
effect this simple process before I proceed further, and
begin to initiate the reader into the secrets of electro-
plating proper.
The tools required for simple silvering are few in
number and of small cost, since they may be impro-
vised out of household articles in almost daily use. A
common pint basin, or a tart-dish of enamelled
earthenware, a small iron saucepan, an old tooth
brush, a bunch of fine brass wires, a stick of firewood
smoothed to form a stirrer, and a few pieces of clean
white rag, are all the tools that are absolutely neces-
sary for the purpose. The ingredients for cleaning
the articles are equally simple, being only a bit of
bathbrick, some soapy water, and a small quantity of
pearl ash.
Various mixtures have been tried by persons
interested in the process, with varying success, but
few are available for the object now under consideration;
and it is only necessary to give one or two that can be
cheaply and simply compounded and also not trouble-
some to use. The most simple mixture and one most
easy of preparation, is that of chloride of silver
moistened with water, and a little common table-salt
added to form a composition of the consistence of thin
cream ; but as this recipe is somewhat vague I will
enter more into detail. Procure of any chemist,
druggist, or dealer in photographic materials, one
pennyweight, or about sixpennyworth, of nitrate of
silver in half a pint of distilled water ; to this add
some salt water in the pint basin before mentioned.
The two liquids will curdle, and a number of white
curds will sink to the bottom, these curds are chloride
of silver. When they have ceased to form and have
settled down to the bottom of the vessel, pour off
carefully all the water and stir in about threepenny-
weights of crushed common washing soda, and half
the quantity of table-salt, and bring the whole to the
consistence of thin cream by adding a little warm
water.
Another mixture may be made by adding to the
chloride of silver (as prepared according to the fore-
going directions) eight times its weight of common
salt, eight times its weight of cream of tartar, and
twice its weight of crushed alum, all made into a paste
with warm water. If it is desired to make larger
quantities than these, the weight of the nitrate of silver
may be augmented, and the other ingredients in-
creased in proportion. Some caution must be ob-
served in the use of nitrate of silver, since both it and
mmiiiiiim
FIG. I. — WIRE SCRATCH BRUSH.
its solution will stain the skin an indelible black.
After preparing the chloride of silver, it should be
speedily mixed with the other ingredients, for it is
readily altered by exposure to sunlight, becoming first
purple and ultimately black.
The silvering mixture being now prepared, it will
be necessary to clean the articles intended to be
silvered, and here it is necessary to impress upon the
reader what is meant by cleaning. It is not enough
to polish up the article with a plate brush, or rub it
with a rag and whiting, or wash it in soapsuds and
hartshorn. Such a cleaning would not be sufficient
for the purpose in view, since the article must not
only be mechanically, but also chemically clean.
If the articles are corroded with dirt and show a
few spots of verdigris, it will be necessary to make a
small scratch brush of fine brass wire, by winding
several lengths around a small book, form a hank or
skein, binding this tightly with a few turns of the wire
to within half an inch of the ends, and cutting the
ends to form a brush. This brush is used with the
cleansing mixture to remove all obstinate spots of
tarnish or verdigris, and to clean out the crevices of
the ornaments.
The cleansing mixture is made byforminga strong
lather of soap and water, and adding thereto a
quantity of pearl ash. With this mixture moisten the
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
end of the wire brush, and go over all the article to be
silvered until even- trace of dirt has been removed.
If any spots of tarnish remain, rub the brush in some
powdered bathbrick, and with this remove the obstinate
spots.
In the meantime make a strong mixture of common
washing soda, or of pearl ash and water, and cause it
to boil in the small iron saucepan. Into this mixture
plunge the cleaned article, having first taken the pre-
caution of attaching it to a piece of wire. Swill it in
the boiling liquid for ten minutes or longer, then take
it out and rinse it in clean hot water. It should now
be quite clean and free from grease, and must not be
touched with the naked hand, but held in a clean piece
of rag during the next operation, which is that of
silvering.
It sometimes happens that barometer and clock
dials are stained and streaked with yellow and brown
marks, and require to be re silvered. These discolour-
ations are fixed in the varnish, and it is necessary to
remove the varnish before the dial can be re-silvered.
To do this, warm the dial gently, and whilst still warm,
rub it with a rag moistened with methylated spirits of
wine until all the varnish has been removed. The dial
will then probably only require to be rubbed with a
pad of rag moistened with the cleansing mixture, and
swilled in hot water, when it will be ready for silvering.
To apply the silvering mixture to brooches, lockets,
etc., use an old tooth-brush dipped in the mixture,
and with this rub over every part well, holding the
article in a piece of clean rag, until it is well covered
with silver. It must then be well rinsed in hot water,
dried, and gently polished With a soft piece of rag or
chamois leather. Dials, and broad surfaces of plain
metal, should be well rubbed with the mixture, held
on a piece of clean rag bound on a new bottle-cork.
Go over the surface in a number of small circles, com-
mencing from the centre of the dial, and avoid making
streaks in the silvering. When silvered, they must be
rapidly dried by swilling them in clean, hot water, and
rubbing them with a clean linen rag.
Gas brackets, mounts of boxes and furniture, and
other ornamental articles exposed to the action of air,
but not to ordinary wear and tear, must be protected
with a coat of varnish after they have been silvered.
The process by which this is effected is similar to that
of lacquering, the varnish being that known as pale
lacquer, or shellac dissolved in spirits of wine. The
articles to be lacquered must first be heated in an oven
until they are almost too hot to be held in the hand,
they must then be carefully dusted with a clean brush or
a bunch of feathers, and a coat of the lacquer applied
whilst they are still hot.
It is more than possible that the figures on the dial
have been removed by the cleansing process unless
they happen to be stamped in the metal. If they were
originally painted black, it will be best to renew them
in the same colour, and for this purpose a little of
Judson's black, mixed with some of the lacquer, and
laid on with a sable or camel's hair pencil, will be found
to meet all requirements. We suppose, of course, that
the amateur is able to make figures and letters, but if
this be beyond his skill, it will be better to get a friend
to do it for him. If the figures are stamped in the
metal, they should be gilded, and for this purpose a
little of Bessemer's or Judson's gold paint will be suf-
ficient. In lettering or figuring the dial, care must be
taken not to soil the silvering with the fingers, and to
avoid this it will be advisable to rest the fingers on a
maul-stick, after the plan adopted by sign-writers.
Amateurs who, through want of time or any other
reason, do not care to prepare for themselves any of
the mixtures for silvering that have been mentioned
above, may use " Lunadine," a new preparation recently
produced for this purpose, and so called from the Latin
luna, the moon, which was held by the old heralds to
be the natural type of the metal silver, when used in
the blazonry of armorial bearings, as sol, the sun, was
taken to represent the more precious metal gold.
Lunadine is a mixture, creamy in colour and con-
sistency, and as it has been said, will impart a silvery
appearance to articles made of brass, copper, and
German silver. When such articles are well cleaned
and rubbed with a piece of clean rag moistened with
the mixture, they become covered with a film of metal
resembling sterling silver. This mixture will serve as
an excellent substitute for the simple silvering pro-
cesses that have been mentioned in this paper, and is
well suited to the purposes of whitening clock and
barometer dials, ornamental mounts, and similar metal
work not exposed to much wear. An analysis of the
mixture shows that no mercury is used in its com-
position, and it is therefore superior in every way to
the so-called silvering mixtures sold in the streets,
which invariably contain a quantity of quicksilver.
I have already hinted that the process of simple
silvering has no proper relation to that of electro-plat-
ing, and this will be seen as I proceed. In my next
article I shall instruct the reader in making prepara-
tions for real electro-plating work, and lead him on
from simple ornamental plating to the successful laying
on of silver on those household articles strictly named
plate, or so many of them as come within the scope of
his means and ability. It is almost needless to add
that the writer of these papers will have much pleasure
in giving, through the medium of this magazine,
further advice and instruction in any operation
connected with " Electro-plating at Home," in which
amateurs may experience any difficulty.
(.To be coniimied.)
12
MODELLING IN CLAY.
MODELLING IN CLAY.*
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ART OF CARVING
IN WOOD.
of the art.
I. The Tools, Appliances, and Materials.
HE interest felt in Wood Carving has led
to the publication of many books and
papers treating upon the subject — giving
hints as to the proper tools to be used, the
methods to be employed, and other details
Most of these, however, have been of an
exceedingly
elementary
character,
and best
suited to the
wants of
those who,
knowing
nothing of
wood - work-
of the carpenters' and joiners'
With these elementary
-MODELLING STAND,
ing and the use
tools, wish to learn to carve
steps the carpenter and the amateur artisan who has
made some progress in the handicraft that he has
adopted, are already familiar. They understand the
management of wood and the care of their tools, and
there are, perhaps, only a few hints in regard to the
special tools used in carving which will be of any ser-
vice to them.
Like a great many carpenters and amateurs, the
writer has carefully read the articles published on this
subject, as well as many of the books which have been
written in regard to it, hoping to find such instruction
as would enable him to take a design, put it upon a
panel or piece of
wood, and then
produce a carv-
ing which should
be useful for the
ornamentation
of some article
of furniture.
There was an abundance of tools at hand, and
there was no lack of skill in their handling, and,
as in most carpenters' shops, stones and hones
were at hand for keeping them in order. When,
however, the pattern was outlined upon the wood
and the real work of carving began, he awoke to
the fact that the directions stopped short at the most
important point. Like him, too, the carpenter will be
* From a Series of Articles in Carpentry and Building. By
W. E. Partridge. With Alterations and Additions.
¥■"■■ ■■ ii ' j '
IT
.'.■.am
-TURN-TABLE FOR
STAND.
FIG. 3. — CHISEL-SHAPED TOOL, WITH BENT POINT.
surprised to find that after all his experience, he does
not know how to " think in solid wood." And if the
skilled artisan be altogether at sea in this most neces-
sary part of the ornamental wood-working that he
aspires to carry out, how much more will the amateur
find himself at fault, and if it be desirable that ths
professional carpenter
should learn to " think in
solid wood," to repeat the
form of words of which
use has just been made
before he puts his tools
to the wood, how much
more necessary must it
be for the unskilled ama-
teur to seek to become
acquainted with what may
be fairly called the firt
steps to this pleasing and attractive decorative art ?
When we have houses and other structures to
build, we find ready at hand plans, drawings, eleva-
tions, and working drawings in detail, together with
elaborate descriptions. By means of these the car-
penter is taught to think in panels, mouldings, and
skirtings. With the framing plan before him, it is
easy to think in timber and beams. When the eleva-
tion is given, it is easy to think in walls and windows,
doors, foundations, and roofs, and, in the mind's eye,
to bring up an exact image of what the finished
structure will be. But when a plain block of wood is
laid upon the bench with a pattern drawn upon its
face, the carpenter soon realizes, as he begins to cut
away the surface, to obtain relief, that the directions
that he has met with in books have given him no clue
which will enable him to think in wood. He has no
guide as to the relative elevations and curves of the
different parts and surfaces. He has to feel for the
effect which will
make the pat-
tern look best,
and he often
finds that he has
made a leaf hol-
low which would
look far better
convex. His only recourse is to take another block
and try again. In this way much hard work must be
wasted, and in the end it will be found that the result .
has not been altogether what could be expected from
an equal amount of labour intelligently applied under
a competent instructor.
The object of the present series of papers is to give
in detail a description of the methods by which the
process of " thinking in wood " may be begun, or, to
put it in other words, the process of " thinking in
MODELLING IN CLAY.
FIG. 4. — DOUBLE BENT SrATULA, OR SPOON-SHAPED TOOL.
relief,'' or " in the solid." The shortest and most
practical way to arrive at this result is by modelling in
clay. Modelling is, perhaps, the only means by which
the learner can attain a knowledge of carving without
the experience of a teacher. It enables him to try
experiments in relief, to build up and take down, to
spread out or
bring together
the parts of his
pattern, until he
obtains the best
effect.
A little prac-
tice with plastic
materials soon
enables him to get a knowledge of surfaces in relief. When
this is once attained, the task of " thinking in wood "
is practically accomplished. Knowing this fact, many
persons have bought works devoted to the subject of
modelling, hoping to find instructions which would
enable them to
go on without
a teacher. After
reading the few-
vague directions
contained in
these works they
have eenerallv FIG- 5-— sword blade and pointed spoon combined
been disheartened, finding the practical part of the
subject dismissed with the remark, that a few minutes'
instruction from a teacher, or ten minutes spent in
watching a person at work in clay, is worth more than
all the instructions that could be given in a book.
This is only too
true, yet it was
the object of the
books to teach,
and not to refer
to teachers.
It is possible,
however, by
means of direc-
tions and en-
gravings, to
teach the ele-
mentary steps in
the art ; and it
parts of Devonshire and Cornwall — it is, in fact, the
clay that is used in making earthenware. Before it is
used the clay must be carefully refined and cleansed to
free it from grit ; indeed, it is a sine qua non that all
clay used in modelling should be thoroughly clean.
It may be procured ready for use at any of the
Lambeth pot-
teries, notably
at Doulton's.
Its price is from
four shillings to
five shillings per
hundredweight,
and the amateur
will not find it
serve his purpose to buy less than a quarter of a
hundredweight, even for work on a small scale, as clay
is very heavy, its specific gravity being great, and its
bulk, so to speak, is not in proportion to its weight.
Modelling clay is apt to crack in drying, and on
this account it
should be kept
moist by sprink-
ling water over
it occasionally,
and a piece of
work in progress
should be kept
carefully covered with a damp cloth. The best
repository for clay is a wooden box, lined with lead,
tin, or zinc, but even when kept in such a receptacle
as this, the clay must be damped occasionally. It
is possible that pipe-clay might be used for making
models of
smaller size, but
the same routine
must be ob-
served in the
use of this ; that
is to say, it
must be kept
in a plastic con-
dition by damp-
ing it occasion-
a 1 1 y. With
regard to the
use of pipe-clay,
is also possible to give the practical man such i this is only put forth as a suggestion ; it is worth
the trial, and amateurs who may make the essay are
requested to furnish the result of their experiments.
Pipe-clay can be purchased in small quantities, and
at a low rate, of any oil and colourman.
The tools and appliances necessary for working in
clay are not numerous, and any one, whether pro-
fessional carpenter or amateur, who wishes to take up
FIG. 6.- OBLIQUE CHISEL EDGE AND GEEATLY CUKVED SI OON LOU'L.
FIG. 7. — TOOTHED SWORD BLADE AND BENT POINT.
directions as will enable him to use the clay as a con-
venient means for trying experiments, and determining
in advance the effect which his work will have when
finished in wood.
The necessary outfit is simple and inexpensive.
The clay that is used is the ordinary blue clay, found
in the valley of the Medway, in Dorsetshire, and in
'4
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
the art, need have no expense beyond that of getting
the clay. Every necessary article can be made or
extemporised by any one who has sufficient ability to
use the carpenters' tools, and to do a little simple
carpentry. The modelling-stand shown in Fig. I is
made of deal, and can soon be cut out and put together
in any odd time. Its size must depend in a great
measure upon the size of the work to be done. It will
be large enough if the top or sloping board opposite
the operator be about 24 inches in length by 18 inches
in breadth. To prevent warping, the ends should be
clamped, and a good coat of paint or a couple of coats
of shell-lac varnish should be laid over it. If a school
slate of a large size be at hand, it may be laid upon
the stand, and the model laid upon it. Slate is one
of the best of all foundations for a clay model.
It will be found of great convenience if a kind of
turn-table like that shown in Fig. 2 is made to hold
the slate. This is simply a disc of wood, with a pin at
the back, as shown at a, which fits into a hole bored
in the stand, shown at Fig. 1. A couple of holes are
bored in opposite sides of the frame of the slate,
through which two pins are thrust, entering holes
made for their reception in the disc, and holding the
slate firmly fixed to the disc. This board or disc may
be made square or oblong in form, and of the shape of
the slate, if it be preferred ; but in this case the hole in
the stand must be placed high enough up to allow the
corners to clear the projecting ledge at the bottom.
If a little extra expense can be afforded, the disc of
deal may be covered with sheet lead, turned over and
tacked down round the edge, or a piece of sheet zinc
can be cut out to fit the board. Lines of tinned tacks
can be run across the face of the disc, when thus covered
with metal, in order to keep the surface of the metal
flat. A table of this kind permits the work to be
turned round at the pleasure of the operator, so as to
bring it into different lights, and enable the hand to
get at all parts of the design.
The tools are very simple, and can be made from
boxwood, logwood, beech, pearwood, or any other
hard, close-grained wood of similar character. All of
them can be obtained from Buck, of Holborn Viaduct,
and possibly of all dealers in edge-tools, and also of
some oil and colourmen. They are to be had in two
sizes, six and nine inches long, the smaller size costing
about sixpence and the larger ninepence each. As
the work progresses, necessity will suggest many useful
forms of tools to the operator. These can be fashioned
out of a piece of hard wood, and finished with a file
and sand-paper, and will be found to answer just as
well as the most expensive.
Modellers' tools are also made of ivory and bone,
but these are of course more expensive, and of no
greater use than the wooden ones. Metal tools may be
purchased for cutting and digging out the clay from
the lump.
Of each tool which it is desirable to have in the
beginning, two views have been given, as the reader
will see on looking at Figs. 3 to 7. These are so
simple that he will find no difficulty whatever in making
them. In all the figures, excepting Fig. 7, of which
only one view has been supplied, the sketches termi-
minating in long points show the tool when regarded
in elevation, or when looking directly at its side, while
the other sketches, terminating in obtuse points, and
in the case of Fig. 6, in a square end cut obliquely,
show the tool when looked on in plan, as when laid on
the table with the eye directed downwards upon it.
For small work, six inches is long enough for any and
all of these tools, but for designs of any considerable
size, larger tools are needed. Fig. 3 shows a tool,
chisel-shaped at one end, having at the other end a
point which is somewhat bent. Fig. 4 shows a tool
bent at both the ends, which in shape are something
like the bowl of a spoon. Fig. 5 shows a tool which
has the end to the left thin and sword-shaped, while
that to the right is bent, and terminates in a somewhat
pointed, spoon-shaped form. That shown in Fig. 6
has an oblique, chisel-shaped edge at one end, while
the other is well rounded. Fig. 7 shows a tool having
a sword-like blade at one end cut into teeth. It is a
useful tool for cutting away portions of the clay, and
for digging out pieces of the material.
These ends are not always associated one with
another in the manner represented in the illustrations.
It is not unusual to find the sword-like blade of Fig.
5 combined with a point like that in Fig 3, or with a
knob, as in Fig. 6. The way in which the ends are
combined makes no difference whatever, except in the
convenience of working. If there are practically two
tools in the hand at one time, it is only necessary to
turn the stick end for end to make either of them
available.
In making the tools saw the strips of wood roughly
into shape, and then work them down with a rasp.
Finish with fine sand-paper, and then polish the sur-
face as perfectly as possible.
The crooks in the tools are very valuable, and it is
the opinion of those who are most familiar with their
use, that the crooked tool is the most serviceable, other
things being equal. It is difficult in purchasing at
shops at which these articles are sold, to get tools
with much bend in them ; hence the workman who
makes his own will have certain advantages over the
one who buys. All the earlier pieces of work under-
taken by the learner will suggest special tools with
which to work in difficult places. The time occupied
in making and using these tools will be well spent, and
though as more experience is gained they will be dis-
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
IS
carded to some extent, yet they will have assisted in
teaching valuable lessons.
The next paper on this subject will be devoted to
the materials used and directions for taking the first
steps in making a clay model, which is to form the
subject of a carving. In the meantime, the amateur
will find abundant occupation in making the tools and
appliances described above.
(To be continued?)
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
-General Principles of Construction. — Materials
for the Pipes.— Method of Making- the Stopped
Tenor C Pipe.
F the manufacture of an article, ornamental
or otherwise, that can be seen only, affords
considerable pleasure to the maker, how
much greater must be the gratification
and self-satisfaction enjoyed by the ama-
teur, who, after long hours of anxious care and labou^
has produced an instrument that can be heard as well as
seen, and therefore appeals to two out of the five senses
instead of but one.
Construction, or in other words, the making of the
various component parts of any article, bit by bit, and
putting them together, may be taken to be the siimmum
bonum of most amateurs. The accomplishment of the
object now in view, inasmuch as it involves plenty of
making as far as the separate parts are concerned, and
plenty of careful putting together, affords an excellent
exercise of ingenuity and patience to any who may be
enamoured of mechanical work, so without taking up
their time and occupying valuable space with prelimi-
nary remarks on the history and progress of organ-
building, which they may gather for themselves from
any good encyclopaedia, such as " Beeton's Illustrated
Encyclopaedia of Universal Information," I will at
once enter upon my subject and proceed to sketch out
for their information the processes necessary in making
a small organ.
By a " small organ '"' I do not mean such an instru-
ment as would be placed in a church or school-room ;
I mean such a miniature organ as will discourse sweet,
quiet music in a drawing-room or library, and which
may serve as a pleasing accompaniment to the voice of
a singer. If some little contempt should be expressed
for so tiny an instrument, as a mere " kist o' whistles,"
let it be remembered that I write not so much for more
fortunate amateurs who have gained experience in
carpentry, and are possessed of the means to supply
themselves with what they will, but for young carpen-
ters with slender purses, and that I desire to avoid
taxing severely either the ability of the first or the
capacity of the second.
I shall assume that the would-be organ-builder has
access to a convenient workshop, with a bench and
tools ; and that he is handy with the plane. But I
shall not assume more than this ; I shall not even take
it for granted that he is musical. James Watt built a
very remarkable organ, though he was destitute of
musical talent. Above all, I shall not assume that he
has the command of considerable sums of money ;
and in all my directions I shall keep economy strictly
in view.
First, then, let us clearly see our task before us.
The simplest organ consists of a wide, shallow box,
called a wind-chest, with a top called a sound-board,
divided internally into compartments called grooves or
channels, and filled with air by a pair of bellows. The
wind-chest is supported horizontally above the bellows
by corner-posts and cross-rails making up the "building-
frame." On the top of the sound-board the pipes are
planted ; and each pipe is made to speak or sound at
pleasure (when the bellows are blown) by opening a
valve in the wind-chest connected with a key or note
in the finger-board. So that if there are fifty keys or
notes in the finger-board, then there will be .fifty pipes
(at fewest) in the organ; and as every pipe must have'
its channel and its valve, there will be fifty channels
and valves in the sound-board and wind-chest. But I
shall show that the fifty channels and valves may supply
ten times fifty pipes, if an organ with numerous pipes
be desired.
I propose that the amateur organ-builder shall
commence operations by making the pipes. I do this
because the first outlay for the requisite wood need not
be great, and because he will be much encouraged at
the outset of his undertaking if he find himself suc-
cessful with the essentially musical part of it. Our
pipes will be partly of the kind called "Stopped
Diapason," and partly of the kind called "Clarabella."
The whole of them will be made of half-inch pine
boards, which should be very dry and clean, i.e., free
from knots ; and we shall require a few lengths of
harder wood, such as mahogany or oak, in scantlings
of about two inches square and a few feet long, or in
short pieces. The odds and ends of a cabinet-maker's
shop often serve useful purposes in pipe-making.
Let us begin by making the stopped pipe called
Tenor C (Fig. i) ; it will serve as a sample of all the
other stopped pipes, whether larger or smaller. Take
a piece of the scantling, say 2 inches square, and 2 or
3 feet long. Dress down one side with the jack-plane
until the piece is if inches wide by 2 inches deep ;
smooth the whole piece nicely with the "jointer," taking
i6
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
care to keep the angles perfectly square. Cut off a
piece 3 inches long for the "block" (Fig. 2, b) of the
pipe, and another 4 inches long for the "stopper" (a).
Across the narrower side of the block, and three-
quarters of an incl. from one end, make a deep saw-
cut ; about half an inch from this saw-cut make
another, and take out the intervening wood with a chisel.
The gap thus made, called the " throat " (c), should be
1 2 inch in depth. Now prepare the two sides of the pipe,
cut the boards somewhat more than 2 inches wide, and
about 2 feet 4 inches long ; dress them nicely, and glue
them to the two wider sides of the block ; take care
that the joint is good, and allow the whole to dry.
When it is so, dress the edges of these boards with
the jointer so that the glued-in block shall be perfectly
level with them. Then prepare the back
and front boards, observing that while the
back board must be of the full length of
the pipe, the front board mayjust overlap
the inner edge of the block. Smear over
with thin glue the whole interior surface
of all the four boards ; then apply the
back and front boards, and bind them
round with strong twine, using all your
strength to draw it tight, and winding the
string round a little roller of wood to avoid
cutting your hands. Allow the whole to
dry for a night at least. If, on removing
the twine, and dressing the pipe over with
a fine plane, the joints are perfectly close
and good, the maker may hope for a pure
tone from the pipe.
To enable it to give a tone at all, how-
ever, it must now be " voiced." With a
pocket-knife (which is much used in
organ-building) and a sharp chisel form the
sloping or chamfer in the front board
shown at f in the cut (Figs. 2 and 3).
Then, guiding your knife by means
of a square, cut across the chamfered part to form
the mouth of the pipe. This mouth, in a stopped
pipe, is, in height, commonly about one-third of the
width of the pipe internally ; in the present pipe it will
therefore be somewhat more than half an inch in
height. With the chisel bring the chamfer of the
mouth to a neat but not sharp edge. Prepare the
" cap " (see d, Figs. 2 and 3) by taking a piece of
mahogany, or other hard wood of the requisite size,
and cutting a hollow in it with a chisel, deep at G, and
diminishing to nothing at H.
When fitted to the pipe the upper edge of the block
must just show (say the sixteenth of an inch) above
the upper edge of the cap. Between the block and
cap a " wind-way " is made by carefully filing the cap at
H before it is fixed on. This wind-way should present
fig. 1. — STOP
I'KD PIPE,
COMPLETE.
a cleft not much wider than the thickness of a common
playing-card. Fix the cap on by two sprigs or screws
(not more), running into the edges of the side boards.
Next take the piece of wood, 4 inches long, which
was reserved for the stopper.
Fashion it into a convenient
shape, as in the cut ; cover its
lower part with soft white leather
(the thinner the better, if the
stopper fits well), and insert it
carefully in the top of the pipe,
using a little soap, or tallow, or
black-lead, to facilitate its slid-
ing easily but closely within it.
All that now remains is to
bore a hole with the brace-and-
bit in the bottom of the block, and
insert the foot (e). If the ama-
teur has no lathe he may plane
the foot up, and make it as round
as he can ; it should be 5 or 6
inches long, and the hole through
the middle may be bored with a
large gimlet, or the brace-and-
bit. If the wood be turned con-
tinually as the hole is bored, it
will probably be central. Burn
the hole afterwards with a red-
hot iron.
Now, on blowing through the foot, the labours of
the amateur will be rewarded by a good musical note.
Of the quality of the note, and how to modify its
power and vary its tone, I shall treat hereafter.
Enough, at present, if it is seen that the note is pro-
duced by the edge of the lip ( F) cutting or
dividing the sheet of wind thrown against
it from the cleft between the block and
cap ; and, therefore, that a nice adaptation
of these several parts is essential to suc-
cess. (See Fig. 3.) Some builders file
little nicks in the front of the block, and
sometimes in the edge of the cap, to
facilitate the passage of the sheet of wind
against the lip or edge of the mouth ;
others omit these nicks. The stopper
enables us to shorten our pipes ; thus, an
open pipe producing the note Tenor C~
must be 4 feet in length, while our stopped
. ° ' rr fig. 3. — SliC-
Tenor C is but 2 feet or thereabout. Into tion of
the acoustical reasons of this I can- stopped pipe
not now enter. But if the pipe gives a husky, bad
note, examine the stopper, and see that in inserting it
you have not opened one of the seams. An aperture
no larger than a pin-hole will spoil the tone of a pipe.
Hence the internal sizing with glue.
fig. 2.— detail of
stopped pipe.
A, Stopper ; B, Block ;
c, Throat ; d, Cap ;
E, Foot ; F, Lip.
A JAPANESE CABINET FOR CHINA AND BRIC-A-BRAC.
i7
Of course this one pipe is an experiment. In my
next paper I will proceed to show how time and
material may be economised in making the whole set
of pipes, with their varying sizes and lengths. After
that I shall direct the maker's attention to the bellows
and building-frame, proceeding thence to the important
wind-chest.
Before I conclude, however, a few words of advice
»re necessary, and I cannot impress too strongly upon
the amateur the necessity of paying strict attention to
what I am about to say, as it will greatly facilitate his
labours. The dimensions of the pipe that we have
been considering have been given in every particular,
and the shape of the pipe and the relations of its
various parts have been set forth in the figures with
which this article is illustrated. From these let the
amateur construct working drawings to scale. It will
help him to master the construction of the pipe before
he applies a single tool to the wood of which it is to
be made ; but, by effecting this, will abridge the time
taken in making the pipe by about one half.
{To be continued.)
A JAPANESE CABINET FOR CHINA AND
BRIC-A-BRAC.
{For Illustrations, see the Supplement to this Part.)
RET-CUTTING is a work that is both
pleasing in itself and useful in its out-
come, and for this reason it commends
itself to many amateurs who take up
wood-working as a congenial pursuit and
employment Among the various objects that the pro-
jectors of Amateur Work, Illustrated, have in
view, one of the most important, and one, possibly,
which will find much favour with its readers, is the
production of clear and accurate working drawings of
different things that the amateur artisan may construct
or use for the purpose of decoration, on such a scale,
that he may have no difficulty in working direct from
the pattern itself in the size given, or in enlarging it to
such dimensions as may suit his requirements, always
preserving the relative proportions*
With reference to the special piece of work now
under consideration, it will be useful to many to review
its separate parts in detail, with reference to their pre-
paration ; then to dwell briefly on the method to be
followed in putting the various parts together ; and,
* For hints and instructions on this kind of work, the reader
Is referred to the article on "Working Drawings : How to Pre-
pare and Produce them," in page 7.
lastly, to make some remarks on various accessories
and modes of finishing the cabinet, which will greatly
improve its appearance, and tend to render it a more
elegant article of ornamental furniture.
" There is a great deal of work in a thing of this
kind," many an amateur will doubtless say, when he
has our Supplement spread out before him, " and it
will take a fellow a precious long time to get through
with it all." It will, indeed ; but he must remember
that the value of all work, and especially of work of
this nature, may be taken to increase in geometrical
proportion to the time and labour that is bestowed on
it ; and with this consolatory reflection let him take
courage, and go to work with a will.
First of all, every separate and individual part
necessary for the construction of the cabinet, as shown
in Fig. 13, will be found in the Supplement, drawn
accurately to scale ; and it may be said at once, with
regard to Figs. 12 and 14, that in these it is shown
how, by an additional number of some of the pieces
represented, other cabinets of greater capacity and
somewhat different form may be contrived. Thus, in
Fig. 12, in the solid part of which, to the. right hand
it is shown how the different parts of the cabinet are
to be put together, and their mutual relation to one
another ; the addition of the dotted lines to the left
hand indicate how the amateur may add another wing,
so to speak, in this direction, similar to that to the
right of the compartment, which, in this form of the
cabinet, becomes the central compartment. In Fig.
14, on the other hand, it is shown how a compartment
similar to that on the left hand in Fig. 13 may be
added to the right, thus exhibiting another form of the
cabinet, also consisting of three compartments, but
having the larger compartment in the centre, and the
smaller compartments one on either side. These
alternative forms have been represented, in order to
make the fretwork designs given more generally
useful.
A scale of inches has been given with the designs,
to enable every one who is desirous of using them to
ascertain their dimensions with as little trouble as
possible, and it will be found, on measurement, that
the simple cabinet, as shown in Fig. 13, when made
according to the actual dimensions of the parts as
drawn, will be 9! inches in height by 8 inches in width,
and 3 inches in depth. As to the material, the amateur
may use white holly, which may be afterwards
ebonised, or walnut wood, or any of the woods ordi-
narily used in fret-cutting that may suit his fancy; but
he must remember that if he makes the cabinet of the
size shown by the working drawings in our Supple-
ment, regarding it as a mere toy, or as a cabinet for
jewellery and small articles of this kind, the thickness
of the material used must not be more than an eight>
i8
A JAPANESE CABINET FOR CHINA AND BRIC-A-BRAC.
of an inch in thickness. If, however, he determines
to enlarge the working drawings given, and make the
cabinet one and a half times the size indicated —
namely, I41°TI inches X 12 inches X 45 inches —he
should use stuff three-sixteenths of an inch in thick-
ness ; if twice the size — namely, 195 inches X 16 inches
X 6 inches — he should use wood a quarter of an inch
in thickness, and so on in proportion to the increase of
the dimensions of the working drawings supplied.
"Nothing further need be said on this point, but we may
at once proceed to notice the various parts that are
required, and their construction, taking, of course, the
simple form of the cabinet as shown in Fig. 13, inas-
much as if the amateur can manage to make this, he
will have no difficulty in determining what parts are
required in duplicate for producing the alternative
forms shown in Figs. 12 and 14.
First let us take Fig. I (a), the " upright," which
forms the left end of the simple cabinet as in Fig. 13.
Of this upright two will be required, one complete,
precisely as shown in the working drawing, with all
the ornamentation at the top, which will be found to
form part of a ledge surrounding the whole extent of
the top shelf. In theuprght, which is placed between
'the two ends, dividing the cabinet into two unequal
parts, only the ends or horns outside the lines S T and
Z V, will be required, and the outline of the top will
take the form indicated when the part enclosed by the
lines ST, TU, U v, vw, wx, xy and yz, is removed. The
fret sawyer is now aware of the difference of form that
exists between the upright to the left and the upright
in the centre, and will prepare his work accordingly.
When the cabinet is made in accordance with the form
exhibited in Fig. 12, the ornamentation within the lines
already mentioned must be omitted in both uprights.
If the amateur desire to make the cabinet of the size
shown in the drawings given, he may paste down each
part on the wood before commencing the work of
sawing, but if he desires to make it on a larger scale,
he must prepare his working drawings to paste down,
or draw the pattern on the wood.
These two uprights completed to his satisfaction,
the amateur will proceed to prepare and cut out the
upright that forms the end to the right of the cabinet,
as shown in Fig. 13. This is as elaborate a piece of
work as the other end and central upright, and will
require care and patience in executing it. Its chief
difficulty lies in its consisting entirely of right lines, to
cut which greater nicety of manipulation is required
than for curved lines. The pattern for this upright is
given in Fig. 2 (b).
Having got through this part of the work, the ama-
teur will naturally turn his attention to the top shelf,
which should be made in one piece, as shown in Fig. 3
(c). This piece is cut with two tenons at either end,
which fit into the mortises shown at Tand Y in Fig. 1
(a), and into the corresponding mortises shown at the
top in Fig. 2 (e) ; the mortise in the centre fits over the
tenon uvwx in Fig. 1 (a), when cut as directed to form
the middle upright, and the openings on either side of
this central mortise fit over and receive the ends or
projections outside the lines ST, zy, in Fig. 1 (a). The
bottom shelf must of necessity be made of two pieces,
as shown in Fig. 4 (d) and Fig. 5 (e), but in order to
give strength to the whole structure these pieces may
be cut with tenons, as shown in each by the shaded
parts, suitable mortises being cut for their reception in
the parts indicated by the double dotted lines at the
bottom of Fig. 1 (a) and Fig. 2 (b). A duplicate of
Fig. 4 (d) will be required to form the central shelf of
the compartment to the right hand, and a duplicate
and triplicate of Fig. 5 (e) must be made to furnish
the intermediate shelves of the compartment to the
left hand. The left end of the central shelf of the
right hand compartment may be tenoned in to the
middle upright, but there will be a difficulty in providing
for this process in the ends of the other shelves as the
reader will see on examining the parts of the uprights
to which they must be fixed. In the small size of the
cabinet the amateur must therefore content himself
with glueing up and bradding the parts together,
because the thickness of the wood is too slight to bear
reduction into very thin tenons, but when wood a
quarter of an inch in thickness is used the difficulty
vanishes, and tenons of one-eighth of an inch in thick-
ness may be made in the ends of the shelves, and
mortices of corresponding width cut in the uprights to
receive them.
To prevent any difficulty in fitting the different
parts together, portions of the front elevation on either
side and in the centre have been attached to Fig. 1
(a) and Fig. 2 (b), and the letters attached to the
figures of the separate parts are repeated in Fig. 12 as
a guide to the amateur artisan.
The parts that have already been mentioned
having been cut out and carefully adjusted, it is
desirable that they should be fitted together and
glued up, slight brads being driven into the ends of
the shelves which are devoid of tenons through the
uprights, in order to give additional strength and
stability to the structure. Until the glue is perfectly
dry, the whole should be held firmly together by
clamps, two in front and two behind, pressing against
each end of the cabinet.
The framework is now complete, and all that is
now necessary is to cut out and put in place the doors,
the backs of the compartments thus enclosed, and the
remaindc : of the ornamentation. The doors are
shown in Fig. 8 (h) and Fig. 9 (k) ; plain pieces only
of the same size are required for the backs of the com-
TOOL-HOLDERS FOR GRINDING.
19
partments to which the doors are respectively attached.
The doors may be attached by small brass hinges, and
secured by small catches that may be procured from
any ironmonger who supplies tools and materials for
fret-sawing.
The ledge round the top shelf is already formed as
far as the ends are concerned by the fret-work at the
top of each upright ; but to complete it and carry it
all round, two pieces as indicated by Fig. 10 (l), and
two pieces as shown by Fig. 11 (m), must be pre-
pared. These pieces must be inserted between the
uprights both in the front and at the back of the top
shelf, and resting on it, the longer pieces between the
right hand end and the central upright and the shorter
pieces between the central upright and the upright to
the left. Two pieces of the form shown in Fig. 6 (f)
must be cut out to be attached to and from an under
ledge to the larger section of the top shelf to the right,
and four pieces of the shape shou-n in Fig. 7 (g) to
form the under ledges of the smaller portion of the top
shelf to the left and the small intermediate shelf below
it These ledges are attached, both in front and be-
hind ; hence the number required. They should be
glued up, and held in place by clamps until the glue is
perfectly dry.
Finally, the whole work must be cleaned down, and
perfected where necessary by the application of glass-
paper. The wood, if of oak, may be left unpolished ;
if of white holly, varnished simply, or ebonized ; and
if of walnut or mahogany, carefully polished, or var-
nished. Of course dark wood will best show up china
and other small articles of bric-a-brac. If the cabinet
be made three times the linear dimensions given in
the Supplement, carving may be resorted to in order to
enrich the doors and the fret-work generally. If the
wood is of a dark colour, the doors may be lined with
a thin panel of gilt wood or cardboard, or with a panel
of light wood, so as to afford an agreeable contrast.
The salient parts of the design, also, such as the bird,
some of the leaves, and the crossing of the bars, may
be touched up with a little gilding. The backs of the
open compartments can either be left open as they are,
if the wall paper against which the cabinet is to stand
is of a suitable colour for showing up the articles dis-
played on the shelves, or they can be filled in with
panels covered with dark velvet, or with looking-glass.
It must be remembered that if the openings at the
back of the cabinet are thus filled up, there will be no
necessity to provide under ledges for the top shelf and
intermediate shelf at the back. This portion of the
ornamentation will, in this case, be required in front
only.
TOOL-HOLDERS FOR GRINDING.
HE ingenuity of the Americans, if it be
not proverbial already, bids fair to be'
come so before long, for it is certain that
in contrivances for lessening labour, and
to secure accuracy, ease, and expedition
in carrying out work that has hitherto been done by
the aid of the hands only, they excel every nation in
the world. One of the best examples of the adaptation
of mechanical contrivance to ensure correctness of
adjustment in a constantly recurring bit of manual
work, that must be done not only every day, but
possibly many times in the day, and which is done
with the utmost ease by a skilled hand, and with diffi-
culty and uncertainty by an amateur, is to be found in
the Adjustable Planes of the American makers, Stanley
and Bailey, in which, by simple pressure on a com-
pound lever, the plane-iron may be adjusted for fine
or coarse work at pleasure, and set so nicely, that the
cutting edge of the plane-iron is always in a plane
that is precisely parallel to the surface of the sole of
the tool.
It is in setting the plane-iron that nine amateurs
out of ten find most difficulty in using the plane, or
rather, in fitting it for use, and it is only long and con-
tinued practice that will ensure perfect accuracy of ad-
justment. Another difficulty that the amateur artisan
finds it hard to overcome, is that of grinding edge
tools, and more especially chisels, and the cutting irons
of planes. It is manifest that in order to reduce the
surface of wood to anything approaching regularity
and evenness, it is needful that the edge of the tool
should be a straight line, or, to borrow Euclid's de-
finition of a straight line, should lie evenly between its
extreme points : many an amateur will readily confess
how difficult he has found it to bring the edge of the
tool he is grinding into this necessary condition. He
finds it anything but easy to keep the tool throughout
the operation in such a position that the evenness of
the edge is assured. Even if the face of the grind-
stone be accurately true, he is prone to depress the
tool towards one or other of the extremities of its
edge, and the result is that more is taken off towards
the corner that has suffered depression, and the
straightness and evenness of the work is destroyed,
to the detriment of the work that is done with the tool
after the grinding is completed. But in this, as in
many other matters, the Americans have come to the
rescue, and put forth various practical means and
appliances for assuring accuracy in grinding. It is to
help amateur artisans generally to grind tools in a
thoroughly workmanlike and efficient manner, that the
following aids to the performance of this necessary
20
TOOL-HOLDERS FOR GRINDING.
operation, invented by clever American mechanics,
are described and represented by illustration in the
present paper.
In Fig. I, a grindstone of the old-fashioned form is
-.hown. It is supported on a frame made of stuff,
2 inches thick and 5 inches deep, consisting of two
FIG. I. — GRINDSTONE WITH CARVED TOOL-HOLDER.
parallel bars connected by a cross piece at either end,
.vhose extremities are mortised into them. This
frame, open in the centre for the reception of the
grindstone, is supported by four legs, cut after the
manner of the legs of a sawing stool, and sloping out-
wards on either side of the frame, so as to render the
base on which the frame and grindstone rest as
large, and therefore as stable as possible. Inside the
legs two cleats are nailed, which serve as supports for
a shallow trough, containing water to moisten the
surface of the grindstone as it revolves.
Such is the framework by which the grindstone is
supported. It differs in little, if anything, from the
frame usually made for this purpose, except in the
means used to moisten the stone. The contrivance for
holdingthe plane-iron or other cutting tool to be ground,
is equally simple, but like most simple things is
effectual for carrying out the purpose for which it is
intended. An upright piece A, cut as shown in the
illustration, in a curved form, is furnished with notches
all along the inner surface, which serve as resting
places for the blunt edge of the plane-iron, or the
handle of a chisel, for which the notches should be
cut in a different manner to those shown in the illus-
tration, which are only adapted for the reception of a
plane-iron. This piece extends below the frame for
about four inches, and is secured by a key. As it fits
between the ends of the rails that form the sides of
the frame, a block should be driven through it above
and below, so that it may be pushed backwards and
forwards along that end of the frame to which it
is attached. It can be kept in position by means of
a key driven through a slot made on each side
of the frame, or it may be so contrived as to be secured
in any position in which it has been placed by means
of thumbscrews, working through the ends of the
cross-pieces and against the upper and lower surface of
the frame. The amateur, however, can work this out
for himself without any further detail in the way of
illustration. The notches in the tool-rest admit, it should
be said, of the tool being ground at any desired level ;
and, further, enable the operator to keep the edge of
the tool in proper contact with the face of the grind-
stone along its length from one corner to the other.
In Fig. 2 the same end is attained, though by some-
what different means. In this it has been considered
unnecessary to show the connection between the
grindstone and the tool-holder, or rather the support
against which the tool-holder rests, for a new element
is introduced into this contrivance in the shape of the
tool-holder proper, whereas in Fig. 1 nothing of this
kind is required. The tool-holder consists of a piece
of hard wood, a little wider than the widest tool
that it may be required to grind. Thus, to be generally
useful, it should be wider than the widest plane-
iron in the possession of the amateur. A clamp, also
made of wood and fastened by two screws, secures the
tool in place during the operation. In the engraving
a chisel is shown, and the screws pass apparently on
either side of the narrow part of the chisel and
through the holder, being secured by nuts below.
Another way of holding the tool would be to pass a
small iron frame of the same width as the tool-holder
within over both the tool and the holder, fixing it in its
place by means of small thumbscrews below. A
single clamp of this kind would do equally well for
FIG. 2. — TOOL-HOLDER SUPPORTED BY TOST.
plane or chisel, whereas the clamp shown in the illus-
tration is, from the peculiarity of its construction,
fitted only to hold down a chisel. The end of the
tool-holder furthest away from the grindstone is
bevelled, as shown in the illustration. The grindstone
itself is placed near a square post, which is fixed in
the ground, and grooved horizontally along its face.
When the grindstone has been adjusted and placed in
TOOL-HOLDERS FOR GRINDING.
21
a proper position, and the tool secured in the tool-
holder, the latter is placed against the post, its bevelled
edge fitting into one of the grooves, care being taken to
select such a one as will give the tool the proper pitch
for ^rinding. The inventor of this clever contrivance
claims, as one of its chief merits, that it is possible,
FIG. 3. — NEWTON'S GRINDING REST.
with such adjuncts as the tool-holder and the grooved
post, for one man to turn the grindstone, and at the
same time hold the tool, and complete the operation
in a satisfactory manner.
In Fig. 3 another contrivance is shown, which
enables anyone who makes use of it to hold the tool
with one hand while turning the grindstone with the
other. This is an American novelty, and from its
simplicity and practical utility will doubtless attract
the attention of the readers of this magazine. It is
the patented invention of Mr. A. D. Newton, of Wor-
cester, Massachusetts, U.S., who describes it as a
grinding rest. It consists of a frame through which
the plane-iron or other article to be ground is passed,
being held in position by a clamp, which works
through the upper part of the frame, and which is
raised or depressed at pleasure by means of the thumb-
screw shown at the top. The bit is allowed to pro-
ject through the frame more or less, according to the
angle desired to be imparted to the edge. A small
wheel travels against the face of the stone, enabling
the operator to keep the iron to be ground steadily
fixed in one position. If the name and address of the
inventor be given there will be no difficulty in procur-
ing it through any importer of American tools and
specialties in this country.
There is yet another method of using the grind-
stone, which appears to be more simple than any that
have yet been described. The grindstone is mounted
on a frame similar in construction to that shown in
Fig. i, and nothing more is required to be added to
the frame than a block of wood across each end, and
in close proximity to the face of the grindstone, bevelled
to suit the desired pitch for plane-irons, chisels, etc.
The blocks of wood should be four inches in width,
and two inches thick, and they should be bevelled
along the inner upper edge, as shown in the illustra-
tion. The iron to be ground is to be held down upon
the bevelled block in such a position as to bring the
bevel of the tool in contact with the face of the grind-
stone. The tool may be held in this position with one
hand while the operator turns the grindstone with the
other. The inventor says: — " 'When the stone be-
comes glazed by turning in one way, change hands,
and turn the stone in the opposite direction, or it may
be turned backwards if preferred. When the stone
gets a little out of true, I change the handle one quarter
of the way around. If the stone is even grit this will
cause it to work true again. It is really a luxury for
me to grind by this method, so much so, that although
I have steam power which I run part of the time I
seldom employ it for grinding. It happens that I am
usually otherwise occupied when power is running,
hence the convenience of the method which I describe."
The inventor of this contrivance for making the
operation of grinding more easy is a skilled hand, and
if it be of so much assistance to him it may easily be
conceived how much more useful it will prove as an
auxiliary to the amateur. Care must be taken in
bevelling the cross timbers that are to act as supports
for the tools to be ground. Different tools require
different bevels, and hence it is desirable to have a
bevelled cross timber at each end of the bench : one
being suitable for planes and the other for chisels.
The bevels of the instruments to be ground should be
well considered before planing down the edge of any
FIG. 4. — BEVELLED BLOCKS AS TOOL-RESTS.
cross timber, and it must be borne in mind that the
greater the slope of the bevel to which the cross
timber is cut, the less will be the bevel of the tool that
is laid upon it. The bevel of a chisel forms a more
acute angle with the face of the tool than the bevel of
a plane-iron, and hence, the bevel of a cross timber for
holding a plane-iron should show a greater slope than
that which is designed to hold a chisel.
22
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS:
HOW TO ADJUST, CLEAN, AND REPAIR THEM.
Biy PAUL N. HASLTJCK.
I. Ancient Modes of Measuring Time.
NY amateur, possessing even but a slight
knowledge of mechanism, and having
manual dexterity of common aptitude,
may undertake to adjust ordinary house-
hold clocks with every prospect of a
successful result. There are many slight defects,
which cause irregularity, or even stoppage, that may
be corrected at but a slight cost for time and materials
It is not intended to give, in these papers, instructions
for effecting those repairs, necessitating the use of
costly tools and apparatus or highly-skilled handwork.
To replace broken axes, and generally to
make new parts, is work fit only for a
trained clock-jobber. The amateur may,
however, adjust many defects : he may
clean clocks of nearly every description,
and also he may successfully accomplish
many of the minor repairs. It is on these
subjects that especial instructions will be
given in these papers.
A brief retrospective glance at the
subject of time-measurers will not be un-
interesting to those who desire to make an
acquaintance with the mechanism of clocks.
The essential characteristics of a clock
may be briefly stated : It is an instrument
having a motive power, which may be
a spring or a weight, a train of wheels through
which the power is transmitted to an escapement,
by which the rate of motion is regulated ; index
hands and a dial, by which the time is indicated,
complete the machine. Before mechanism was in-
vented for the purpose of showing the progress of
time, the ancients used other means. Clepsydras, or
water-clocks, were used in the most remote periods
of antiquity. These were vessels arranged for the
gradual flow of water from one vessel to another, and
thus the flight of time was indicated. This is appa-
rently the first form of mechanical time-measurer.
Sun-dials were the first instruments used to divide
Ihe day into smaller portions of time. From observ-
ing that the sun's rays cast a shadow, the sun-dial was
probably suggested. The earliest record of sun-dials
appears to be that made in the Book of Kings.
Hezekiah (about 740 B.C.) being sick, asked for a
sign ; "the sun was set back ten degrees," as shown on
the dial of King Ahaz. China was most probably the
birthplace of such instruments ; there the study of
astronomy was practised upwards of 2000 years B.C.
Pliny ascribed the invention to Anaximander (about
550 B.C.) ; but the dial of Ahaz is two centuries older.
Sun-dials were probably used by the Egyptians who
dwelt in the valley of the Nile long before the time
of Abraham. Homer (950 B.C.) mentions the sun's
diurnal and his annual race. Sun-dials are still to be
found, and in country places, where watches are seldom
used, people tell the time by the sun. Local expres-
sions referring to the sun as a measurer of time are
common in rural districts. Solar time, shown by
these dials, is not the same as mean time indicated by
clocks, and they only agree four times a year.
Clepsydras, as time-measurers, are more mechanical
in their action. Plato is accredited with having made
a clepsydra about 370 B.C. They were introduced into
Rome 157 B.C., and orators were timed by this means.
Clepsydras having wheels were constructed and used
about 245 B.C., and some of these time-
measures possess evidence of considerable
ingenuity. Ctesibus made a machine of
this kind (about 145 B.C.) which indicated
the hours, days, months, and signs of the
zodiac. A system of wheel-work was
employed to register the cumulative effect
of the running water.
Horologe was the name first given to
clocks constructed on the principle of
modern time-keepers. The date of the
invention is undetermined. Wheelwork,
set in motion by weights and springs,
was known in the time of Archimedes,
253 B.C. The graduated dial was known
in Rome, and used with sun-dials about
the same date. To make a clock it was only
necessary to put a pointer to the wheel-work, and
to contrive a means of regulating the speed. When
this was first effected is not known. Gerbert, after-
wards Pope Sylvester II., made a clock, a.d. 996, for
Magdeburg. This clock had weights and wheels, and
was considered a very wonderful piece of mechanism.
This is the first clock of which we have any direct'
knowledge. The oldest clock mentioned in England
is one formerly fixed at Westminster, A.D. 1288.
Gerbert, mentioned above, is usually credited with
having produced the first horologe, and from his
time rapid progress was made in clock-work. The
writers of the eleventh century speak of clocks in such
a manner, that they must have been well known at
that period. The Greeks and Romans used the same
words for clocks and for sun-dials ; thus there is great
difficulty in distinguishing which is the machine meant
by the word horologiiim. Dante, the Italian poet, seems
to be the first author who mentions "an orologe that
struck the hours." This must have been a clock such
as we now understand it. This fixes the date as the
I. — SUN-DIAL FOR
WALL.
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
23
end of the thirteenth century, though probably striking
clocks were made before then.
The regulator for horologes up to this date appears
to have been some form of fly — a wheel with vanes
or wings which,, by impinging upon the air, retarded
the speed of the clock-work. The pendulum, now
universally used in all kinds of clocks, is generally
said to be the invention of Galileo, early in the seven-
teenth century. It was, however, used in the University
of Cordova some six hundred years previously. It
appears that, in its early days, the pendulum was not
used successfully, and that up to the time of Galileo
the fly arrangement was used as a regulator. In the
fourteenth century, an oscillating arm was substituted
for the fly, and this met with some success.
Henry de Wyck, a German, erected a clock in
1364 for Charles V. of France. It was controlled by
means of a contrivance consisting of a horizontal bar,
which pulsated by the action of the escapement. The
speed of the pulsations was regulated by the amount
of weights hung on the bar, or by their distance from
the centre of oscillation. This contrivance acted much
like the modem balance-wheel of a watch, without a
balance-spring. The common "bottle-jack," used to
turn roasting meat, is perhaps a better as well as a
more familiar simile. Tycho Brahe and the astro-
nomers of the sixteenth century used clocks of this
description. Several were erected on the continent of
Europe towards the end of the fourteenth century.
The vibrating arm of De Wyck was modified by
Harris, and applied to a clock in Covent Garden,
London, in 1641.
Early in the seventeenth century, Galileo made
observations on the isochronous oscillations of sus-
pended bodies. In 1639, he published a small treatise
embracing the subject. Ten years later, his son is
said to have constructed a clock with a pendulum_
Huygens, about the same time, designed improved
mechanism for recording the vibrations of a pendulum.
He also contrived the present form of motion-work ;
that is, the wheels to which the hands are fixed. It
allows both the hour-hand and the minute-hand to have
the same centre of motion. About this time many
experiments were made, and many valuable improve-
ments effected. Hooke invented anchor pallets for
clocks, which allowed long pendulums to be used.
The crown wheel escapement used by De Wyck, and
which had bee n employed up to this period, was un-
suited for long pendulums on account of the large
angular vibration necessary. Long pendulums, vibrat-
ing only a short arc, were called Royal Pendulums, and
they are still in common use. A small sliding weight
was added to the pendulum rod, by which the centre
of gravity could be adjusted with greater precision.
George Graham, born in 1673, made many im-
portant improvements in the then existing time-
measurers. One of his principal inventions is the
compensation of pendulums. He used both mercurial
and gridiron compensation pendulums, which are still
unsurpassed. The dead-beat escapement now used in
clocks was invented and made by Graham, and is still
known by his name. Graham died in 1751, leaving a
name that will ever remain associated with the per
fection of clock-work.
The inventor and manufacturer of the chronometer
which secured the award of ^20,000 from the English
Parliament in 1767, has special claims for notice here.
He was a Yorkshireman, and originally followed the
calling of a journeyman carpenter. Large rewards
were offered during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries by the Spanish, Dutch, French, and English
Governments for an instrument that should determine
the longitude at sea within certain specified degrees of
accuracy. This stimulated inventive talent, and led
to many ingenious devices for the purpose of produc-
ing a compensation for variations of temperature.
Having paid considerable attention to the require-
ments of an instrument adapted for marine service,
John Harrison, the journeyman carpenter, in 1735,
proceeded to London with a enronometer of his own
construction. Thirty years of unremittent labour pro-
duced an instrument which was placed on board one
of the King's ships in 1758, and proceeded on a voyage
to Jamaica.
The Parliament of Queen Anne, in 17 14, passed an
Act granting a sum of £10,000 for a method of dis-
covering the longitude to within sixty geographical
miles; the sum to be increased to £15,000 if within
forty miles, and ,£20,000 to be the prize for an instru-
ment accurate to within thirty miles, in a voyage from
England to America. It was for this prize that John
Harrison shipped his chronometer in 1758. On the
ship's return, after an absence of five months, the
error indicated was only eighteen miles, being within
the limit of the largest prize. In 1767 the £20,cco
was paid to Harrison, who died nine years afterwards.
Considering the undeveloped state of skilled labour
as applied to such mechanism, this chronometer was a
wonderful production. As the carpenter was able to
surpass the workmanship of the most skilful horolo-
gists, and carry off the big money prize, it is only
reasonable to suppose that an amateur may success-
fully adjust and repair his clocks.
Having introduced the subject to our readers, the
succeeding papers will be devoted exclusively to the
details of actual manipulation. Clocks of various
descriptions will be hypothetically taken apart, defects
discovered and repaired, the movement being finally
rehabilitated and set going anew.
(To be continued.)
24
A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.
A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING
WALL-CABINET,
The Materials and Fittings Used in its Jlfanufaeture,
and the Methods to be Followed in Making
and Finishing it.
VERY amateur is ambitious of making a
handsome piece of furniture that may
serve in part for the embellishment of
his house, and afford unmistakable testi-
mony to his skill in carpentry. An article
of this kind, which well merits the attention of every
amateur carpenter who is moved with the laudable
ambition to which I have just alluded, is exhibited in
perspective view in the frontispiece to the present-
number of Amateur Work, Illustrated. It is a
hanging cabinet, or cabinet for hanging against a wall,
which is not only fashionable, and therefore much in
request at the present time, but which further possesses
the merit of being exceedingly useful for holding
porcelain, glass, bric-a-brac, and articles of virtu. It
may also be utilised as a book-case and newspaper
rack, and may even be so adapted as to form a part of,
or an adjunct to, a mantelshelf being placed above it,
and even connected with it if it so please the maker.
In addition to the perspective view, working
drawings of every part of the cabinet and its details
are given for the guidance of the amateur, but of these
it is not necessary to speak immediately. The only
thing to which it is desirable to diiect the attention of
the amateur in connection with these working drawings
at present, is that by their aid he will be able to prepare
fall-sized working drawings for his self-imposed task,
and to make and finish the cabinet in such a manner
as may be most satisfactory to him. With regard to
the chief central compartment, which is furnished with
a glass door, it may be said that although the manu
facture of the door adds considerably to the labour
involved, yet it allows the interior, and all the objects
that are placed within it, to be seen, and at the same
time protects them from dust, and also from being
pulled about by curious persons and meddlesome hands
if it be suitably furnished with a lock and key. In our
principal illustration the cabinet is shown as ebonized ;
and this style of finish, if well done, makes it a hand-
some and showy piece of furniture. It is necessary,
however, to remind amateurs that the natural wood
looks infinitely better than ebonizing badly done. The
cabinet will look extremely well in chestnut, if the
pores are well filled, and a dead, smooth gioss imparted
to the surface by way of finish. The beauty of such
an article as this depends as much upon the finish
given to the wood as upon the workmanship displayed
by the maker. In large furniture establishments,
where numerous articles of this class, at widely differ-
ent prices, are exhibited, it will be remarked that the
cheap articles and the costly articles often differ from
each other more with regard to the finish than in
design or durability. Undue cheapness therefore u
utterly incompatible with high finish, good workman-
ship, and durability, but a strong and tolerably well-
made article that is sold at a moderate price, and is
spoken of as being " cheap at the money," is only
lacking in finish, and will probably do good service to
the buyer.
If made up in light wood, the design might be
varied by making the spindles and the little columns
in front of the brackets connecting the lowest shelf
with the principal shelf, of some rich dark or coloured
wood, which would afford a pleasing contrast to the
main body of the work. The brass fittings, which form
the hinges and the escutcheon for the keyhole should
be left of their natural colour if the cabinet be ebonized,
but if it be of light wood the fittings will look well if
they are bronzed. , Silvered fittings look well with
ebonized wood, and amateurs who may prefer these to
the yellow or gold-looking fittings of brass, will learn
how the process may be effected, by turning to the
articles on " Electro-plating at Home."
At all events, the ornamental metal work used,
whatever may be its colour, should be of some sub-
stance, and bold and striking in design. Ornamen"\l
hinges, suitable for this kind of work, are kept by m-/St
ironmongers, and those who sell carpenters' and
joiners' ironmongery; but if hinges of this character
cannot be procured, the door may be attached to the
side shelf, to which it is hung by an ordinary pair of
brass hinges, and the ornamental part cut out of soft
sheet brass with a saw suitable for the purpose, and
fastened to the wood by brass pins or small screws.
This will give the effect, but it will serve no other
purpose than that of mere ornament. The idea of
thickness may be given to some extent by bevelling
the edge of the brass work in every part. It willeive
the amateur some trouble to carry out this in a^jm-
plete and effective manner, but he must remember
that the greater the trouble and labour that he
bestows on his work, the greater will be the reward
he will reap when his work is completed.
If polished plate glass can be procured for the
door, it is to be preferred. If this cannot be obtained,
the amateur should seek to obtain some heavy polished
sheet glass. If, however, this substitute is not to be
had, there is nothing to be done but to get as heavy
and as clear a piece of common glass as can be had,
which, after all, will look very well.
If a light wood be used the interior of the central
compartment may be lined with red cloth, or if red
A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.
25
Fig. 1,
-^-yvv^y
fit. 7.
Fig.G.
rig. 3.
FORKING DRAWINGS AND DETAILS OF USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL
HANGING WALL-CABINET.
FiO. 1. — Front Elevation, scale 1\ inches to tho foot. Fig. 2.— Side
Elevation, on same scale. Fig. 3. — Plan, on same scale. Fig. 4. —
Vertical Section, on same scale. Fig. 5.— Detail of Slielf, scale o£
6 inches to the foot. Fig. 6.— Detail of Bail above Upper Shelves,
on same scale. Fig. 7.— Detail of Column below Principal Shelf,
on same scale. Fig. 8.— Plan of Column, on same scale. Tho letters
in the Figures show corresponding parts in each.
\
s£~~~l~t>*\.
26
A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGLNG WALL-CABLNET.
cloth be considered too expensive, good twilled calico,
dyed Turkey red, may be used, as this is a fast colour,
and does not fade. A plush or velvet may also be used
for lining the cabinet, and if it be ebonized, some light
colour, such as gold colour, may be used by way of
contrast. The chief difficulty in lining the cabinet is
in attaching the material to the sides and back. It
•will be noticed that there are two shelves in the interior
of the cabinet. If these shelves are run into grooves
prepared for them in the side-pieces, or if they are
mortised and tenoned into the sides, it will be necessary
to line each portion of the compartment separately.
Plush or velvet may be attached with a coating of thin
glue spread thinly over the wood, but as glue might
penetrate through the calico and disfigure it, it is better
to manage the lining by straining the calico over thin
boards, similar to that which is used for the backing
of a picture frame, or pieces of pasteboard cut to fit
with exactness, and then fasten them to the back and
sides with small brass pins or nails, just sufficient in
number to keep the pieces in place. If, however, the
shelves be supported on ledges, a method which will
be followed by many amateurs who are not well skilled
in constructive carpentry, the sides and back may be
lined from top to bottom in the manner described, and
the ledges for the reception of the shelves screwed
against the lining, the screws penetrating through it
and the material over which it has been strained, and
taking hold in the wood of the sides and back. A
third way of managing the lining, but one which in-
volves a large amount of labour, is to make some thin
frames of wood about an inch in width, and either
stretch the lining to the back of these, or fit them in
against the lining between the shelving and the top and
bottom of the compartment. By this mode of treat-
ment the effect produced in the interior will be that
of slightly sunken panelling.
If the door can be made to fit against a strip of
list, or any other suitable material, so as to make the
compartment dust-tight, so much the better. If plates
are to stand upon the shelves, whether in the interior
or in any of the outer compartments, a square groove
should be provided to receive the lowermost part of
the edge, or else a slight fillet, about a quarter of an
inch square should be nailed to the surface of the
shelf for the same purpose. This makes it possible to
stand a plate up against the back or in a corner without
any danger of its slipping down.
Having said thus much about the materials to be
used in making the cabinet, and the various methods
of finishing it within and without, it is necessary to
turn to a consideration of the working drawings.
These, with the exception of some of the details, are
presented on a scale of ii inches to the foot. This
means that every linear measurement in the full-sized
working drawings to be constructed from these smaller
drawings must be exactly eight times the length of the
corresponding line in the latter. The amateur, how-
ever, need not limit himself to this extension of size,
but he may make the cabinet larger or smaller as he
may please, only taking care to preserve a due propor-
tion in every part.
In Fig. i is shown the front elevation, and this it
will be noticed exhibits the form and contour of the
back, and the manner in which the different parts are
fitted together. The back having been made — and it
may be pointed out to the amateur carpenter that the
front elevation also furnishes the plan of the back —
and accurately cut out to shape, the two boards pro-
jecting from it at right angles, and which form the
sides of the central cupboard and the compartments
above and below it, must be prepared. These are
notched at top and bottom to receive the back, and
instead of taking out the entire recess from the pro-
jecting part in the rear at top to the projecting part in
rear at the bottom, tenons should be left at suitable
intervals to fit into corresponding mortises cut to
receive them in the back. The amateur must not
attempt to fix any of the parts together for good and
all until every portion has been cut out and the whole
duly fitted together, for if he were to insert the tenons
of the sides into the mortises cut for them in the back
and wedge and glue them up, he would find consider-
able difficulty in putting in the shelves that connect the
side-pieces. If the back be prepared with shallow
grooves to receive the edges of the boards that project
from it at right angles, it will add to the firmness of
the structure and the general good appearance of the
work. In all work of this description it is desirable
to fit all the uprights and transverse shelves into shallow
grooves prepared for them, if the amateur possess the
time, patience, and skill necessary to the due accom-
plishment of the work.
The side elevation of the cabinet and the profile of
the projecting sides are shown, it should be said, in
Fig. 2, which also shows, or rather indicates, the
grooves that have to be made for the reception of the
corner side-shelves, shaped like the quadrant or fourth
part of a circle. The ornamentation of the edges of
the shelves along the under part is also shown ; but in
this, as in all other details, the amateur is not expected
to follow servilely the copy placed before him, but to
consult his own taste in their construction and manage-
ment. This has been followed to a certain extent in
the illustrations, for it will be observed that the turned
work of spindles, which form the little galleries in the
upper part of the cabinet, as shown in the perspective
view, differ both in form and in size from those ex-
hibited in the working drawings. With regard to
Fig. 2, it may be said, even at the risk of being tedious,
A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.
27
that this presents the appearance of the cabinet when
viewed from its left side. If this figure were reversed,
it would represent the appearance of the cabinet when
viewed from the right side. Bearing this in view, the
reader will readily understand that this figure serves,
for all practical purposes, to exhibit the side elevation
and profile of the cabinet on either side. In making
use of the words right and left as relative terms, it
must be understood that they refer to the position of
the beholder when standing directly opposite the
cabinet, and looking full at its front.
In Fig. 3 is represented the plan of die cabinet,
looking downwards on it from the top ; and it may be
further taken to represent a section of the cabinet
taken through the lowermost tier of shelves which
happen to be in a continuous line with each other, or,
in other words, on a level with each other. The parts
representing sections of the back and projecting sides,
or these respective pieces in plan, will be readily re-
cognized without further explanation ; and, if the
amateur experience any difficulty in determining them,
he will find considerable assistance in comprehending
the diagram by comparing it with the other figures on
the same scale. He will note that there is a difference
between the quadrants on the right-hand and on the
left in Fig. 3. This has been made in order to show
the plan or upper surface of one of the topmost side-
shelves, having circular holes sunk in it to receive the
ends of the little spindles forming the gallery that
surmounts it, in the one case to the right, and in the
other to the left, the treatment of the under part of the
shelf along the bottom edge, which is scalloped, to
impart lightness and richness of treatment, by breaking
the hard line of the arc. Of course, this ornamentation
is to be added or omitted, according to the pleasure,
or perhaps skill, of the maker.
The arrangement of the shelves within and at the
top and bottom of the large central compartment, and
the lowest shelf below the little columns in the side-
pieces, and the connection of these shelves with the
back and projecting sides, is exhibited in Fig. 4, which
will also serve as a vertical section of the cabinet.
This figure will render perfectly clear to the amateur
the treatment to be adopted with regard to the cap
or cornice at the top of the back, and the ornamental
fillet below it which is fixed to the surface of the back.
The cap and fillet are marked A in Figs. 1, 3, and 4,
the front elevation being shown in the first, or Fig. 1,
the plan in Fig. 3, and the section in Fig. 4. It may
seem that too much care is taken to point out these
things, which the more advanced will consider suf-
ficiently obvious ; but it must be remembered that this is
done in the interest of those who have not yet acquired
much skill in carpentry, and for whose better assistance
it is needful to be particular.
The method of making the door is sufficiently in-
dicated in Figs. 1 and 4, of which the former shows
the plan and the latter the section. The inner edges
of the outer part of the frame are chamfered in part in
the illustration. The chamfering at the top and
bottom has been omitted in the illustration. From
this the amateur must understand that he may cham-
fer or level the edge all round the frame, on its four
sides, or chamfer it partly, as shown in the illustration :
but however he may treat it, the treatment must be
uniform on all sides of the frame — that is to say, as far
as the inner edge is concerned.
Fig. 4 further serves to show the section of the cap
of the gallery into which the upper part of each spindle
is inserted, and which in its turn is tenoned into the
side and back. A moulding is run along the edge of
the bottom shelf of the cupboard, over and on which
the door works, and below the moulding is placed a
fillet, or cornice, similar in form to the fillet at A, in
Fig. 1. A groove is ploughed along the lower surface
of the shelf, near the edge, for the reception of this
fillet. In the same way a similar fillet is attached to
the narrower shelf at the bottom. The details of the
shelf and fillet in both cases are shown in Fig. 5 (b), on
a scale of 6 inches to a foot ; but here the edge of the
shelf is represented as being simply grooved and not
moulded. An independent moulding, attached to the
edge of the shelf, as shown in the perspective view,
has a better appearance and finishes better, because it
shows a greater variety of light and shade than the
almost level surface of the slightly grooved edge. The
groove in the under part of the shelf for the reception
of the pendant fillet is also omitted, but the amateur
can readily supply this for himself. In the perspective
view of the cabinet the fillet below the cap of the
cabinet is represented as a moulding, a method of
treatment which is well worthy of attention, and which
may be adopted instead of the plain fillet or band in
other parts of the cabinet, where this ornament occurs.
Nothing more now remains to be done but to call
attention to Figs. 6, 7, and 8, which complete the series
of working drawings for the cabinet, and which, like
Fig. 5, are given on a scale of 6 inches to the foot
for the sake of clearness. Fig. 6 (c) exhibits the detail
of the rail above the upper shelves, and the spindles
which support it. Another mode of treatment of the
edge of the shelf is suggested by the groove above,
and the level, or chamfer, of the edge below. In Fig.
7 is shown the elevation (d), and in Fig. 8 the plan of
the larger columns below the principal shelf. These
columns and the spindles of the galleries will afford
an opportunity for an exhibition of the amateur's skill
in turning. A good turner will find many ways of
enriching the columns and spindles with ornamenta-
tion. For those who cannot turn, a band cut in simple
23
BOOTS AND SHOES: HO IV TO MAKE THEM AND MEND 'THEM.
fretwork may take the place of the spindles, and the
lower part of the side-pieces may be simply formed
by a curve, traced from the arc above the column to
the arc below, so as to render the insertion of the
columns unnecessary.
BOOTS AND SHOES:
HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MENU THEM.
En ABEL EARNS1IAW.
I. Measurement and Materials.
Uppers and all about them — Sizes — The Size-stick — Self,
measurement— Modes of Affixing Bottoms — Parts of the
Coot —Leather— Lasts— Side-seat — S tand-up r ?nch.
51HERE are few handicrafts of which a
knowledge will be found more generally
useful than that of the shoemaker. Every-
one wears boots or shoes, but everyone is
not always able to command the services
of the followers of St. Crispin. The traveller, the
colonist of an unsettled district, the dweller in an out-
of-the-way spot, the soldier, and numberless other
persons exceptionally situated, have all of them fre-
quently to depend upon themselves for the necessary
repairs of their foot coverings. Some, possessed of a
fair amount of ingenuity, manage to get over the
difficulty in a rough and imperfect way ; others make
the attempt and find at its conclusion that they, having
succeeded in correcting one fault, have, through the
want of knowledge of the relations of the parts of the
boot or shoe to each other, created other faults they
are unable to repair.
The construction of new boots is often attempted
by amateur bootmakers, with results of the most un-
satisfactory character. The amateur in these cases
simply attempts to imitate the operations he has seen
performed, and having had no explanations of the
principles of construction which the craftsman bears
in mind, fails to do more than spoil his leather. In
the necessary explanations of the principles and prac-
tice of the craft which follow, as few technical expres-
sions as possible will be used. In some esses they
cannot be avoided, and in these the reader is: asked to
bear their meanings in mind after they are first used
and explained.
At one time the shoemaker made his goods through-
out, but this is not the case at the present day. The
majority of shoemakers only affix the bottoms to the
uppers, the latter being manufactured by persons who
make a specialty of this branch of the trade. The
" bespoke " shoei laker ordinarily buys his uppers from
the manufacturer or merchant, if he is in a fair way of
business ; and if in a small way, of the grindery dealer,
who also supplies cut leather, hemp, wax, bristles, nails,
and the various other small necessaries of his trade.
Although it is intended, further on in this series, to give
some directions as to the manufacture of uppers, it will
be best here to advise the amateur, if possible, to adopt
the same course — namely, to purchase uppers, instead
of attempting to make them. They can be ordered by
letter, and are light enough to be forwarded by post.
The prices vary, according to quality and " cut,'
by which is understood the style of construction.
Some of the kinds most run upon, for men's boots, are,
the blocked side-spring " military whole-cut," in which
there is only a single seam in the outside of the upper —
that up the back ; the "joined military," in which there
is a back seam and two others, one on each side of the
spring at the bottom ; the " goloshed " side-spring,
having the upper portions at the front and back, techni-
cally known as " quarters," of some light leather, such
as kid, and the lower portions, or " goloshes," of calf,
or other heavier leather. Among other standard
uppers are the " Balmoral," a plain laced kind ; and the
" Derby," also a laced boot, but so constructed that the
lacing portion, where it meets the front, remains out-
side, instead of being underneath that part of the
upper. This last mentioned is the ordinary shooting
boot cut, and has a water-tight tongue. Shoes are
usually either "Oxford" cut, by which is understood
the plain ordinary laced style, or the " Derby tie," a
mode of fastening by lappets, which meet across the
instep. Ladies' and children's uppers vary but slightly
from these well-known styles, some are almost identi-
cal in cut, but all are constructed on a different scale
of measurement. Boot and shoe uppers, as kept in
stock at the leatherseller's, are of average width, and
if the amateur's feet are of normal shape he will have
little difficulty in obtaining them to fit. If, on the
contrary, his feet are of unusual shape, or he is
troubled with bunions or swellings, he will do best by
going to a last-maker, and getting a pair of lasts made
to suit.
While on this matter it will be advisable to explain
the arrangement of the sizes for lasts, uppers, and
boots, so that the amateur may know what to ask for
when he goes to purchase. All these goods are
usually sold in runs of sizes, the smallest being o's, a
size only required for young infants. This and the
following sizes, i's to 6's, are termed infants'. Next come
the boys' and girls' sizes, 7's to 1 o's, at which a break is
made. The next sizes are n's, 12's, 13'sand i's, also boys'
and girls' sizes, but with a difference of price. Youths'
sizes begin at 2's, continuing to 43's or 5's, according to
local custom, and men's sizes commence at 5's, in-
creasing to io's, and very rarely, to n's and 12's.
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM, 29
Women's sizes begin at 2's, increasing to 7's, which are
worn by one woman in twelve only. Very rarely
indeed is a woman's foot found to exceed this measure-
ment. The o's size is exactly four inches in length, and
the divisions of sizes are in accordance with the old
English standard of measurement, the barleycorn, the
third of an inch.
In order to ascertain the
sizes of feet with correctness, a
size-stick is usually made use
of by the shoemaker, and the
amateur cannot do better than
follow his example. A size-
stick will cost two shillings.
Should this not be obtainable
one may easily be constructed ;
it is simply a rule divided by
thirds of an inch, having a
wooden rest at one end, placed
exactly at a right angle, and
another, sliding loosely over the rules, also placed at
the same angle, so that when the foot is between the
two, the movable one marks the length. To the size
thus shown two and a-half or three sizes must be
added to give the size of the boot required, if for a
man. A little extra length is necessary if the boots
to be made are heavy ones. Two or two and a-half
sizes must be allowed for
a woman, and two sizes
for a child.
In all cases where the
feet are otherwise than of
average shape and width,
it will be necessary that
the upper manufacturer's
order should be accom-
panied by a complete set
of measurements. The
diagram given herewith
will enable them to be
taken correctly. The
length of the foot is first
ascertained by the size-
stick A tape measure
is next passed round the
foot at its widest part,
namely, at the ball, taking care that the toe joints
on each side are within it. This gives what, here-
after will be spoken of as the joint measurement:
it is shown on the diagram by the line A B. The next
point of measurement is the instep : the girth of this
is taken from the centre of the arch beneath the foot
to the corresponding part on the top. The line C D
shows this measurement, which ordinarily is about
half-an-inch greater than that of the ioint. The heel
I. — DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATIVE OF SELF-
MEASUREMENT.
FIG. 2. — THE SHOEMAKER'S BENCH.
measure is next in order. The tape is passed lound
the fo-t from the centre of the upper curve, or "throat,"
as it is curiously termed by shoemakers, enclosing the
back of the heel, as shown by the line E F. It only
remains now to take the ankle measurement : the place
it is taken at is shown by the line G H. This, in the
majority of cases, will be found the same as that of
the joint, but it is advisable, in
ordering uppers, that it should
be separately stated. If these
details are plainly written out,
and forwarded to the manu-
facturer, the amateur's trouble
in regard to his uppers will be
slight.
Beginning, then, with the
methods of affixing the bottoms,
it will be necessary the amateur
should understand that there are
no less than four principal ones
in vogue. Each of these he must learn to distinguish,
even should his practice go no further than mending,
for a plan which may answer excellently in repairing
a boot made in one way, may utterly fail upon one
constructed on another system. The different systems
are, hand -sewing, machine -sewing, riveting and peg-
ging. The other methods are of but small importance;
for all practical purposes
of these articles, screw-
ing may be considered
identical with riveting, and
gutta percha bottoming
will be separately dealt
with. Each of the sys-
tems has certain merits
to recommend it, but the
palm must certainly be
accorded to the first
named, as being the one
having the most merits
and least defects. At the
same time, it must be said
that the hand-sewing me-
thod presents the most
difficulties to the amateur,
and occupies the greatest
length of time. Machine-sewing is an invention of the
last quarter of a century. Its use is almost entirely
confined to the wholesale boot manufactories ; and were
it not for the question of repairing it would not be
necessary to refer to it here. These two systems pro-
duce boots which closely resemble each other, never-
theless their construction is radically different. Where
the difference arises will be shown further on.
Riveting is also a new system, comparatively speak-
3°
BOOTS AND SHOES: HO W TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
ing, and is not only the quickest but the easiest for the
amateur to master. Riveted boots can easily be
distinguished from other kinds by an examination of
the soles, which display a continuous line of metal
rivets, usually brass or iron, running all the way round
them, the points being clenched inside. Pegging is
also not a difficult system to understand. Pegged
boots are made in a way much resembling riveted
ones, but in lieu of metal rivets being made use of to
attach the soles, wooden pegs are substituted. This
class of boots suit best for damp climates, as moisture
swells the pegs and makes them hold firmly, while
dryness contracts them, and causes them to withdraw,
rendering the boots useless. Pegged boots will be
known by the rows of square-cut pegs, placed diamond
fashion, which appear on the soles, and by the points,
which, though cut off level, appear on the insides.
It will now be necessary to describe the parts of a
boot, and their uses. First in order is the inner sole,
the foundation on which the boot is built. This is a
piece of moderately firm but flexible leather cut to the
shape of the bottom of the last : in wear it comes next
to the foot when a sock is not used. Its thickness
should be not less than one-eighth of an inch. It is
usually cut from the belly portions of the tanned hide,
the trade name for these parts being " crop bellies."
For hand-sewn, or machine-sewn boots, lighter inner
soles may be used than for riveted or pegged ones.
Without moderately stout and firm inner soles, boots
made on either of these latter systems are practically
valueless. The stiffening is the next portion needing
to be described. This consists of a piece of leather
about the same thickness as that used for the inner
sole. In shape it is usually the half of a long oval, a
stiffening for a man's boot of ordinary size having a
depth of n\ inches and a length of 7; inches; those
intended for women's or children's boots or shoes being
proportionately smaller. A variation is made in the
shape of the stiffening for goloshed boots ; in these it
is simply a straight strip of leather with a depth of 2
inches. The object of the stiffening is to keep the
heel of the foot in its proper position, and prevent it
from turning over, and so twisting the ankle. In order
that it may effect this purpose, the leather of which it
is composed needs to be at the same time sufficiently
strong to withstand severe strains, and still retain its
position, and yet not be so hard as to hurt the foot.
The stiffening is placed between the lining of the upper
and the outside leather. The necessary preparation of
it will be described hereafter. We now come to the
welt. Welts are only required in making hand-sewn
boots, in all other kinds middle or underneath half-soles
are used instead of them. The welt is a straight
strip of tanned leather cut from the shoulder portion
of the hide, where the texture of the fibre is not so
close and unyielding as it is in the butt (the back and
side parts). Leather for welts is dressed with a small
amount of grease — that is to say, the grease is forced
into the leather, saturating the fibre, and making it very
pliable and easy to manipulate. A strip of welting,
five-eighths of an inch wide will make one pair of
welts by cutting it lengthwise, holding the knife in a
slanting direction, the cut commencing one-eighth of
an inch from the edge, and terminating the same
distance from the edge on the under side. The use of
the welt is to afford a means of attaching the sole to
the inner sole and upper. In the work it is carried
round the edge of the boot upper after it is lasted, and
is sewn to both, the sole afterwards being attached to
it by a second seam. The reason machine-sewn boots
require no welt is that a single direct seam can be made
by the sole-sewing machine, from the outside to the
inside of the boot, but in hand-sewn making this is
practically impossible, except in the " waist " (that part
of the boot under the arch of the foot). Consequently
the welt, which, though most shoemakers will not
admit it to be so, is only an expedient, has to be made
use of as the only means by which sole, upper, and in-
sole can be united. The middle soles, which to all
appearance take the place of the welts in boots
bottomed by other processes, are simply pieces of
solid leather extending from the toe part of the boot
to the commencement of the waist. The thickness of
these varies according as the boots may be required to
be bottomed. Any kind of sole leather may be used
for this purpose, as long as it is solid in texture and of
level substance. The soles almost everyone under-
stands all about. They are cut from the best part of
the leather, the butt, and should be firm, and show,
when in the rough state, a close and solid appearance
at the edges. The preparation of sole leather is one
of those things which is not done better abroad ; and
the amateur, when he goes to purchase, will do best by
asking for sole leather of British oak-bark tannage.
He will find it will last longest, be easy to work, and
look best when made up. The split-lifts, which are
required immediately after the soles, are strips of sole
leather divided in the same way as welts, but about a
quarter of an inch wider. They are used as founda-
tions for the heels, being first attached to the sole
previous to any of the lifts (the next portion to be
described) being put on. The lifts are pieces of ordi-
nary sole leather, cut out the shape the heel is to be
made, and fixed one upon another until the required
height is obtained. Lastly, there is the top-piece, that
portion of the heel which comes into contact with the
ground in walking. This is, or should be, cut from the
best and stoutest leather which can be obtained.
The amateur will now be able to recognize any
portion of a boot, and will be able to ask for his
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
materials, at the leatherseller's shop, in such a way
that the shopkeeper will understand him, and have no
difficulty in so doing.
The appliances which are absolutely necessary to
the amateur to enable him to make or repair in a
simple fashion, are neither numerous nor costly. If,
as is most probable, his efforts are confined to making
or repairing the boots of the members of the family
circle, he will do best to select one of the systems
mentioned, say riveting or pegging, supply himself
with lasts of the sizes required, and with a side-seat,
such as is seen in every shoemaker's shop, for use when
making hand-work or finishing off. Any stool or box
may be made to do duty for this, if necessary. If he
uses the riveting system, he will need a stand-up
bench, which he may construct by the aid of the
illustration above. The front posts should be sur-
mounted by a piece of stout boarding. _He will also
need an iron upright stand and socket, which may be
bought at any shoe-engineer's and at many leather-
seller's shops, for three shillings, or thereabouts. Iron
lasts are used for making and mending riveted and
machine-sewn boots upon. These can be obtained at
the same shops as the stands and sockets, costing from
one to two shillings each for small sizes, rising to five
shillings per pair for men's. They will also answer the
amateur's purpose for most kinds of jobbing work con-
nected with the repairs of the soles or heels. Wooden
lasts, which are used for making hand-sewn and pegged
boots, are less costly, about one-half the above prices
being an average. Where it is impossible to obtain
iron lasts, for making or mending riveted boots,
wooden ones may be used, the bottoms being covered
with a thin iron plate.
The necessary tools and their uses will be described
in the next paper.
PHOTOGRAPHY:
ITS TRIA'CIPLES AND PRACTICE.
By TE01TAS BUXMAN
I. The Apparatus.
HE beautiful and pleasing art of Photo-
graphy is one of the most delightful
pursuits in which it is possible to en-
gage, whether as a means of recreation
or as a remunerative employment. Un-
like many occupations, not only are its results of a
satisfactory character, but the processes by which they
are arrived at are in themselves a never-failing source
of interest and delight. To unfold in clear and simple
language the principles of this beautiful art, to give
instructions for its successful practice, and to point
out its most useful applications, will be the objects
aimed at in the present series of papers.
The word " Photography " is derived from two
Greek words (fi/ws, photos, light, and grafiho, I
describe or paint), and signifies the art of producing
permanent pictures by the aid of light. In principle,
the art depends upon the power which light possesses
of acting chemically upon various substances, the
most important of which are some of the salts of
silver. It is not my intention to enter fully into the
theory of the chemical action of light, but a brief
sketch of the manner in which the salts of silver are
affected in the processes appertaining to photography
will be incidentally given in the course of these papers,
as without some little knowledge of the scientific prin-
ciples involved, no great perfection in the art can
possibly be attained.
At the commencement of our study of photography,
it will be sufficient to bear in mind that certain of the
salts of silver, notably the chloride and the iodide,
speedily blacken under the influence of light, whether
the light falls upon them directly, or is reflected from
other objects. To produce a picture, it is necessary to
concentrate upon a plate coated with one or other of
these sensitive salts the light which is reflected from
the object or objects it is desired to portray. This
brings us at once to the consideration of the most
important piece of apparatus which the photographer
employs, and that is the camera. This piece of appa-
ratus, which is represented in Fig. I, is a modification
of the optical instrument long known to the optician,
and also to the general public, as the "camera ob-
scura." It is essentially a dark chamber, or box, to the
front of which a lens is fitted, while the back is pro-
vided with a ground-glass screen, upon which the
image of external objects may be focussed. In the
photographic camera this screen can be removed, and
replaced by a dark slide, containing the sensitive plate
upon which the photograph is to be produced. The
camera is, moreover, usually constructed in two parts,
the front part containing the lens, and being fixed to
the frame, while the hinder part contains the ground-
glass focussing screen, and is movable, so that the
camera may be adjusted for different distances. This
form of camera is known as the "sliding body"
camera, and is very useful for home or studio use, but
is not very portable. In the illustration, A is the lens,
which can be moved backwards and forwards by
means of the milled head D, which, being turned by the
hand, works a rack and pinion. The front part of the
camera (c) is fixed, but the hinder part (b) is movable
at the will of the photographer, who slides it backwards
or forwards until the image upon the glass screen (e)
is thoroughly sharp, when he fixes the sliding back in
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
the required position by tightening the screw in the
frame. The final adjustment of the focus is made by
means of the milled head (d), which moves the lens
backwards or forwards until the necessary sharpness is
obtained.
Another form of camera which is extremely useful,
and which is also much more portable than the sliding-
body camera, is the "bellows-body" instrument, in
which the body is constructed like the bellows of a
concertina or an accordion,
which be may moved inwards
or outwards either by the
hands or by an endless screw
working beneath the body
of the camera, and turned
by a small handle.
Whatever be the form of
camera employed, its essen-
tial properties are, easy
movement of the body upon
the frame when focussing,
and perfect exclusion of
light. It is therefore neces-
sary that it should be well
made of thoroughly seasoned material, and if the
camera is required for use in hot countries, it should
be well bound with brass.
At the very commencement of the photographer's
career, it is of the utmost importance that he should
thoroughly appreciate the necessity which exists that
his camera, his dark slides, and his dark room should
be perfectly " light-tight ;" nothing short of absolute
perfection in this respect will ensure even moderate
success.
An important part of
the camera is the " dark
slide," in which the sensi-
tive plate is placed in
order that it may be ex-
posed to the action of light
in the camera. This slide
consists of a flat box,
having at its back a hinged
flap, which may be raised
in order to insert the sen-
sitive plate, and which is kept in its place when
shut by means of metal checks. In front the dark
slide has a shutter which can be pulled up so as to
expose the front side of the plate ; this shutter
is provided with a catch at the bottom, and a hinge,
which prevents it being altogether pulled out of the
slide. Between the flap at the back, and the shutter,
in front, of the dark slide, is a movable "carrier,"
which is a piece of light wood the size of the slide, and
having an aperture in the centre the size of the plate
FIG. 1. — THE SLIDING BODY CAMERA,
FIG. 2. — SECTIONAL VIEW OF CAMERA AND LLNS
Of
are
are
it is desired to expose. The corners of the aperture
are made of silver wire, and upon these corners the
sensitive plate rests. It will be seen from this that
the carrier serves as a kind of frame for the sensitive
plate, which it supports only at the extreme corners,
so that the body of the plate is exposed when the
shutter in front of the slide is pulled up. With the
dark slides of larger cameras, several carriers, the
apertures of -which are of different sizes, are supplied,
so that with a large camera,
pictures of different sizes
may be taken. For instance,
a "whole plate" camera will
take pictures which measure
8i inches by 6£ inches, or
smaller ones, the size of the
picture depending upon the
carrier employed.
As before remarked, the
ground-glass screen of the
camera can be removed,
and the dark slide with the
sensitive plate is then sub-
stituted for it, so that the rays
of light which enter the camera through the lens are
focussed upon the sensitive plate in just the same way
as upon the glass screen ; if this were not done, the
picture would be blurred and indistinct.
A most important part of the camera is the lens, as
upon its quality the character of the pictures to be
produced very largely depends. One of the most
necessary characteristics of a good lens is "achro-
matism." No single lens is capable of bringing all
the rays of light which pass through it to the same
focus, and there conse-
quently surrounds the
image formed a coloured
ring. The best lenses,
for all optical purposes,
are really combinations of
two or more lenses, as it
is found that by employ-
ing two lenses of suitable
curvature and of different
kinds of glass, the defect
chromatism" may be remedied. Such lenses
termed "achromatic," and no other lenses
at all suitable for photographic purposes.
Another defect in a single lens, which arises from a
similar cause, is "spherical aberration." By this term
is signified the inability of a lens to bring all the rays
of light to a focus at the same time. Consequently,
when the centre of the field is perfectly sharp, the
circumference will be blurred and indistinct, and vice
versa. This defect may be partially remedied by
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
3.1
using "stops" or diaphragms which cut off all the
rays which fall upon a lens except those passing
through or near the centre ; but it can only be
effectually counteracted by employing a combination
of two lenses in place of a single one.
As both spherical aberration and chromatism are
fatal to success in photography, it is of the first im-
portance that the photographer should possess a lens
free from these defects. In purchasing from first-rate
opticians, all that is necessary is to select the kind of
lens required from his catalogue, and it is sure to be
as there described; but in purchasing cheap lenses,
and especially second-hand ones, it is wise to obtain
them first " on approval," and not to purchase until
you are quite sure that
the lens is free from de-
fects. The ordinary com-
bination-lens, which is em-
ployed by photographers,
consists of two lenses
fixed in brass rubes, which
slide one in the other, and
are actuated by a rack
and pinion movement, as
described above. In the
front of the camera is a.
brass flange, surrounding
the circular aperture,
through which the light
enters, and into this flange
the lens is screwed.
In most lens-tubes a slit
is cut in the tube, between
,the two lenses, and into
this slit a diaphragm or
stop is placed. These
diaphragms consist of
metal plates, each with
l circular hole in the centre, the metal being blackened
tn both sides to prevent reflection. They are usually
supplied in sets, the apertures varying in size.
Their object is to concentrate the light by using
enly the central portions of the lens. In this way
they bring objects into focus which would otherwise
be blurred and indistinct. In using them, it is neces-
sary to remember that the smaller the aperture of the
stop, the sharper will be the picture, but the greater
will be the length of exposure necessary to produce it.
For various purposes various lenses are employed,
and the particular kind of lens required in any instance
depends entirely upon the purpose to which it is to be
applied — a lens suitable for taking portraits being of a
different character from that required for taking views
01 for copying.
A very useful lens for general purposes is sold at
FIG. 3.— STUDIO STAND.
FIG. 4. — PORTABLE
STAND.
most photographic repositories, and is known as the
" 1 B Quick-acting Portrait Lens ;" the best makers are
Dallmeyer and Ross. The cost of such a lens, with a set
of Waterhouse diaphragms, would be about six guineas.
Cheaper lenses, suitable for quarter-plate cameras,
may be obtained of respectable
makers for from two to three
guineas. The readers of this maga-
zine may also like to know approxi-
mately the cost of a good camera,
the camera being usually sold sepa-
rate from the lens. The price of a
camera depends upon its size and
upon its portability. For amateur
purposes, a quarter-plate size will
be found sufficiently large, and a
good one may be obtained for
about eighteen shillings or a guinea.
A very portable pocket camera,
fitted with the most modern improvements, may be
obtained for about three pounds.*
For those who require to take pictures of various
sizes, the most useful camera is a whole-plate one,
which would cost about six pounds. Of course,
cameras and lenses may be occasionally met with
second-hand for much less, but it is necessary to
exercise great caution in making a purchase.
Now that I have described the camera and its
appendages, the reader may turn to Fig. 2, which is a
sectional view of a camera and lens, and will serve to
make clear the foregoing descriptions. A is the brass
tube containing the lenses (l and l), the latter being
movable by means of the rack and pinion (d). c is
the front portion of the camera, which is fixed, and in
which the hinder portion (b) slides. The ground-glass
screen (e) fits into grooves in the sides of the camera,
and can be removed and replaced by the
dark slide. The front of the tube containing
the lenses is provided with a cap, which is
removed while the plate is being exposed,
and is replaced at the end of the period of
exposure. The sliding part of the camera
having been adjusted, it is fixed in position
by the nut and screw (n).
In order to see clearly the image on the
ground-glass screen, it is necessary to have
a " focussing cloth " with which to cover the
head and shut out all light while focussing. This will
readily be supplied in most households, as its only
requisite is sufficient thickness to exclude light. If,
however, something of a more professional appearance
be desired, black velvet is the most suitable ma-
* Messrs. Newton and Co., of Fleet Street, London, supply
an extremely good portable bellows body camera with leu3 and
stand complete f~ Sour guineas.
Fia. 5. —
PORTABLE
STAND,
FOLDED UP
IS 2
34
FILTERING CISTERNS FOR RAINWATER.
terial ; this may be obtained at most dealers in photo-
graphic apparatus for about two shillings per yard.
About two yards of black " Silesia " lining, which
costs about sixpence per yard, is a cheap substitute
for velvet, and answers equally well.
Next to the lens and camera, the most necessary
piece of apparatus is a stand, which is usually made in
the form of a tripod, the most suitable wood being ash.
Its essential quality is stability, and this must not be
sacrificed for any other good quality, as the least vibra-
tion of the stand will result in defective photographs.
The kind of stand required depends almost entirely
upon the kind of work which it is intended to perform.
For home or studio use the more solid and heavy the
stand is the better, but for outdoor photography porta-
bility is, of course, a desideratum. A fairly light
portable stand and top may generally be obtained for
about fifteen shillings, but care must be exercised in
seeing that stability has not been sacrificed to porta-
bility. There are at present in the market several stands
which are pre-eminently portable, but they are seldom
sufficiently rigid, and a thoroughly portable, and at the
same time perfectly stable, stand has yet to be made.
In Fig. 3 is given an illustration of a good studio stand,
the top of which can be raised or lowered at pleasure
by means of the handle. Being upon castors this
stand can be readily moved from one part of the studio
to another ; the top may also be rotated when
necessary.
Fig. 4 shows one of the best forms of the portable
stand ; the top fixes on the frame by means of a screw
and nut, the screw passing through the hole in the
centre of the frame, which is of iron. This stand is
very rigid, and is in this respect thoroughly reliable,
but its portability is not all that could be desired. It
is on the whole the best kind of portable stand that has
yet been made, and for short journeys nothing better
need be wished for or sought for, as its weight is by
no means wearisome to the person who carries it. In
Fig. 5 this stand is shown folded up and ready for
transportation from place to place.
FILTERING CISTERNS FOR RAIN-WATER.
WRITER in the Rural New Yorker
has recently called attention to the
storage of rain-water for drinking, cook-
ing, and all domestic purposes, and has
given the following description of the
method he has adopted for providing himself and his
household with a constant supply of sweet and whole-
some water, from a source which, in ninety-nine cases
out of a hundred, and perhaps to even a greater extent,
is disregarded in this country. The importance of
storing, purifying, and utilising rain-water has been
frequently urged by writers on sanitary questions, and
cannot be too strongly or too frequently insisted on.
The method about to be described is at once practi-
cable, simple, and easy, and one which any amateur,
with the assistance of a labourer, may easily carry out
for himself. Mr. Dodge, the writer of the article,
says : —
" Our bread and meat are no more important for
our well-being than the liquids we drink. The outlay
for food is so constant, that purchasing all the variety
of which our solid nutriment is composed has with us
become a second nature, but when we see water upon
every side, and are often injured by the too plentiful
torrents from above, we find it difficult to realise that
there may at some time be a scarcity, and are not
willing to bestow much labour in laying by a store of
this luxury and necessity of every day and almost
every hour. Experience, however, has taught us that,
although the heavenly supply is generally bounteous,
its fall is so irregular that, in general, provision in time
of plenty must be made for coming times of scarcity,
and wells and cisterns were hence needed and con-
structed by the most ancient of our race.
" For many years my daily drink at Montclair, New
Jersey, was rain-water, falling upon an ordinary tin
roof, covered with some sort of metallic paint, said to
contain no lead, and flowing into a large cemented
brick cistern, whence it was pumped into the kitchen.
This cistern differed from the usual construction in
this manner : across the bottom, about three feet nearer
one side than the other, was excavated a trough or
ditch about two feet wide and two feet deep ; along
the centre of this depression was built a brick wall
from the bottom up to the top of the cistern, and
having a few openings left through it at the very
bottom. The whole cistern, bottom, sides, and canal
included, was then cemented as usual, excepting the
division wall. Upon each side of the wall, at its base,
from six inches to a foot of charcoal were laid, and
covered with well-washed stones to a further height of
six inches, merely to keep the charcoal from floating.
The rain-water passing from the roof into the larger
division of the cistern, passes through the stone cover-
ing, the charcoal, the wall, the charcoal upon the other
side, lastly, the stones, and is now ready for the pump
placed in this smaller part. It is much better that the
water at first pass into the larger division, as the filtra-
tion will be slower, and the cistern not so likely to
overflow under a very heavy rainfall. I used this cis-
tern for many years, and was troubled only once, when
some toads made their entrance at the top, which was
just at the surface of the ground, soon making their
FILTERING CISTERNS FOR RAIN-WATER.
35
presence known by a decided change in the flavour of
the water.
" If your house chances to be in a dusty situation,
several plans will suggest themselves whereby a few
gallons at the first of each rain may be prevented from
entering the cistern, but I employed no such means,
and never felt the need of any. Should the house be
small, and therefore the supply of water from its roof
be limited, do not lessen the size of the cistern, bet
rather increase it, for with one of less capacity some
of the supply must occasionally be al'.owed to go to
waste during a wet time, and you will suffer in a
drought, w-hereas a cistern that never overflows is the
more to be relied upon in a long season without rain.
" Rainfall varies exceedingly in different places, and
even in the same situation it is impossible to foretell
DIAGRAM SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF CISTERN.
the amount to be expected during any short period of
time, but the most careful observations show us that
about four feet in depth descends at New York and
vicinity every year, or nearly one inch a week. If this
amount were to be furnished uniformly every week,
the size of a cistern need only be sufficient to contain
one week's supply, but we often have periods of four
weeks without receiving the average of one, and we
must build accordingly.
" The weekly average of one inch equals one cubic
foot upon every 12 feet of surface, or 3,630 cubic feet
upon an acre, weighing about 113 tons. Upon a roof
40 feet by 40 feet, 1,600 square feet, it would be 133
cubic fret, 1,037 gallons, or about 26 barrels of 40
gallon . each. A cistern eight feet across and ten feet
deep rould contain 502 cubic feet ; and one of 10 feet
p.cross and 10 feet deep, 785 cubic feet, or 6,120 gal-
lons— about the average fall upon a roof of the above
size for six weeks ; while the smaller cistern would
hold 3,900 gallons, or a little less than four weeks'
rainfall. The weekly supply of 1,037 gallons is equal
to 148 gallons per day, or neasly 15 gallons to each
individual of a family of ten. This is certainly enough,
and more than enough, if used as it should be ; but
where water is plentiful it is wasted, and in our capri-
cious climate, whether we depend upon wells or
cisterns, it is wise to waste no water at all, at least
during the warm summer months, and lay by not for
a wet but a dry day."
It may be useful to the amateur if Mr. Dodge's
remarks be supplemented by a diagram exhibiting the
construction of the cistern, and some further remark?
in explanation of the diagram itself, and the method t's
be adopted in building the cistern. The diagram, it
should be said, does not show the containing or outer
walls of the cistern : these are left to the imagination
of the amateur, and only the coating of cement with
which the walls are lined is shown in the illustration.
In this, w, x, Y, z shows the excavation that must be
made for the cistern, and supposing the diagram to
exhibit, as it does, a section of the cistern, the recep-
tacle for the water will be, when finished, taking the
relative proportions of the different parts into conside-
ration, just about 9 feet wide and 45 feet deep. Of
course, the dimensions and capacity of the cistern
must be left to the amateur himself, who may have
decided on constructing one ; all that it is sought to do
here is to bring before him the method of making the
cistern in a manner that shall admit of no mistake.
Of course, the excavation must be made greater in
breadth and depth than the dimensions given to allow
for the surrounding walls and the bottom. The walls
may be of brick, cemented within, and backed with
concrete or puddled clay without, or of monolithic
concrete, as the amateur may choose, but the bottom,
in any case, should be made of concrete. The trench
running across the bottom of the cistern is two feet
broad and two feet deep ; this trench is represented in
the illustration by E, F, H, G. In the middle of this
opening is built up a nine-inch brick wall, or a party-
wall of concrete, shown by c, D, Along the bottom of
the wall openings are left at intervals ; one of these
openings is shown in section at D. The party-wall
divides the entire space into the larger outer cistern A,
and the smaller inner cistern B. Supposing the breadth
from E to F to be two feet, and the wall nine inches,
spaces of 7-k inches will be left on each side of the
wall. These are filled to three-fourths the height, or
for 18 inches, with lumps of charcoal, smooth pebbles
from one to three inches in diameter being laid along
the top of the charcoal till the trench is filled up. The
cistern is so constructed that the water from the roof
enters A ; it passes downwards through the stones and
charcoal, as shown by the arrow at F, passes through
the opening, and forces its way upwards in the direc-
tion of the arrow at E into the cistern B, in which it
rises to the level of the water in A, to be drawn thence
for use by a small pump.
36
A SIMPLE FRET-SAWING MACHINE.
A SIMPLE FRET-SAWING MACHINE.
CORRESPONDENT of an American
contemporary gives in its columns the
accompanying design for a home-made
scroll saw, which has been reproduced
here as a suggestion to amateur artisans
who may be desirous of constructing an appliance of
this kind. It is stated by the inventor, that he has had
it in use for five years, and that it has given him great
satisfaction ; the test of time and trial is therefore
entirely in its favour.
With reference to its capability and the great range
of its power, the inventor states that it will cut stuffs
from one-eighth of an inch in thickness, to 5 and
even 6 inches. A scroll saw that will do this will do
everything that is required or desired of a saw of this
description, for it may be used for cutting out the most
delicate fret-work, or made available for fashioning a
bracket or cantilever, which is of considerable thick-
ness, and which is to be finished by the carver's tools.
As far as regulation of power is concerned, it re-
sembles the Nasmyth hammer, which can be made to
deliver a blow with such gentleness as to crack a nut
without crushing it, or be brought down with force
sufficient to forge the largest engine shafts, and to
crush a piece of three-inch timber, and send it flying
into splinters.
Its power and capability depend altogether upon
its being properly constructed and put together ; and
on this account, although the method of making the
machine is clearly shown in the illustration, a careful
description of its various parts and their connection,
and the working and action of the contrivance is de-
sirable. The representation of the machine is given
in perspective, but any amateur will be, or ought to be,
able to make working drawings for himself, if he
require them, exhibiting it in plan, section, and eleva-
tions.
First of all a stout frame-work must be made. In
the machine made by the inventor for his own use,
the uprights were formed of two pieces of spruce, mea-
suring 4 inches by 4 inches, and apparently from 6 to
7 feet long. This, however, is not given in the too
brief description that accompanies the saw. The
omission is due to the fact the writers on technical
subjects too often take for granted on the part of their
readers, the possession of special knowledge with re-
gard to these matters, and so too often fall into the
error of leaving out particulars which, as a matter of
course, a*e well known to themselves, and which, con-
sequently, they imagine to be self-evident to every-
body else. Those who contribute to the pages of this
magazine, and who may be inclined to describe their
experience in carrying out any kind of amateur work,
for the benefit and guidance of their brother handicrafts-
men, must be clear and careful both in illustration and
description, even to what may appear an undue excess
of minuteness, and the present opportunity to give this
caution and lay down this rule at starting, is too good
to be lost. No apology is necessary for this slight
digression, which, being driven home, may be appro-
priately clenched by the old saying, Verbum sat
sapienti.
To return, however, to the construction of the
frame. The two stout uprights are mortised at the
lower end into stout pieces of plank, screwed down to
the floor of the workshop — for the machine must of
necessity be a fixture, if the treadle be hinged to the
floor, as shown in the illustration. If the machine is
to be movable from place to place, transverse pieces
should be placed between the timbers which receive
the uprights, so as to form a broad framing, and to the
piece that forms the front of the frame the treadle may
be hinged. The top of each upright is tenoned, and
passed through a mortise in the end of a transverse
beam 6 feet long, 4 inches broad, and about 3 inches
thick, the beam being kept in place by pegs, through
holes cut to receive them in the tenons at the top of
the uprights. The space between the uprights is
stated to be 5 feet 6 inches in the clear, and this
affords a valuable guide to the construction of the
outer frame.
The inner frame is made of pine, 3 inches wide
and 2 inches thick, but to impart additional strength
to it, the transverse pieces are composed of two pieces
of inch pine with the grain reversed, glued together,
and secured by screws. Into these pieces the up-
rights or sides are framed and pegged in the usual
way. A piece of iron plate similar to that which is
used for the track on which sliding-doors are moved
backwards and forwards, is fastened to the inner
surface of the uprights of the outer frame, and other
pieces of iron fitted to work against this track are
fastened one to either upright of the inner frame on
the outer surface. For the easy working of the
machine, it is obvious that the friction between the
outer and inner frames should be reduced to a
minimum.
The spring at the top of the frame is made of
three pieces of ash, three-eighths of an inch in thick-
ness, planed gradually down from the centre of either
extremity until the material is reduced to the thick-
ness of one-eighth of an inch at each end. A bolt is
passed through the centre of the ashen spring and the
transverse beam that forms the top of the outer frame,
the spring and the beam being drawn together as
tightly as possible by a nut at the upper end of the
bolt. It will be noticed, in making the spring, that
A SIMPLE FRET-SAWING MACHINE.
37
each piece of ash is shorter by about 4 or 5 inches
than the piece immediately above it. In general
principle of construction it is similar to the iron
springs of this form used for carts and carriages. A
hole is made at either end of the spring to admit of its
connection with the inner frame by means of a short
piece of small rope or chain. If rope is used, a knot
must be made to prevent its slipping through the
spring ; but, if chain is used, it may be secured by
passing a nail or piece of wire through the last link or
last link but one. The lower end of the rope must be
formed into a loop, and this loop — or, if a chain be
used, the last link of the chain — must be passed over a
hook inserted in the end
of the upper part of the
inner frame, as shown in
the illustration.
The treadle, as it has
been said, must be hinged
at one end to the floor, as
shown in the illustration,
or, if a frame be made to
form the base of the
machine, to that part of
it which forms the front
The other end rests on a
strap or piece of twisted
gut, attached to the bot-
tom part of the inner
frame by two metal eyes.
It is as well that grooves
should be cut in either
side of the free end of
the treadle into which the
gut may fall, and thus be
held in place. The action
of the machine is so
simple that it scarcely
needs explanation. When
the treadle is pressed
downwards by the foot, the inner frame is brought
down, to be pulled up again by the recoil of the
spring as soon as the pressure of the foot is with-
drawn. Two battens are screwed to the front and
back respectively of the outer frame, to afford a sup-
port for the table, through a hole in the centre of
which the saw passes, and which forms a support for
the work to be sawn. This table is 2 feet long and
18 inches in width. It has been said that the space
between the uprights of the outer frame is 5 feet 6
inches in the clear. The inventor of the frame, in his
too brief description of it, says, " Deducting the space
occupied by the inside frame and the slides, it leaves
4 feet 1 1 ; inches net (between the inner surfaces of Ihe
sides of the inner frame), which gives 2 feef 5! inches
A SIMPLE FRET-SAWING MACHINE.
swing for the work which may be done in this tool."
This, therefore, allows 3! inches for the width of the
uprights of the inner frame and the iron slides ; from
which it is to be inferred that the width as well as the
thickness of the uprights of the inner frame must be
3 inches, and the thickness of the irons that form the
tracks and slides, about 3-i6ths of an inch, and that they
are simply screwed to the sides of the frames, and not let
into them. Whatever may be the contrivance that is
used for effecting the easy working of the inner frame
against the sides of the outer frame, it is clear that the
friction must be diminished as much as possible, and
that the inner frame should work as easily as may be,
and with perfect freedom
from oscillation. The saw
is attached to two clamps,
provided for its reception.
These clamps pass, one
through the upper part
and one through the lower
part of the inner frame,
bringing the saw truly
perpendicular in its very
centre : they are secured
by nuts above and below,
by which the saw may
be brought to its proper
tension.
The chief objection to
this home-made fret-saw-
ing machine is, that it is
cumbersome, and takes
up a great deal of room ;
its chief merits are its
simplicity of construction
f and its cheapness. It has
been described here, not
so much in the belief
that amateur artisans will
construct one of the di-
mensions given for their own use, but that they will
note the principles on which it is made, and adapt
them to their own requirements.
It will not be a matter of great difficulty to any
ingenious amateur to do much useful work with a saw
of this kind, that he might not be able to accomplish
so easily in the ordinary way. For example, he would
be able to cut out circular work far more easily with a
machine, as described above, than with the common
compass saw; for instead of sawing with one hand and
steadying and holding the wood with the other, he can
use both hands for guiding the wood to the saw, the
foot being used as the motive power. He would also
find it useful in cutting out brackets, cantilevers, etc.,
of more tho" ordinary -Iiickness.
38
INSECT TAXIDERMY.
INSECT TAXIDERMY.
ANY amateurs who have been accustomed
to collect and preserve butterflies and
moths will, without doubt, have often
wished that they could hit on some method
of preparing specimens of the caterpillar
and chrysalis of each perfected insect, in order to show
the various stages through which it has passed before
arriving at the winged form in which the beautiful
object which was once merely able to crawl from leaf
to leaf, is at last able to flit through the air from flower
to flower with a speed which, when viewed in com-
parison to its former lagging pace, is as that of the hare
when considered with the pace of the tortoise, or the
mile a minute of the rapid locomotive viewed with the
four miles an hour of the tardy carrier's van.
Readers of Amateur Work, Illustrated, who
have a taste for natural history, and especially in the
direction indicated, will not fail to be interested in
the following remarks on the subject from, the pen of
Mr. J. B. Holder, in the "Art Amateur."
" The practice of taxidermy, as applied to the pre-
paration and preservation of insects, is almost unknown
in this country (America). Those who have conve-
nient access to the cabinets of the American Museum
of Natural History in Central Park, may see there
some beautiful work of this kind. An old school-
teacher of Stuttgart, in Germany, prepared a large
series of insects for Professor Agassiz, after whose
death the specimens were transferred to the American
Museum. They consist of insects of various orders,
each species being illustrated by a prepared specimen
of the various phases in which it appears, from the egg
to the perfect form. The plant on which the insect
feeds is arranged with the specimens, together with
the nest that each makes. The worms are emptied of
their contents and preserved with much care, showing
the various stages ; many of them are of brilliant
colours, and retain a very natural appearance. The
cocoons and the silken or other products are also
shown. In some instances spiders' nests prove to be
made up of a tough and beautiful silk.
" This new art, though in its infancy, is yet within
the reach of many a young amateur, and it is beyond
question that a tolerable exercise of ingenuity will pro-
duce such results as to claim unwonted interest, even
from those scoffers who cry ' beetles ! ' and ' rocks ! '
much to the discomfiture of young naturalists. The
principal manipulation is with the worms or larva;.
You wish to preserve, for example, one of the great
green worms that you find eating your grape-vine.
Make an incision across the posterior portion, just
sufficient to include the end of the alimentary canal ;
press the contents of the worm out through this open-
ing, gently, and with especial care in the case of the
tussock-moth worms and others that have hairy or
other appendages. Though seemingly a hazardous
thing to do (as respects the integrity of the specimen),
yet the most delicate hairy caterpillars may be very
successfully emptied of their contents. Indeed, they
are by this process so cleaned internally that, practi-
cally, they are skinned, and you have the skin now to
deal with.
" Select a good straw, of size proportioned to the
specimen ; this is to be used as a blow-pipe, and should,
therefore, be a whole one, and several inches in length.
Introduce the straw carefully within the cut end of the
worm, and tie the end around the straw with fine silk.
If the operation of squeezing has been successful, it re-
mains to inflate the body for preservation. Prepare a
dish of live embers, and over these hold the specimen,
using great care in the degree of heat applied. While
holding the worm in this way, keep it inflated. The
form which the insect is to assume for the cabinet
should be considered while this drying process is going
on. Some light wooden frame, such as will be readily
suggested to the operator, will often be of service to
hold the specimen in the proper position. Some worms
may require to be curved, or put into a shape charac-
teristic of them while living — ' surveyors,' or ' inch-
worms,' for example. Attention to these points will
contribute greatly to the value and pleasing appear-
ance of the specimen. The straw, after the drying, is
cut off near the body, as it is convenient to allow a
small portion to project outside, so that the specimen
may be pinned to the cabinet through it, thus avoiding
the injury that results from passing the pin through
the body.
" The specimen is now complete unless we choose
to adopt some method of poisoning it. Corrosive subli-
mate, which is sometimes used, is likely to injure the
colours. A strong arsenical solution may be applied
with a brush, safely, as regards the colours. Cater-
pillars prepared in this manner preserve their colour
and form nearly perfect, the hairs and other appen-
dages retaining a remarkably natural appearance,
which, of course, enhances greatly the beauty and use-
fulness of an entomological cabinet.
" An extended field is open to any who may practise
this branch of taxidermy. Among the various objects
that may be gathered by an insect collector some are of
peculiar interest. The pine-borer (Rhagium lineatum)
is found under the bark of white pine-trees, and speci-
mens of its nests brought in from Central Park, and
now exhibited in the cabinets of the American Museum
of Natural History, show the most delicate structure.
On the smooth, flat inner surface of the bark is a shallow
channel, two or three inches long, cut as exactly as if
SOME ENIGMAS IN WOOD.
39
with a chisel or carpenter's gouge. This leads to a
circular excavation of the same shallowness, coiled
around which is a collection of fibres of bark as care-
fully and exactly laid as the straws and horse-hairs in
some exquisite bird's nest. In this hollow the larva
lies after its labours, and undergoes the change from a
wingless grub to a winged beetie, all ready to flit
around the pines and deposit its eggs.
"The carpenter-bee (Xylocopci) is a remarkable
insect builder, whose work is very beautiful, yet emi-
nently practical. In the museum at Central Park is a
piece of white pine wood, about eight inches in length,
bored crossway sufficiently to admit the bee, which is
about the size of the ordinary humble-bee. A channel
follows at right angles to this entrance passage, and on
a line with the fibres of the wood. The channel is so
handsomely cut that it has the appearance of having
been made with a carpenter's auger, but it is genuine
insect work, recalling to mind Mercutio's
'Joiner squirrel, or old grub,
Time out of mind the fairy's coach-maker.'
"The channel is about twelve inches in length.
Imagine all this bitten out by the not particularly hard
jaws of the carpenter-bee ! Like the joiner, the bee
leaves a pile of chips or sawdust This dust is utilised,
being moistened with a gluey substance secreted by the
bee ; and when one egg, with its complement of pollen
or honey for the forthcoming young grub, is deposited,
a thin but substantial partition is constructed of this
gluey mixture, completely shutting in the cavity from
the air. The tunnel is divided in this manner into ten
or twelve apartments, in each of which a single egg is
deposited. The length of lime required to finish this
work may be imagined. One naturally wonders how
it will be with the first grub, seeing that it must
necessarily come to active life somewhat sooner than
the remainder. How does it escape ? The mother-
bee unerringly provides the means by boring a side
passage through which No. I, when it has burst from
the egg and eaten its supply of honey, emerges from
the cell, its newly-grown mandibles serving to gnaw
through the barrier of dust and glue which the mother
has erected. Nos. 2 to 12 inclusive come forth, each
in turn, through the same passage — the last traversing
the whole gallery- ere it reaches the outlet or back-
door."
By his description of the method of preserving
the curious and beautiful caterpillars that are, as it
were, the precursors of the many-tinted moth and
butterfly, and calling attention to the work of the pine-
borer and carpenter-bee, Mr. Holder will doubtless
have excited a desire to look more closely into the
work of nature in many an amateur, which will bear
good fruit when the season of the year for butterfly
collecting comes round once more.
SOME ENIGMAS IN WOOD.
O those who have sufficient time on their
hands to turn their attention to the manu-
facture of articles whose merit lies h
singularity of construction rather than i 1
utility, the following curiosities in car-
pentry and joinery cannot fail to prove interesting.
If any amateur artisan can make them, he will show
himself to be possessed of no little ingenuity and
mechanical skill ; but if he can execute the work in a
workmanlike manner, and with perfect accuracy in the
fitting together of various parts, he will have made
good his claim to be considered a workman of no
ordinary merit and capacity.
Let him take, first of all, a piece of boxwood or
pearwood about the thickness of an ordinary carpen-
ter's flat two-feet rule, or thereabouts, and cut in it
three holes — a circle, a square, and a rectangular
figure like the letter T, as shown in Fig. 1. Before
making the holes, he should outline them with per-
fect • accuracy on the surface of the wood, observing
that the three apertures lie exactly between two parallel
lines," one of which touches each perforation in and
along its upper part or edge, the other touching each
in and along its bottom part or edge. It will be noted
that the diameter of the circle, the sides of the square,
and the measurements of the T-shaped hole, taken
vertically and horizontally, are exactly equal. Of what-
ever size he may make his perforations, this similarity
— indeed, identity — in certain measurements, must
govern and regulate them all. So much for the piece
of wood. What is now required — and herein lies the
difficulty, or apparent difficulty — is to cut out a piece
of wood of such a size and shape that it will fit each
of the three orifices in turn with perfect exactness.
Abraham Lincoln, the senior of the two Presidents
of the United States who have unhappily fallen be-
neath the death-dealing bullet of the assassin, leaving
the whole world to mourn their loss, was note-
worthy for his persistence in " pegging away," or, in
other words, for his marvellous perseverance ; but, in
his pegging away, he was often accustomed to declare
that every hole must have a peg to fit it, and that it
was no more use to put a square man into a round
hole, and vice versa, than it was to fill a square hole
with a round cork or bung, or a round hole with a
four-sided and rectangular wooden brick. He would
have shaken his head, and shown his incredulity by a
kindly but pitying smile, had he been told that it was
possible to fill up with the utmost exactness each of
the different holes shown in Fig. 1 with one and the
same piece of wood.
If any reader of Amateur Work, Illustrated,
40
SOME ENIGMAS IN WOOD.
is equally incredulous, let him look at Fig. 2, in which
he will find the form of the piece of wood that will
satisfactorily solve the difficulty. This piece of wood
is of the same dimensions every way ; that is to say,
its height, its breadth, and its width in the widest part
are exactly equal, and, moreover, equal to the dia-
meter of the circle, the side of the
square, and the height and breadth
of the T-shaped hole. Viewed in
plan from the top, it represents a
perfect circle ; regarded in elevation,
with the fiat side of the under part
of the piece of wood turned to the
spectator, it represents a perfect
square ; and
looked at in side
elevation, as we
may term it, in
all its parts, it
assumes the
shape of a T,
whose vertical
and transverse
portions are of
precisely the
same width. It
is manifest that
the piece of
wood, when
thrust into each
and all of the
perforations in
turn, in the pro-
per direction,
will exactly fill fig. 3.— dovetailed in
., , ., EACH OF THE FOUR
them, and thus SIDES, AN APPAKENT
satisfy all the impossibility. how
requirements of was it managed ?
the case.
The second of these enigmas
in wood is a rectangular block,
composed of two different pieces
of wood, which are so fitted to-
gether that each side of the upper
part appears to be dovetailed into
the corresponding side of the lower
part, as shown in Fig. 3. Now, here
is a puzzle indeed, and one that would perplex most of
our most clever carpenters and joiners — to say nothing
of amateurs — unless they happened to possess the
clue to its solution. Every one will allow that at first
sight it appears to be perfectly impossible to put two
pieces of wood together in such a manner, but a glance
at Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7 will unravel the seeming mys-
tery ; for it will be seen from Fig. 4, which represents
— three holes to be FILLED BV
THE SAME PIECE OF WOOD.
FIG. 2. — THE PIECE OF
WOOD THAT FILLS THEM.
1
A
\.
1
1
\
rs
-1 —
FIG. 6. — PLAN OF DOVETAIL
AND REDUCTION TO SHAPE
SHOWN IN FIG. 3.
FIG. 4. — THE LOWER PIECE
OF THE DOVETAIL SHOWN
IN FIG. 3.
the lower portion of Fig. 3 after the upper part has
been removed, that one piece of wood literally slides
on the other, and the dovetails, of which there appear
to be four in Fig. 3, are substantially no more than
two in number, each end of each dovetail having the
appearance in Fig. 3 of being separate and independent
dovetails. To make this puzzle,
prepare two pieces as shown in
elevation at A and B in Fig. 5.
Two dovetailed tenons are cut, as
in A, in one piece ; and two mortises
to receive these tenons are cut in
the other piece. When this is done,
the two parts are securely locked
together, and
the appearance
of a dovetail in
each side of the
r e c tangular
piece of wood is
obtained by
planing away
each edge of the
block, as shown
in Fig. 6, until
the block has
been reduced to
the dimensions
of the inner
square. Fig. 6,
in its entirety,
shows the plan
of the dovetail-
ing as exhibited
in Fig. 5, the
dotted lines
showing the
greatest, and the
solid lines the
least, breadth of each dovetail.
No apology is made for the
introduction of the foregoing curi-
osities of carpentry and joinery,
for it is manifest, that in the pages
of a magazine some attempt must
be made to suit the taste of all.
Moreover, the second may be
in the composition of rectangular
formed of pieces of different kinds
of timber, to be turned into columns in the lathe.
Possibly some of our readers may be possessed of
curious joinery of a similar kind that is apparently
even more complicated in construction. If so, our
pages are open to their illustration, both by description
and diagram.
fig. 5. — method of
■Preparing the curi-
ous DOVETAIL SHOWN
IN FIG. 3.
made available
blocks of wood,
WA YS AND MEANS.
41
WAYS AND MEANS.
[The Receipts brought together under this title are gathered
from various sources. They are given here because they are each
and aU apparentlv possessed of value, and likely to be useful to the
Amateur It is manifestly impossible for the Editor to test them,
or to have them tested, and he therefore disclaims all responsibility
for their accuracy or otherwise. Amateurs who may try them are
requested to communicate the results arrived at.]
Sharpening Tools. — Instead of oil, which
thickens and makes the stones dirty, a mixture of glyce-
rine and alcohol is used by many. The proportions of
the mixture vary according to the instrument operated
upon. An article with a large surface, a razor for
instance, sharpens best with a limpid liquid, as three
parts of glycerine to one of alcohol. For a graving
tool, the cutting surface of which is very small, as is
also the pressure exercised on the stone in sharpening,
it is necessary to employ glycerine almost pure, with
but two or three drops of alcohol.
Varnish for Metal Surfaces. — To make alco-
holic lacquers or varnishes adhere more completely to
polished metal surfaces, one part boracic acid should
be added to 200 parts of varnish. This composition
will adhere so firmly and become so completely glazed,
as to be removed only with difficulty. Be careful not
to add too much of the boracic acid, as it injures the
gloss in that case.— The Metal Worker.
How to Clean Brass. — Make a mixture of two
parts of common nitric acid and one part of sulphuric
acid in a stone jar ; then place ready a pail of fresh
water and a box of sawdust. Dip the articles to be
cleaned in the acid, then remove them into the water,
after which rub them with sawdust. This immediately
changes them to a brilliant colour. If the brass be
greasy it must first be dipped in a strong solution of
potash and soda in warm water. This cuts the grease
so that the acid has power to act. — The Metal
Worker.
Imitation Ground Glass.— A very useful kind
of vamish is made known by Leon Vidal, which is
excellent for producing imitation of ground glass, and
will doubtless be found available for other purposes.
The formula is :— Sandarac, 18 parts ; mastic, 4 parts ;
ether, 200 parts ; benzol, 80 to 100 parts. — Illustrated
Scientific News.
Nickel Plating.— A simple process of nickel
plating by boiling has been described by Dr. Kaiser.
A bath of pure granulated tin tartar and water is pre-
pared, and after being heated to the boiling point, has
added to it a small quantity of pure red-hot nickel
oxide. A portion of the nickel will soon dissolve and
give a green colour to the liquid over the grains of tin.
Articles of copper or brass plunged into this bath
acquire in a few minutes a bright metallic coating of
almost pure nickel. If a little carbonate or tartrate of
cobalt is added to the bath a bluish shade, either light
or dark, may be given to the coating, which becomes
very brilliant when it is properly polished with chalk
or dry sawdust. — Scientific American.
Electricity in Bee-Keeping. — Perhaps one of
the most singular applications of electricity to the
useful arts is its employment in the hiving of bees
when they swarm. The old-fashioned way of accom-
plishing this interesting feat of domestic economy
was, if not absolutely dangerous, at least quite annoy-
ing and provoking. German scientists of a practical
disposition conceived the notion of utilising the
electric force to stupefy, without injuring, the bees for
a short period. The plan was found to work like a
charm. It was first tried upon bees that had gathered
upon trees. Whether the clusters were large or small,
the result was perfect. The bees fell upon the ground
in a trance, that admitted of safe handling. The next
stage in the experiment was to capture the bees when
they were about to swarm. By introducing the ends
of two conducting wires into a fully occupied honey-
comb, and turning on the current for an instant, the
insects were rendered inactive for about thirty minutes.
Persons interested in the matter should test the Ger-
man idea of hiving bees by electricity. The chance is
not remote that bee proprietors will apply too strong a
shock and lose their bees, but they will gain in science,
which ameliorates all small disasters in this progres-
sive age. — Iron Age.
A New Filling for Wood. — Amateurs desirous
of French polishing or varnishing articles in wood, will
find " Wheeler's American Wood Filler" an excellent
preparation for filling the pores of the wood, and thus
making a good foundation for the reception of the
polish or varnish, as the case may be. It is supplied
by Messrs. Fordbam and Sons, 43 and 45, Curtain
Road, London, E.C., who thus speak of its merits in
their circular : '' It seals the pores, and wholly pre-
vents the absorption of polish by the wood, and
entirely obviates what is called ' sweating,' namely,
the exuding of the oil of the wood driven to the sur-
face by the polish absorbed. It gives an imperishable
marble-like base for the polish, and retains it upon the
surface where it is required, and where it will remain
with double the brilliancy and durability. No pre-
vious preparation of the wood is required, except
simply sand-papering, and it saves largely in polish
or varnish, and proportionately in labour. It is cheap,
durable, easily applied, is unaffected by any climate,
or by heat, cold, wet, or dry, and never shrinks
or expands. It is transparent under polish or var-
nish, and adapted to any kind of wood or finish,
and is equally practicable for outside or inside pur-
poses, or for any purpose from a piano to a railway
can iage."
42
WAYS AND MEANS.
A Wonderful Decorative Process.—" Eido-
graphie" is the name given to a process invented by
Professor A. F. Eckhardt, a German chemist.
According to the inventor, " silken cushions, such as
ladies have been accustomed to spend weeks in
embroidering from designs in coloured silk, are
decorated elegantly by the pencil of the ' Eido-
graphist' in a few hours, and the work is done in
metal, which will not wear off as the silk of embroi-
dery does. Instead of the expensive stained-glass
windows used in churches, windows decorated by the
'Eidographie' process can be employed, producing
similar effects, and at a comparatively nominal cost.
Wooden ware can be embellished by the same process,
as can paper, metal, ivory, leather, wire-screens, and
any solid surface. The designs being in solid metal,
and the brilliant colouring a compound part of the
metal, the decorative work is permanently fixed, and
will last as long as the material upon which it is
placed." The worker in Eidographie is supplied with
a number of pencils containing the metal which
Professor Eckhardt has compounded, and the com-
position of which is his secret, in a fluid form. It is
said that every known colour can be produced. The
moment the fluid meets the air, upon issuing from
the pencil, it hardens and becomes a metal, adhering
so closely to the material upon which it is laid that
it cannot be removed without breaking. One of the
uses to which Eidographie is capable of being applied
is said to be the production of copper and steel
plates for engraving. The design is first made by the
new process, and, a negative is then taken. The
labour of engraving is thus saved. This is all very
wonderful. We hope it is true. — Art Amalcur.
Rice Paste or Cement. — The following prepa-
ration is said to afford a beautiful white and almost
transparent paste, which is well adapted for fancy paper
work, and all purposes for which a strong but colour-
less adhesive cement is required. Mix some ground-
rice or rice-flour with a little cold water, and
then add boiling water until a thick cream-like con-
sistency is acquired. The mixture must be well
stirred all the time, and, when the required consis-
tency is attained, it must be boiled for a minute in a
clean saucepan. When cold it may be used in the
same way as ordinary flour paste.
Cement for Marble. — Sift plaster of Paris
through muslin, and mix with shellac dissolved in
alcohol or naphtha. As soon as mixed apply quickly,
and squeeze out as much of the composition as
possible, wiping off that which squeezes out before it
sets. The cement will hold better if the parts to be
joined be roughened by a pointed tool before cement-
ing, which can be done without destroying the edge
of the fractured part. — Carpentry and Building.
Gutta Percha Cement for Leather, etc.—
The following preparation is suggested as a strong and
useful cement for leather. It is said to be used in
America by shoemakers for putting patches on boots
and shoes, which have the merit of being almost
invisible, and therefore desirable in places where
st i* liing would tend to disfigure the boot or shoe
under repair, and possibly be uncomfortable. The
mixture consists of i§ ounces of gutta percha — the
white gutta percha of commerce is most suitable —
and one pound of bisulphuret of carbon. The gutta
percha and the liquid must be put in a closely
stoppered bottle, and allow it to stand until the
former has dissolved. The white gutta percha is sold
at many shops in which articles of gutta percha and
indiarubber are exposed for sale ; it costs about six
shillings per pound. The mixture must on no account
be subjected to the action of heat, as bisulphuret of
carbon is inflammable and explosive.
Plastic Materials for Models, etc.— A new
and valuable plastic material adapted for ornamental
and other purposes, has been recently introduced in
Germany. The substance is one which may be pressed
into shape and used for the production of bas-reliefs
and other figures, and may be likewise worked by the
hand into models. It can be readily manipulated.
The only care necessary to be taken is to coat the
hands thoroughly with linseed oil, and to keep the
mass warm during the process. On becoming cooled
and dried, which takes place in a few hours, the
material is said to be as hard as stone. The compo-
sition is described as follows : Five parts of sifted
whiting are mixed with a solution of one part of glue.
When these two ingredients have been well worked
into a paste, a proportionate amount of Venice tur-
pentine is added, which serves to prevent brittleness.
A small amount of linseed oil is also put into the
mixture to prevent its clinging to the hands. The mass
may be coloured in any way that may be desired, the
proper tint being added in dry form, and worked into
the mass by kneading. — Ca?-pentry and Building.
Marking Tools.— Apply a thin coating of melted
wax to that part of the tool where it is desired to
engrave initial letters or make any other mark, or heat
the tool, and rub the wax over it until the wax begins
to melt and form a crust over the steel. Let the wax
cool, and when cold mark the initials, etc., required on
the wax with the point of a graver, cutting completely
through the wax. Run a little aquafortis or nitric acid
into the scratches, and after a few moments wash off
the acid thoroughly with water, and then remove the
wax, melting it, and wiping it off with a soft cloth.
The letters, etc., will be found to be bitten into the
steel by the action of the acid. This is the secret of
" Your name engraved while you wait."
WA YS AND MEANS.
Liquid for Etching on Glass. — This prepara-
tion may be made by mixing sulphate of barium and
fluoride of ammonium in the proportion of three parts
of the former to one part of the latter, with sufficient
sulphuric acid to decompose the ammonium, and
bring the mixture to the consistency of rich milk.
The mixture should be made in a receptacle of lead,
and kept in a bottle of the same material, or of gutta
percha.
Whitewash for Damp Walls. — For brickwork
exposed to damp, take half a peck of well-burned
quicklime, fresh from the kiln, slake with hot water
sufficient to reduce it to a paste, and pass it through a
fine sieve; add a gallon of clean white salt which has
been dissolved in a small quantity of boiling water,
and a thin, smooth paste, also hot, made from one
pound of fine rice-flour; also a quarter of a pound of
the best white glue, made in the water-bath. Mix
together, stir well, add a quarter of a pound of best
Spanish whiting in five quarts of boiling water ; stir,
cover over to retain heat and exclude dust, and let
it stand a week. Heat to boiling, stir, and apply hot.
The above proportions will cover forty square yards.
— Scientific American.
Black Fluid for Ebonizing.— Take one gallon
of strong vinegar, two pounds of extract of logwood,
half a pound of green copperas, a quarter of a pound
of China blue, and two ounces of nutgalls. Put these
in an iron pot, and boil them over a slow fire till they
are well dissolved. 'When cool, the mixture is ready
for use. Add to the above half a pint of iron rust,
obtained by steeping iron filings in strong vinegar.
The above makes a perfect jet black, equal to the best
black ebony; and the recipe is a valuable one. —
Builder and Woodworker.
To Clean Tarnished Silver. — Hyposulphite of
soda is recommended by Mr. B. F. Davenport for
cleansing tarnished silver ware. It is applied simply
with a cloth or brush, dipped into a saturated solution
of the salt, no powder of any kind being necessary.
In two or three rubs all tarnish is removed. — American
'Inventor.
To Keep Iron from Rusting. — To keep iron
goods of any kind, and especially those parts of
machines which are made of steel or iron, from rust-
ing, take half an ounce of powdered camphor and
melt it before the fire in one pound of good lard. To
give it a dark colour add as much fine black lead as is
necessary to produce the desired effect. Clean the
ironwork and smear it over with this preparation.
After this it should be allowed to remain untouched
for twenty-four hours, when the grease should be
removed by wiping the ironwork with a soft cloth.
Carbon Tracing Paper.— This may be prepared
by rubbing into a suitable paper a mixture of six parts
of lard, i part of beeswax, and sufficient fine lamp-
black to give it a good colour. The mixture should
be applied warm, and care should be taken not to put
on too much of it.
Imitation of Japanning. — The peculiar glossy
surface on the so-called japan trays can only be given
by practice, but a near imitation may be effected as
follows : — Mix ivory black with melted size, apply the
mixture quite hot to the box, or any other wooden
article that it may be desired to treat in this manner ;
when dry, sand-paper the box, then give another coat
of black ; when this second coat is dry, bring to
smoothness with sand-paper, at the same time taking
care not to remove the stain so that the light wood
below is exposed. Now procure one pound of black
japan and one gill of turpentine ; mix enough of the
black japan for present use with turpentine, of which
only sufficient should be used to make the japan fluid
enough to run from the brush. A fine-haired paint-
brush should be employed. If properly done one coat
will be sufficient. The box will look nearly equal to the
japan goods. Dry the varnished box in a warm room
free from dust.
Liquid Glue. — A glue always ready for use is
made by adding to any quantity of glue common
whiskey instead of water. Put both into a bottle,
cork it tight, and put it on one side for three or four
days, when it will be fit for use without the applica-
tion of heat. Glue thus prepared will keep for years,
and is at all times fit for use except in very cold
weather, when it should be set in warm water before
using. To obviate the difficulty of the stopper getting
tight by the glue drying in the mouth of the vessel,
use a tin vessel with the cover fitting tight on the out-
side, to prevent the escape of the spirit by evapora-
tion. A strong solution of isinglass made in the same
manner is an excellent cement for leather.
Preserving Natural Colours of Plants.—
A recent improved receipt for preserving plants with
their natural colours is to dissolve one pint of salicylic
acid in 600 parts of alcohol, heat the solution up to
boiling point in an evaporating vessel, and draw the
plants slowly through it. Shake them to get rid of
any superfluous moisture, and then dry between sheets
of blotting paper under pressure in the ordinary man-
ner. Too prolonged immersion discolours violet
flowers, and in all cases the blotting paper must be
frequently renewed. The novelty appears to be the
salicylic acid. — Art Amateur.
Coating for Woodwork. — Good lime slaked
with sour milk and diluted with water till it is about
the consistence of ordinary whitewash, makes an
excellent coating for woodwork, which is said to be
effectually protected against the weather for at least
ten years by this application This is well worth a trial.
44
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
■In the multitude of councillors there is wisdom." —
Prov.
T is almost needless to say that this section
of Amateur Work, Illustrated, is
set apart for the purpose of helping
those who may attempt to carry out any
description of work that is treated in its
pages, out of any difficulty, real or imaginary, which may
tend to hinder their progress. To show that care has
been taken to insure a careful answer to any question
that may be asked, it may be stated that arrangements
have been made with the writers of the various articles
that will find a place in the magazine to reply to
queries, each taking up those which touch directly or
indirectly on the subject which he has in hand. By
this means greater accuracy of information is insured,
and the instructions given will result from actual ex-
perience, and not, as is too often the case in answers
supplied to correspondents, be gathered mostly, if not
altogether, from books of reference. All questions
will, in the first instance, come under the Editor's
notice, and he, as it has been already said elsewhere,
reserves to himself the right of refusing a reply to any
query that may be frivolous, inappropriate, or devoid
of general interest.
Every question proposed by, and answer given to,
amateurs in council, will be genuine, and not vamped
up for the purpose of filling up space. It stands to
reason that, before a magazine is in the hands of the
public, it is most unlikely that anyone, even though
he may be an intending reader, will take the trouble
to put a question on speculation, as it were, with the
mere idea of seeing if an answer will be given. Thus
it is that very little in the form of replies to queries
will be found in the present Part, and the questions
that are answered refer rather to subjects mentioned
in "Every Man His Own Mechanic," than to Ama-
teur Work, Illustrated. The paucity of queries,
however, is by no means to be regretted, as it affords
the opportunity of commenting on letters of suggestion
and encouragement, sent by many a well-wisher, whose
communication it has not been found possible, for
various reasons, to acknowledge in any other manner.
A. E. M. (Putney) has found some difficulty in
making an iron hoop to fit a tub. " On trying to Jit it
on," he says, " the upper side would cut into the wood,
and the lower side would form itself into awkward
bulges." 1 his was because A. E. M. did not put the
ends of the hoop together in a proper manner. The
following extract from "Every Man His Own Mecha-
nic" will show him how to perform the operation of
b joping a cask or tub with perfect success :—
I c
m
HOOPS ON WOUHLN
Tur.
FIG. 2. -OVERLAPPING OF
ENDS OF IRON HOOP.
" Let Fig. i represent a wooden tub in elevation.
It will be seen that it is wider at the top than at the
bottom, and that it is in the form of a cone turned
upside down, with the top cut off. A cask resembles
in general form two of these frusta of cones con-
nected at their bases, the
widest part being in the mid-
dle, where the cask swells or
bulges out, and the narrowest
part at the two ends, or top
and bottom. From this it is
apparent that the further a
hoop is driven on, the tighter
the staves of the tub or cask
are brought together. Sup-
pose that it is necessary to
put a new hoop on the tub
shown in Fig. I, at A. Having
the hoop iron ready, measure
the girth of the tub a little
below the place where the
hoop is to be fixed, so that
the hoop may be sure to fit tightly, allowing from two
inches to two and a-half inches at each end, as from
B to C, for the overlapping of the iron through which
the rivets are to be thrust. Bring the ends together
somewhat in the manner shown in Fig. 2, though this
is exaggerated in order to show better what is meant,
and then with a piece of chalk mark on each end the
places through which the rivets are to be driven. T his
inclination of the ends of the hoop is made in order to
make the circumference of one edge of the hoop a
trifle less than the circumference of the other edge ;
and it must be remembered that it is the larger cir-
cumference which must be passed first over the bottom
of the tub. The holes for the rivets must then be
punched with a steel punch. The rivets are then put
through the holes, the shoulder end being inward,
and laid on an anvil, the riveting being completed by
hammering the uppermost end of the rivet until the
face is beaten out beyond the circumference of the
hole made by the punch, thus bringing the ends of the
hoop closely and tightly together. To fix a hoop in
its place, slip it over the bottom of the tub, having
first turned the tub upside down, and then beat the
hoop on as far as it will go by holding a piece of flat
iron against the edge, and striking the iron with a
hammer. Care should be taken that the hoop be
equidistant in all parts from the edge of the tub."
A. M. {Thurso, N. B.) is an amateur in wood-
working, and does a good deal in fret-work, often
having to use white wood, which he would like to stain.
He says, "Perhaps in your new magazine, entitled
Amateur Work, Illustrated, you might kindly
devote a page or two to explaining the composition of
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
45
the different wood-stains." Papers on wood-stains and
wood-staining will be given shortly, which will put
A. M. in possession of everything that is necessary to
know on the subject about which he writes.
A. J. M. {Dalkey, Dublin) has found difficulty in
cutting out the rabbits or rebates in a fret-frame, and
Las been able hitherto to find no implement that will
effect what he requires, and none of the tool-makers
to whom he has written can give him any information
ca the subject. The following passage in his letter
affords a clue to the cause of his difficulty :— " / have
seen an implement on the principle of a cutting-gauge,
but it fails in the square frame, as it leaves angles in
iliefour corners. It will answer for a round or oval,
but not quite for a carte-de-visite frame" A. J. M.
made up his frame before he tried to cut out the
rebate. He must cut out his rebate before he makes
up his frame, and then he will find that a simple rebate
plane will do all he requires.
These are, in point of fact, the only queries that
require an answer in the present Part. The reply to
the first has been given at great length ; but it is
almost needless to say this is an exceptional case, and,
in future, when, as it may be reasonably expected,
inquiries and appeals for guidance and assistance will
be numerous, answers must of necessity be briefer.
I must now turn to letters from amateurs, called forth
by the "Preliminary Notice" of this magazine, and
give extracts from a few of them, heartily thanking the
writers of these, and many more which must remain
unnoticed, for their kindly promises of support and
assistance by contributions.
H. G. S. C. {Mulley, Plymouth) wishes for "in-
structions enabling an amateur to make lattice windows
with lead bars instead of wood." He shall have them
in due course. He will readily see that it is not pos-
sible, with every wish to do so, to meet the require-
ments of every amateur immediately.
C. W. (Holborn) and W.J. (Aldershot) will find
that their wishes have been anticipated in the opening
paper on " Boots and Shoes : How to Make Them and
Mend Them," in the present Part of Amateur Work,
Illustrated. The former lends emphasis to his
request by writing, " ' I wish to Heaven I could make
my own shoes,' is a remark very often heard from
those who suffer from tender feet."
S. C. {VVatlington, Oxon) will find ample scope for
the kind of carpentry that most commends itself to
him in the Supplement that accompanies this Part.
A thoroughly practical paper on Wall-brackets, with
working drawings, will be given in Part II. None of
the articles that he mentions will be forgotten, as
" Garden Carpentry " will be specially and fully
treated in this magazine.
W. H. R asks to be told " how to mend as well as
how to make" and further desires special teaching in
wire-working, and " simple matters of black-smithing,
if he may coin a word." These industrial arts, he may
rest assured, will not be neglected.
C. W. {Roselea, Bishopbriggs) is thanked for his
letters and the encouragement that is afforded in
them. Papers from his pen will always be acceptable
when time and inclination permit him to write for our
pages.
F. W. W. {Toronto). — As the magazine is made up
of many various papers, there would be much difficulty
in treating it in the manner adopted for " Every Man
His Own Mechanic." Each volume will have a good
Index. A paper will be given shortly on " Map-
mounting and Varnishing." The plan of the magazine
will gradually develop itself according to the wishes
and requirements of its readers, and in accordance
with your suggestion, perhaps it will be found abso-
lutely necessary, at some future time, " to set apart a
certain portio7i for correspondence in solution to prac-
tical difficulties which the amateur may be assisted in
overcoming by having the help of experience"
C. R. ( Ttnbury) asks for directions "with regard to
dados and other things which an amateur might
attempt ; the simplest way to imitate stained glass j
stencilling j- wooden mantelpieces j fashionable cup-
boards and brackets ; picture-frames j stuffing furni-
tzirej large plates, giving patterns of easily-made
furnittire, brackets" etc. C. R. says that he has suc-
ceeded in accomplishing most of the above with some
success. Why does he not put his experience on
paper, and send us some articles for the benefit of his
brother amateurs. A Supplement devoted to Sten-
cilling is in preparation.
J. M. (Cheadle) is thanked for his letter, and the
valuable suggestions that it contains. They will be
borne in mind, and acted on at some future time, when
anyone can be found who is competent to write on
" The Use of the Lathe as applied to Amateur Cabinet
Work," in the manner J. M. points out. His letter
shall be submitted to a writer on "'Wood-working
Machinery," who is well versed in his especial subject.
G. J. {IVolvej-hampton) will find that due promi-
nence will be given to the Lathe and Lathe Work
generally ; and as a means to this end, a series of
papers on Lathe-making has been commenced in this
Part. G. J. would " suggest that all subjects of a
frivolous nature, or such things that might be worked
out by the average amateur himself should be rigo-
rously excluded." Nothing frivolous will at any time
obtain a place in the pages of this magazine ; but
many of the amateurs who will buy it will doubtless
be amateurs that are only making a beginning, and
are, perhaps, below the average. These, indeed, most
require help, and on their account it will not do to
46
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
neglect matters that may appear simple and below the
notice of the more skilful workman.
F. S., R. C. M., W. J., and F. R. (Lisburn, Ireland)
write collectively as follows : — " Mr. Editor, — Do you
not think that you are giving young men but a faint
glimmer of trade when you only show them the prac-
tical part of the work? Why not show them the
' science of work ' also ? If you spare a few pages
each month for this, you will find the little work will
!'e of a more flourishing character, and you will save
your pupils a good deal of money du> ing the winter
season for paying night-school masters to teach them
geometry and drawing suitable for a workman in this
affe> for if a tradesman do not understand some-
thing of these things, he is nowhere now-a-days.
We hope to see our new serial work furnished with
some useful sciences which would enable young me?i to
understand something about their trade!'' The first
portion of the preceding remarks apply, it is fair to
suppose, to "Every Man His Own Mechanic," and
the last to Amateur Work, Illustrated. Neither
of these works are intended to be " science-teachers ;"
they are purely practical, and intended for the amateur
who knows something of theory. F. S. and his friends
will find what they require in Cassell's " Technical
Educator," in which theory and practice are admirably
combined.
Expectant. — We cannot answer your letter, as re-
quested, thiough the medium of The Christian Herald,
but in the hope that this will meet your eye, we will do
so here, by saying that at some future time papers will
be given on the Manufacture of Fishing-Rods, and all
kinds of Fishing Tackle.
E. P. C. {Muswell Hill) is thanked for his sug-
gestions, and still more for his promise of a contribution
now and then. His requirements as to a discussion on
small lathes best suited for the amateur will be fully
met in our pages. New inventions and new tools and
appliances of all kinds, likely to be of service to the
amateur, will be noticed and discussed in our " Notes
on Novelties." E. P. C. will be able to judge from
this, the first Part of Amateur Work, Illustrated,
that all who are concerned in its production are
anxious to make the Magazine in every respect useful
and reliable.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
N my Introductory Remarks, I have en-
deavoured to direct the attention of
inventors, manufacturers, sellers, and
buyers, to this section of Amateur
Work, Illustrated, by pointing out
that from month to month notices will be given of
new inventions, appliances, tools, and machinery
which are calculated to be useful to the amateur. It
is my intention to conduct this portion of the maga-
zine in very much the same way as that in which
Reviews and Notices of New Books are managed in
all newspapers and serial publications in which this;
valuable kind of literary work is admitted. I say;
" in very much the same manner" advisedly, because
I mean to go a little further than the etiquette of
reviewing apparently permits in giving the reader all
the information that he can possibly" require with
regard to the article under notice. To make my
meaning perfectly clear, it will be sufficient to say,
that in reviewing a book it is thought enough to
mention its title and the names of its author and
publisher, leaving the reader entirely in the dark as
to the size, the number of pages, the price, and the
general " get-up " of the book, if I may be allowed to
use the expression — all of which are most desirable
items of information to those whom the description of
its contents and the manner in which the writer has
handled his subject, may have tempted to become
buyers. Now, in every notice that I may write of
any article, be it what it may, it is my intention to
give all these particulars fully and clearly, believing
it to be to the interest both of buyer and seller that
this should be done. That there are those who are
averse to anything of this kind I am well aware ; and
I have been amused more than once at the idea which
is always implied in their objection, and sometimes
expressed in a special rider appended to it, that the
Publishers and Editor derive benefit in some way or
other from saying all that it is possible to say about
the article itself, its price, and where and of whom it
is to be bought. Such a supposition is as absurd as
it is groundless : the publicity that is accorded to any
article is, after all, given in the interest of those who
may be inclined to buy rather than that of the makers
and sellers ; and of those who would infer that the
submittal of any manufactured article for notice in-
clines the person who has to weigh its merits to
decide in its favour, I would ask, if they think for a
moment that the sending of a copy of any work for
review has anything whatever to do with influencing
the opinion of the reviewer ? And as with the Notices
of Books, so it is with the notices of articles composed
of other materials than paper, cloth, and pasteboard.
Having thus endeavoured to clear the ground, and
to show that neither Publisher nor Editor do, or can,
derive any benefit from the Notices of Novelties given
herein, let me point out 'to inventors and makers, that
any article they may send to be examined and tested
shall receive fair and impartial consideration. Exami-
nation and test are as necessary to the reviewing, so
to speak, of a plane as of a pamphlet, or of a brace-
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
47
and-bit as of a book. Many things will, of course,
require notice that are too large and too costly to be
sent for notice ; but in any such case, after the manner
of Mahomet and the mountain, the Editor will endea-
vour to go to the article, time and distance permitting,
if the article cannot be sent to the Editor. If neither
alternative be possible, he can only insert the manufac-
turer's own description, taking care to relieve himself
from responsibility by stating that such description
is in no way due to him, and that he is not in a posi-
tion to testify positively to the worth of the thing
described. Anyhow, he trusts that manufacturers and
makers who desire to have mention of their specialties
made in the magazine will take the trouble to make
him 'acquainted with them, by letter or otherwise ;
remembering that it is impossible for even the best
detective to know a tithe of all that it is desirable for
him to know without information given.
Mr. Edward Smith, the manufacturer and patentee,
has sent me a new preparation called Lunadine, by
which, it is said, articles made of any metal, except
iron, steel, and pewter, can be covered with a coating
of silver, without trouble and far cheaper than by the
old electro process. As its action has been described
by Mr. Edwinson, in his opening article on " Electro-
Plating at Home," in this Part of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, all that is necessary for me to say is
that those who wish to try it may procure it of the
manufacturer at 3, Cheapside, London, E.C., and that
its price is is. and 2s. 6d. per bottle, or is. 2d. and
2s. ad. post free. Full directions for use are given
with each bottle.
Messrs. Bemrose and Sons, of 23, Old Bailey,
London, E.C., and Irongate, Derby, who have long
made the publication of patterns for fret-cutting one
of their specialties, have sent me Sheets 80 to 87
inclusive, of their latest designs for fret-sawers' work.
These designs have the advantage of being full-sized
working drawings, and are sold at 4d. per sheet ; a
full list, with prices, being forwarded to any applicant
on receipt of a penny stamp. The designs before me
comprise brackets of various sizes, trays, and per-
forated boards to fit into the upper part of stoves and
fire-grates. Of these last, Sheet 86 affords a beautiful
and elaborate design for this purpose, which may be
utilised for other kinds of decorative work. Of the
trays, the square form in Sheet 85 is perhaps the most
useful, and certainly the most easily cut. Two brack-
ets of pleasing form and design are given in this
sheet ; while in Sheet 82 amateurs will find a bracket
of large size and of bold but elegant design, well calcu-
lated for a clock, a lamp, a vase, or a small bust.
Amateur wire-workers will derive much assistance
in their work from making use of Hall's Double Com-
pound Lever Cutting Nippers, an instrument which
is at the same time both powerful and durable, and is
warranted to cut steel wire. Messrs. Charles Churchill
and Co., American merchants, 28, Wilson Street,
Finsbury, E.C., have been appointed sole agents for
the sale of this handy instrument in the United King-
dom. Of these nippers the Scientific American re-
marks : — " Cutting wire by means of the ordinary
cutting-pliers is an operation often requiring the entire
strength of both hands, making it a difficult matter,
under some circumstances, to use a tool of this de-
scription. Anyone who has used cutting-nippers has
seen the necessity of an easier means of doing this
kind of work. In addition to the great power attained,
it possesses the further advantage of not becoming
entirely useless from the fracture of jaw or handle.
In this nipper a broken jaw or handle can be easily
replaced, as all of the parts are perfectly interchange-
able, and a new piece may be obtained from the
manufacturers at the cost of a few pence. This ad-
vantage will be apparent, as all users of such tools
well know that other nippers, broken in the handle or
jaw are useless, and must be replaced by a new tool."
The cost of a pair of 5-inch nippers to cut wire
3-32nds of an inch in diameter is 5s. ; extra jaws
being is. 2d., and an extra handle nd. The 7-inch
nippers, to cut wire s-32nds of an inch in diameter,
costs 8s. ; the extra jaws being about is. 7d., and an
extra handle is. 3d. Messrs. Churchill and Co. have
told me that they hope to have an important addition
to their stock of novelties from America in about a
fortnight's time. Of this, in all probability, I shall be
able to speak in my next " Notes."
Messrs. R. Melhuish and Sons, Tool Merchants
and American Importers, of 85 and 87, Fetter La?ie,
London, E.C., have sent me specimens of miniature
screw-drivers, suitable for watch and clockmakers,
and admirably adapted for the use of amateurs who
may be inclined to try their hand at cleaning and
repairing their household clocks. The best and most
useful of these is the one shown in Fig. 1, which
admits of the substitution of one blade for another at
pleasure. When the end A of this instrument is un-
screwed, a pair of expanding jaws is revealed, into
which the round end of the blade is inserted. The
end is then screwed on again, bringing the jaws to
exert such pressure on the blade, that it is absolutely
immovable until the end is again unscrewed. The
blades are made in four sizes, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4.
The action of the instrument is in this wise : The
edge of the blade having been inserted into the screw-
nick, the first finger of the right hand is placed on the
button at B, so as to keep the tool fixed and steady.
The metal top or button revolves and turns true, and
the handle is grooved or fluted, so as not to slip be-
tween the fingers. When the handle is turned by the
48
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
finger and thumb of the left hand, every part of the
instrument revolves, the button b excepted, which is
held in place and kept from turning by the pressure
of the index finger of the right hand, as described.
The price of the handle, which is of brass, and the
four blades, is is. 6d. The article is of Swiss make,
and the price compares favourably with that of pre-
cisely the same thing of American make, for which,
with four blades, 3s. 6d.
is asked, the only dif-
ference being that the
American goods are
nickel - plated, while
the Swiss goods are
of brass, uncoated.
The nickel - plating,
however, does not
account for a dif-
ference of 2S. in
price. A similar
kind of screw-
driver, with the
blade immovably fixed, is made in wood at 4d., and
in iron at 6d. ; but with these there is the disadvan-
tage that every blade must have its own handle. With
the brass handle already described, the blades can be
renewed at pleasure for a few pence. These screw-
drivers are made in four sizes, and are represented in
Fig. 2.
The same firm has submitted to me for inspection
a specialty re-
cently brought
out in America,
under the name
of Starrett's
" Patent Combi-
nation Try-
Square, Level,
Plumb, Rule,"
etc. — a single
' tool, which, as it
will be seen,
serves many
purposes. It
consists of three
separate parts —
a scale, a stock, with or without level, and a centre-head.
The scale is grooved so that the other parts may be ap-
plied to it at pleasure, and caused to slide along it. The
method of attaching the stock and centre-head to the
scale is sufficiently shown in the accompanying illustra-
tion, in which Fig. 3 represents the centre-head, which is
warranted accurate ; and Fig. 4 the centre-head attached
to the scale, forming a centre-square, both outside
and inside at A and B. The stock, without any level
FIG. I.— SCREWDRIVER WITH MOVABLE BLADES.
- SCREWDRIVER WITH FIXED BLADE.
-STARRETTS PATENT
PLUMB,
attached to it, is shown in Fig. 5, applied to the scale,
and forming a try-square at C, and a mitre at an angle
of 450 at D. In Fig. 6 the stock is again shown, and
in a manner similar to that in Fig. 5, but with the
addition of a level at E. It is claimed for this com-
bination tool that it is both light and compact, and,
as a try-square, is a substitute for every size of the
common kind, from the smallest up to the length of
the rule, and is more
convenient than the
old style can possi-
bly be. As a centre-
square, both inside and
out, it is said to be
the most handy ever put
in the market. It may,
as it has been said,
be used as a
mitre, with either
short or long
tongue ; as a
scribe and mor-
tise-gauge, forming a quick and accurate way of laying
out work ; as a pencil marking gauge in drawing lines, or
laying out lines at right angles, or at angles of 450 ; as
a depth-gauge for planed work, and also convenient to
square in a mortise ; as a steel scriber, to use in con-
nection with the gauge-holes, and other uses ; as a
spirit-level and plumb ; as a graduated steel rule and
straight-edge ; and lastly, as a T-square, using ends
of centre - head
arms.
These tools
are accurate, and
cost, complete,
not more than
one - half the
price of the com-
mon centre-
square. The
4-inch try and
mitre, without
centre -head or
level, as shown
in Fig. 6, is sup-
plied for 4s. 6d.;
COMBINATION TRY-SQUARE, LEVEL,
RULE, ETC
the 6-inch, with stock and level and centre-head com-
plete, for us. 3d. Some idea of the lightness and
portability of the 6-inch tool may be formed, when it
can be said that its postage to any part of the United
Kingdom is only 4d. The 9-inch tool is supplied at
an advance of 2s. 3d., and the 12-inch on an advance
of 4s. 6d. on the price of the 6-inch tool. The various
parts are sold separately, if required.
The Editor.
I
A SIDEBOARD FOR THE DINING-ROOM.— FRONT ELEVATION.
For End Elevation and General Description,
See Page 49.
PRESENTED WITH PART II. OF
AMIfl'fll WflM, 11,11 Sf lit 'IB,
DESCRIPTION OP DESIGNS ; 1.— Design for a Dessert Plate. 2 and 3.-Solon Pilgrim Bottles (Exhibited at tbe Paris Exposition of 1878). 4 and 5— Designs for Panels in Carved Work, or for Tiles anrrounding Fire Grate. 6 and 7— Designs for Centres, in Colour or Relief.
8 and 9.— Hints for Borders or Diapered Work, based on Sculptured Woik in Chartres Cathedral. 10.— Design for Tile, suitable for insertion iu Wall Brackets, etc. 11.— Border for Carved Work or Colour.
12 and 13.— Designs for Diaper Work, or the Ornamentation of Surfaces in imitation of Japanese Decorative Work
DESIGNS FOR DECORATIVE WORK OF VARIOUS KINDS IN PAINTING ON
CARVING IN WOOD, AND ENRICHMENT OF SURFACES.
r
' inn—
.
A SIDEBOARD FOR THE DINING-ROOM.
49
A SIDEBOARD FOR THE DINING-ROOM.
HE amateur who can use his tools with
tolerable skill, and can turn out a piece
of work with a creditable degree of finish,
will naturally turn his attention to the
production of pieces of
furniture which may not only be use-
.ful but serve as well for the additional
ornamentation of the house that he
calls his home, and in whose good and
tasteful appearance he takes a justifi-
able pride.
Now a very little consideration will
serve to show that rectangular work,
that is to say, work consisting of pieces
that are connected at right angles, is
far better suited to the amateur of
average capacity, than curved work
which involves possibly more construc-
tive skill than he may possess, and
demands a greater amount of time, in
the way of practice, than he can afford.
It is desirable, then, that furniture that
is to be made by the amateur should
be as rectangular in general form as
possible, and present but few curved
lines and sweeps, or be free from them
altogether. It may be objected that
square work is far more stiff in the
appearance it presents than curved
work, by reason of its angularity, and
that this is true it is impossible to deny.
Nevertheless, it is equally true that
examples of square work may be found
even in pieces of furniture in every-day
use, in which the almost unbroken
recurrence of right angles in every part
is by no means unpleasing to the eye,
but conveys a feeling of satisfaction
when regarded either as a whole or in
detail, as complete in every way as that
which is produced by work that presents
sweeps and curves of the utmost ele-
gance and beauty. An excellent proof
of this is to be found in the front eleva-
tion of a Sideboard for the Dining-room, which is
given in the full-page illustration that accompanies the
present number as a frontispiece, and which exhibits
a pfain and substantial, but yet handsome, piece of
furniture, that any amateur of average skill may make
for himself.
Before saying anything about the principles of con-
struction involved in its manufacture, or the various
A SIDEBOARD FOR THE DINIKO-
ROOM — END ELEVATION.
:■
parts of which it is composed, let us examine the side-
board in detail, in order to ascertain what its various
capacities may be, or in other words, to what purposes
it may be devoted.
A single glance is enough to show that it consists
at once of cupboards, drawers, and shelves, of various
shapes and sizes, which, while they can be utilised for
all the different purposes to which cup-
boards, drawers and shelves are gene-
rally devoted, are arranged in such a
manner as to render them altogether
as ornamental as they are useful. The
structure is divided into two principal
parts by the large shelf or board, from
which this article of furniture partly
takes its name, and which runs from
end to end of the example now under
consideration, separating the upper
portion from the lower portion. If we
take the entire structure as being di-
vided into four equal parts by vertical
lines we see at once that each portion
is divided vertically into three parts,
of which the part that occupies the
centre is twice as wide as those which
are on either side of it. Immediately
under the principal shelf are placed
three drawers, one of large size in the
centre, and two smaller ones, one on
either side. The space below the large
central drawer, as far as the bottom
board, is enclosed by panelled doors,
to be used as a cellaret, or for any pur-
pose to which its owner may prefer to
devote it ; but the spaces at the sides
are formed into recesses, which will
serve as receptacles for large pieces of
china, wine-coolers, etc. These re-
cesses are not allowed to extend as far
as the bottom board, but are based, as it
were, on a plinth, formed by a drawer
interposed between the bottom of the
recess and the bottom board of the
t&*7l entire piece of furniture. This imparts
* an appearance of solidity and substan-
tiality to the sideboard that would
have been lacking altogether if the
recesses had extended to the bottom board, and sup-
plies a due balance to the frontage of the three
drawers immediately below the principal shelf.
So much for the composition of the lower portion.
Turning to the upper portion we find that it is still
divided by vertical lines into three compartments, of
which the centre compartment is just twice the width
of the compartments on either side of it ; and it is
5"
A SIDEBOARD FOR THE DINING-ROOM.
further divided horizontally into two parts, by a shelf
a little below the top, which extends in one and the
same straight line fro m side to side, although its con-
tinuity is broken, or rather apparently broken, by the
pillars that flank the central compartment ; for in
making the sideboard this shelf would be made out of
one piece of wood, and be notched into the four pillars
in front, which rise from the centre, or very nearly so,
of the principal shelf. This second shelf, running
from side to side, forms with the balustrade of turned
work in front and at the sides a gallery for the recep-
tion of pieces of china of various kinds.
Looking at the jars on the principal shelf in the
front elevation, and at this portion of the sideboard as
exhibited in the drawing of the end elevation, it is mani-
fest that a piece of wood is placed on the principal
shelf from side to side between the four pillars and the
back, having the appearance of a shallow step, on which
articles placed at the back of the principal shelf will
be slightly raised above those in front. This is an
addition that must be left altogether to the taste of the
maker. It may be as well omitted as introduced, for it
is doubtful whether or not it offers any advantage. I
am inclined to think it does not, as its presence breaks
the continuous level of the principal shelf from front
to back, and renders it impossible to place anything on
the sideboard, which covers a space wider than that
which intervenes between the edge of the front and
the edge of the slightly raised shelf at the back. If it
be thought necessary to give the appearance repre-
sented in the side elevation, at this point a slip of wood
fastened down to the principal shelf between the back
and the pillar opposite to it in front is all that is
necessary.
The larger part of the central compartment, extend-
ing from the principal shelf to the gallery at top, is
occupied by a mirror with a bevelled edge set in a bold
but flattened framing. The space between the sides of
the moulding that forms the frame of the mirror may
be plain, and instead of the moulded work that is
indicated below the mirror in the front elevation a nar-
row sunken panel might be introduced, which might be
filled with tiles of small size, or with some carving in
low relief. If moulding is used, the lowest member
should not extend beyond the framing of the back.
The gallery, or rather that portion of it which
extends over the central compartment may be square,
or in the form of the canopy or cove, as shown in the
drawing of the front elevation, and indicated also in
the end elevation. If in the form of a cove its surface
may be covered with embossed leather, or even with
figured velvet. The curved cove, however, will be
found somewhat inconvenient if it is desired to place
any plates in the gallery. The amateur is therefore
recommended to make this portion of the sideboard a
square recess backed with a panel, which may be
ornamented or not, as he may please. A panel of plain
wood is more appropriate, it must be remembered, as a
background and foil for pieces of china, etc. The
curved pieces of wood, as shown in the ride elevation,
may still be introduced, and the top, or canopy,
finished with a bold moulding round the exterior.
In the side compartments of the upper portion
small cupboards are introduced immediately below the
shelf that forms the gallery at the top. These extend
downwards to about three-fifths of the space intervening
between the principal shelf and the top shelf. The
panel of each little cupboard has on it a subject painted
by_ hand, those represented in the front elevation being
taken from yEsop's fable of the " Fox and the Stork,"
which is too well known to require any repetition here.
If painted by hand on a wood panel, the execution of
the painting should be the best possible. If the ama-
teur cannot paint well himself, and has no friend who
can do this for him, he may finish the doors to corres-
pond with the doors of the cellaret below, or he may
form the panels of two of the larger papyrotiles, which
are well suited for work of this description. Below
these cupboards panels of looking-glass are inserted in
the back enclosed with suitable moulding, as in the
large central compartment.
The method to be employed in constructing this
sideboard is evident from the drawings representing
the front elevation and the end elevation. When the
size of the principal shelf has been determined on —
every amateur should suit the size of this piece of
furniture to his own special requirements, and make
his working drawings before setting to work — the
back of the lower part should be framed up, the verti-
cal pieces of the framing corresponding with the
pillars in front, as shown in the drawing. These
pillars must be suitably connected with the back by
runners, with boards at the sides to enclose the draw-
ers at top and bottom, and to form the sides of the
cellaret. A moulding must be run round the front
and sides, immediately below the principal shelf.
Much of the boarding may be dropped into rabbets
cut in the framing, or into grooves made in the
framing to receive the boards. The pillars are square
for the most part, and deeply fluted, but portions of
them must be turned in the lathe. The character of
the pieces inserted in the corners, to break the stiff-
ness of the angles, are clearly shown in the drawings.
The upper part may be made separately, and placed
on the lower part, in which case the raised board, or
step at the back is necessary ; but if it be resolved to
make the sideboard in one piece, the extiemijies of
the four pillars in front may be so constructed as to be
dropped into holes made in the principal shelf, for their
reception.
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
5i
It Trill be noticed that the pillars of the lower por-
tion of the sideboard terminate in turned feet almost
globular in form in the lower part. This feature is
repeated in a modified form at the top of the pillars in
front and framing at the back at each side of the
structure. The artist has omitted to represent this
turned knob at the back in the side elevation, but its
presence is clearly indicated in the front elevation on
both sides. The amateur will notice the importance
of these features, small as they are, in a piece of
furniture of this description. Had they not been
added, there would have been a lack of completeness
that would have been most unsatisfactory to the eye of
a beholder though he might not have been able to
detect the reason for this shortcoming and explain it.
Equally important are the bracket-shaped pieces of
wood which are introduced by way of ornament under
the small cupboards in the upper portion of the side-
board in front, as shown in the front elevation, and
repeated again at the side, as shown in the end
elevation : the same may be said of the pieces in-
serted beneath the drawers that surmount the recesses
on either side. The little spindles which support the
rail in front of the balustrade running from side to side
along the upper shelf are of turned work.
If the amateur cannot turn, and is unabled to get
any turned work done for him, he may make the front
of the gallery, and the sides as well, of fret work, but
this should be bold and open, and in keeping with the
general character of the piece of furniture For ex-
ample, the perforations should, consist for the most
part of right lines and simple curves, and not of leaves,
leaf-stalks, and tendrils, which would be out of place.
The pillars might be square throughout as on either
side of the cellaret in the lower portion, but this would
detract very much from the general appearance of the
sideboard, as any amateur may see if he would take
the trouble to prepare a sketch on this plan.
The sideboard would look well if made of pine,
stained and varnished, or of mahogany ; but it would
look better still in oak or walnut. The fittings, namely,
the swing handles and scutcheons of the drawers and
cellaret, in the lower part, and the little cupboard on
either side in the upper part are old fashioned in style,
and should be of brass or metal silver-plated. The
worst of handles of this description is that they must
be cleaned occasionally ; and if this is done carelessly,
the wood work will be smeared with the polishing
paste or whatever may be used to clean the metal.
Handles and scutcheons of bronze, or bronzed metal,
may be used, if preferred, instead of handles and
scutcheons of brass or plated metal, but knobs of
every description, whether of wood or of metal, should
be avoided, as they are not at all in keeping with the
style in ^ttb the sideboard is made.
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
II.— The Complete Set of Pipes.— Diapason or
Seale.— Setting out Pipes.— Bourdon Pipes. —
The Bellows, and how to make them.
T will be convenient to begin this chapter
by describing the complete set of pipes
which we shall have to make, with the
names of the notes to which they belong
in the musical scale.
Let it be understood, then, that we are about to
make a set of pipes extending upwards from the note
called " CC" (or "double C") to "F in alto ;" in other
words, we are about to make fifty-four pipes, of which
the lowest, or deepest in sound, is CC, and the highest,
or shrillest, is F. In this set of pipes, four complete
octaves, with six additional notes, are comprised ; and
the pipe which was described in the first paper, and
which we are now supposed to have made success-
fully, is the first pipe of the second octave, and is
called " Tenor C," or simply C. It is also called
"4-feet C," because an open pipe must have a length
of 4 feet in order to produce a note of the same
pitch. The first note of the third octave is called
" Middle C," or " 2-feet C ;" while the lowest note, or
CC, is often known as "8-feet C." The annexed table
in Fig. s gives us part of the scale : —
In the table, " s " signifies " sharp," and the pipes
so indicated will correspond with the black keys of
the pianoforte. "Gamut G" and "fiddle G" are
convenient names by which those notes may be dis-
tinguished.
And now to our carpentring again. It will already
have been perceived that an obvious and interesting
rule or law is laid down by the terms 8 ft., 4 ft., and
2 ft., as applied to the first notes of the three lower
octaves ; and the reader has probably arrived at the
correct conclusion that the other dimensions of the
pipes will be regulated by the same easy proportion.
In truth, each octave of pipes will be as nearly as
possible half the length, and half the size in all
respects, of the octave of pipes immediately below
it ; or double the length, and double the size, of the
octave of pipes immediately above it.
Thus, if we made Tenor C 2 feet long, 2 inches
deep (internal measurement), and if inch wide, with
a mouth i an inch high, then CC will be 4 feet long,
4 inches deep, 35 inches wide, with a mouth 1 inch
high ; and Middle C will te 1 foot in length, 1 inch
in depth, and J of an inch in width, with a mouth
i of an inch in height. We have, then, an easy
method of obtaining the dimensions of all our pipes.
Take a large sheet of paper (see Fig. 4) ; near one
5*
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
edge draw a long straight line (or make a straight
crease) ; at one end of this line draw a perpendicular
to it of 4 inches in length; at the other end draw
another perpendicular 2 inches in length ; join these
by a straight line passing through their
extremities. Divide the space between the
two perpendiculars into 12 equal portions,
and draw perpendiculars parallel to the
first. Then these 12 perpendicular lines
will give you the lengths of all the pipes of
the first octave in feet and inches, and all
the depths in inches and parts of an inch;
and it is evident that you may get all the
widths also by drawing another line through
the perpendiculars from 3$ inches at CC
to if inch at Tenor C, as shown in the
figure.
From this " Diapason," or Scale, the
amateur artisan may cut out all his ma-
terial, and see his work clearly before him.
It will be well to make the lowest, or first,
octave before the others, because the odds
and ends of board left after finishing these
will work up in the smaller pipes. Each
TEHOR.C.
1 ai JMcI\$&j__i
I 4- vtxJics.. J
FIG. 4. — DIAPASON ON
SCALE FOR PIPES.
the width and depth of the pipes as we rise upwards.
Thus, Middle C may be allowed a clear inch, or rather
more, of width, with Ij inch of depth.
Of the upper pipes we shall say nothing at pre-
sent, because you will do well to finish the
two lower octaves (24 notes) first, and then
to make the bellows. To the bellows-
making let us now proceed, then ; and in
the outset let me remark that you may
prepare yourself for a rough but not diffi-
cult operation. We shall require a piece
of good inch board, about 10 feet or 12 feet
long and 14 or 15 inches wide — pine is
the best, but as pine of this width cannot
be had, the width must be obtained by
clamping two pieces of stuff 7J inches
wide, together. We shall also want some
" mill-boards," as used by bookbinders for
the sides of ordinary books, and two or
three skins of white sheep leather, which
may be bought at the curriers' or at a
shoemaker's. This leather cannot be too
supple, but it may be reasonably stout ;
the druggists keep an excellent quality
8 ft. "gamut." 4 ft. "fiddle." 2 ft. in alt.
CC, s, DD, s, EE,FF, s G, s, A, s, B, C, s. D, s, E, F, g, g, s, a, s, b, c, etc f
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, io, 11, 12,(13, J4> "S" If>" *7i 18, 19, so, 21, 22, 23, 24, [25, etc 54
first octave.
second octave.
FIG. 5. —THE SCALE.
pipe will be made precisely as Tenor C was made ;
but the four or five larger pipes will be all the better
if put together with f-inch boards ; and material may
be saved by making the
stoppers out of ii-inch
board, fixing a strong
handle or peg in each. Do
not glue in the feet, how-
ever, until a subsequent
stage of the proceedings.
It is evident that the
same " Diapason," or
Scale, will serve for the
Tenor Octave, by taking
half the dimensions
marked thereon ; and
it may be remarked
that by taking double the dimensions we should be
enabled to set out the large pipes called " Bourdon,"
if we were concerned with them. But it will generally
be found convenient to draw a new scale for the other
octaves ; and no harm will be done if, in drawing
this, a somewhat gentle diminution be allowed in
-THE BELLOWS, PARTLY IN SECTION, TO SHOW
ESCAPE-VALVE.
AA, the feeder ; BB, the middle board ; CC, the upper board ;
dd, the box, or trunk-band ; ee, ribs ; F, escape-valve, with
spring ; GG, gusset-pieces.
of it for the purpose of making adhesive plasters,
but their prices are somewhat high. "Wash-leather"
will not answer the purpose. Of course, if an organ-
builder will spare a few
skins, it is impossible to
get wrong.
I propose that our
bellows shall be 2 feet
6 inches in length, by 14
inches or more (accord-
ing to the size of your
boards) in width. A
glance at Fig. 6 will
show you that a begin-
ning must be made by
cutting out and planing
three boards, aa, BB, and
CC ; AA belongs to the " feeder ;" CC is called the
upper board ; and BB we will call the middle board.
B must be 3 feet in length, because its ends must rest
on the organ-frame ; a and c will be 2 feet 6 inches
each. Upon B fix four bars or pieces of inch stuff
very strongly, with screws and glue,^^.form a
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
53
shallow box 2 feet 6 inches long (outside measure-
ment), and as wide as the board will allow, with
a depth of 3 inches (dd, Fig. 6). Bore a number
of holes in B with your largest centrebit ; eighteen
holes will not be too many if the bit is 1 inch in
gauge. Over each of these holes place a flap or
valve, made by gluing together two thicknesses of
the white leather ; each flap or
valve must play easily upon the
hole by allowing a single thickness
only of the leather to act as hinge ;
but take care that no valve plays
so freely as to be completely
thrown back or over. Prepare
a similar series of holes, with
valves, in the board aa for the
feeder ; and connect aa with the
under side of bb by a strong hinge
made of stout leather, or by several
hinges made of pieces of leather
strap nailed and glued to each
board.
It is now evident that to com-
plete the feeder, as shown in the
figure, two sides and one end will
be required, so arranged as to expand or contract at
pleasure. These are called "ribs," and in ordinary
organs are made of thin wooden boards, connected
together by hinges of the white leather. In the very
small bellows, however, which we are now making,
the bookbinders' mill-boards may answer the purpose
sufficiently well, and
may save much labori-
ous planing. From a
mill-board of the re-
quisite size, cut out two
side ribs and the end
rib, shaped as in Figs.
7, 8. Run a knife along
the lines A E, C D,
cutting the boards
about half through, to
form a hinge, and glue
a long strip of leather
upon the hinge so
formed. Connect these
three ribs with the feeder-board AA (Fig. 6)
by means of similar long strips of leather about 2
inches wide ; and when the glue has had time to
" set," connect the upper edges of the ribs with the
under-side of bb (Fig. 6) in a similar manner. Open
and close the feeder cautiously in doing this, that you
may insure the neat and flat folding of the ribs.
Lastly, close up the corners by gluing on "gusset-
pieces " (Fig. 9) of supple leather, amply large enough
NS
FIG. 7 PIG. 10-
FIG. 7.— SIDE RIB OF FEEDER. FIG. 8.— END
EIB OF FEEDER. FIG. 9.— SHAPEOF GUSSET
PIECE. FIG. 10.— SIDE RIB OF RESERVOIR.
lc~
FIG. II. — BELLOWS, CLOSED, SHOWING COUNTERBALANCES.
The pin o is fixed in the rib frame ; the pin L is fixed in the
the pin N is fixed in the upper board.
trunk-band ;
to allow the feeder its full expansion ; and glue wide
strips of leather over the main hinge of the feeder
and over the junction of the ribs with the main
hinge. All this gluing on of leather — an unpleasant
and dirty business — will be greatly facilitated by
using a bit of sponge, moistened with warm water, to
press down the various strips into their places. The
moistening aids the adhesion of
the leather, while it cleans the
work, leaving all neat and white.
If the feeder is successful it should
now work on its hinge freely and
pleasantly, without any creaking
or any stiffness ; and it should suck
in the air through its own valves,
and expel it through the valves in
B, with entire facility.
The upper part, or reservoir,
of the bellows is made precisely as
the feeder was made, except that
the side ribs will be rectangular,
as in Fig. 10. Glue the leather
hinges of the first, or lower, set
(see Fig. 6) to the upper edges of
the box formed on BB ; to the other
hinge of these ribs attach a light wooden frame made
of !-inch stuff; to this light frame, again, attach the
leather hinge of the second or upper set of ribs, to
which, again (but not just yet) the upper board cc will
be connected. Or it may be found less troublesome to
connect both sets of ribs first of all with the light
wooden frame by
means of inside strips
of calico glued to each,
reserving your outside
strips of leather for
the final putting toge-
ther, when the gusset-
pieces are worked in.
But, at any rate, take
care (as in the case of
the feeder) that the
ribs and frame lie
closely and flatly when
folded down.
In the upper board
CC (Fig. 6), an escape-valve must be prepared.
Cut a rectangular aperture in it 5 inches by 3
inches ; cover this aperture by a valve made of
perfectly level board, 6 inches by 4 inches, faced
with white leather, with the rough side outermost.
Fix the valve by a leather hinge on the inside
of cc, so as to open inwards ; and on the outside fix a
strong spring (or two) of iron wire, so arranged as to
keep the valve shut. Nail the end of a string to the
54
A NEW STYLE OF STAINED-GLASS WINDOW.
middle of the board bb, and bring the other end
through a hole in the valve, tying a knot so that
the string may be tight, and may pull the valve
open, when the reservoir is quite full of air. If
the reservoir rises about 10 inches, which is amply
sufficient, then the string maybe nine inches in length,
or somewhat less. The frames, or counterbalances
(k, l, m, n, Fig. u), are for the purpose of making the
ribs of the reservoir expand equally and properly.
They may be made of any tough wood, with screws at
the jointed points. See that each screw " bites " in one
arm only, passing clear through the other ; and use
tallow in putting these screws in, with a little black-lead
where the arms rub against each other. It will be
well to strengthen the upper board C by screwing
two ledges of inch stuff, i| inch deep, across the top,
near the ends.
I am far from denying that the bellows-making is
a rough and rather distasteful business ; but there is
no difficulty in it which patience will not readily sur-
mount. Let it be remembered that perfect air-tight-
ness must be secured in every part ; cover the corners
of the box on B with leather, and allow no crevice
whatever to remain unstopped. Leaky bellows not
only waste the wind, but give rise to unpleasant hiss-
ings which do not improve the music.
{To be continued.)
A NEW STYLE OF STAINED-GLASS
WINDOW.
HE following method of producing stained-
glass windows in large and strong sheets
suitable for the decoration of churches
and other buildings is described in a
recent part of the Art Amateur.
" Cover the full sized cartoon with bits of flashed
glass of the appropriate colour, cut out upon the
cartoon with the diamond, the coloured face down.
Thus a mosaic of glass will be formed. Probably only
two shades of each colour will be needed, for these
pictures are seen at such a distance that the half tints
are, in a measure, lost. But if greater detail be
needed, three tints of each colour might be used —
light, half-tint, and shadow. Small details, except in a
diaper mosaic work of brilliant and strong tints, are
lost to the eye.
" Lay upon this mosaic a sheet of strong paper or
of cotton cloth covered with adhesive paste. When dry
this is to be laid upon a plate of incandescent plate-
glass, as it rests upon the casting-table after passage of
the roller. The paper or cotton will take fire and be
dissipated, and the coloured glass will be welded to
the solid plate of clean white glass.
" If needed, in order to force actual contact, the
roller which has reduced the melted glass plate to
uniform thickness, may be run back over the plate and
its veneer of coloured glass. The back of the plate-glass
may be ground, as for show-windows, but probably the
irregular surface left by contact with the bed of the
casting-table will produce the effect so much admired
in the ancient stained glass-work, and, if so, the
grinding and polishing may be omitted. By this
method it seems that church windows in stained glass
may be made in large and heavy sheets or plates,
and the leaden and other sash bars can be avoided.
The process is simple and cheap, and the work
can be done by workmen of ordinary intelligence
and skill. The cartoon must of course be the work of
an artist."
In carrying out this proposed method of making
sheets of coloured glass, in imitation of stained-glass
windows, there seem to be difficulties which might,
perhaps, operate against complete success. In the
first place, the accurate fitting together of the pieces of
glass that form the mosaic would be attended with
considerable difficulty. All who have attempted it
know that it is by no means an easy matter to accom-
plish the inlaying of wood, even with the aid of the
scroll saw ; and if the perfect junction of the edges be
difficult to attain when dealing with so tractable a
material as wood, it will be far more troublesome
when it is sought to cut a number of irregular
pieces of glass with such accuracy that they will fit
together with the perfect contact of the pieces of a
dissected map or puzzle. Again, when paper or cotton
cloth is burnt, a residuum is left in the shape of ligh-
ashes, and it is difficult to believe that the paper or
cloth would be so entirely " dissipated " or destroyed as
to leave not even a trace of it between the layers of
plain and coloured glass.
The process as described above is however suggest
tive of a means of decorating windows with coloured
glass, which might be managed without much diffi-
culty. The two things which chiefly demand attention
are the cutting of the pieces of coloured glass, so as to
;nsure accuracy of junction when fitted together, and
the fixing of the pieces when cut to a sheet of white
glass that forms the foundation of the work, as it may
be fairly called. I will endeavour to deal with these
two points, and show that each is possible within
certain limits.
It has been said that the chief difficulty to be
encountered in forming the mosaic is that of cutting
irregular pieces of glass with such accuracy that they
will fit together closely and evenly, presenting no gaps
in the line of junction. If instead of attempting to put
A NE W STYLE OF STAINED-GLASS WINDOW.
55
together pieces of all shades and sizes, as is done in
coloured glass windows by the aid of strips of lead
grooved or flanged for the reception of the glass, we
content ourselves with using regular pieces, that is to
say pieces cut in the form of squares, rectangles of
various length and breadth, triangles, rhombuses, and
rhomboids, all of which are three and four sided
figures, the chief difficulty will vanish at once, for by
covering a piece of flat and smooth board with
cartridge paper and drawing on it the geometrical
design, in which the pieces of glass are to be arranged)
in strong outline, a pattern is at once formed on which
the coloured glass may be laid, and cut by drawing
the diamond over the strong black lines below, by the
aid of a ruler held on the glass to act as a guide.
That the meaning of what has just been said may
be made perfectly clear, it may be useful to exemplify it
by the aid of one or two diagrams.
In glass doors and staircase windows,
the sash is frequently made in such a
manner that there are narrow panes
on one or both sides of a wider pane
or panes, generally on one side only in
the leaf of a double glass door, but
always on both sides in a window.
Let the accompanying diagrams each
represent such a narrow pane, and its
ornamentation with a veneer or mosaic
of coloured glass. An inspection of
each of the figures will show that they
are composed of simple geometrical
figures that can be cut and fitted to-
gether by means of the method de-
scribed above without the least
difficulty. Thus Fig. i is composed
entirely of one form only, namely, a
right-angled triangle having its two
sides which contain the right angle equal, being, in
fact, a half-square. These semi-squares, cut in red and
blue, and disposed in the manner indicated by the
letters — R, the initial of red, and B, the initial of blue —
would present a pleasing appearance and agreeable
contrast.
Fig. 2 is not unlike Fig. i in its general outline
and construction, but it is composed of three different
figures, an entire square, a half-square, and a quarter-
square. This figure will not present the diversity in
disposition of colour that is found in Fig. i, for it is
only possible, if two colours only are used, to make
the squares in the centre of the pane of one colour,
and the half-squares at the sides of the pane and the
quarter-squares at the top and bottom of another. If
three colours are used, there are various ways of
arranging them, but perhaps the most satisfactory
would be to make the central square of one colour, the
FIG. I.—
TRIANGLE, OR
HALF-SQUARE.
FIG. 2.—
SQUARE, HALF-
SQUARE, AND
QUARTER DO.
top and bottom square of another, and the remaining
half-squares and quarter-squares of the third.
In Fig. 3 the rhombus is used, a figure of which,
according to Euclid, all the sides are equal, but its
angles are not right angles. In the diagram now
under consideration, it is composed of
two equilateral triangles, set together
base to base, so that the smaller
angles are angles of 6o°, and the larger
angles, angles of 1200. These forms
may be disposed so as to form
hexagons, or they may be broken up
into equilateral triangles, so that the
whole pane maybe composed of pieces
of this form, those at the top and
bottom excepted, which are semi-
equilateral triangles. There are three
shapes in this figure — namely, that
which has just been named, the equi-
lateral triangle, and the rhombus, or
double equilateral triangle ; each of
the larger figures being, as in Fig. 2,
a multiple of the smallest. Three
colours may be used, the disposition
being indicated by B, R, Y, the initials
of blue, red, and yellow, but other arrangements will
suggest themselves to the reader.
The amateur who can use his diamond with good
effect, need not confine himself to the simple forms
shown in the illustrations, for these are given merely
to show the principle on which the
work may be done, rather than as
patterns to be adopted and followed.
An agreeable diversification may be
obtained by the introduction of bands
round the edge of the pane and run-
ning between the squares, as may be
seen if the reader will prepare a figure
like Fig. 2, and rule parallel lines on
either side of the diagonals in the
figure. These diagonals must then be
rubbed out, as they will exist no longer
in the actual work, having been super-
seded by the bands. The crossing of
the bands, or rather the square en-
closed, at the crossing of the lines that
bound the bands, may be filled in with
a different colour, and in this case
the bands would be divided into oblong
pieces. In this case the small triangles
at the ends of the bands should be similar in colour to
the small squares.
The next question is : — How are these diverse
separate pieces of glass to be attached to the main
piece which forms the foundation of the work ?
fig. 3.—
RHOMBUS,
EQUILATERAL
TRIANGLE, ETC.
5°
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
Nothing is easier. There can be few who have not
seen in shop windows two or more pieces of thick
plate-glass fastened together with colourless cement,
the strength of the attachment being shown by hang-
ing up the pieces of glass thus united and suspending
to the lower piece a heavy weight. This is generally
done to advertise the merits of some cement to be
used for the purpose of mending broken glass and
china. It is well known that if the air can be ex-
hausted from between two pieces of glass, their sur-
faces will adhere, or be held together by the pressure
of the atmosphere so tightly, that it requires great force
to separate them. It will not be difficult then to cause
the coloured pieces to adhere to the foundation by
the aid of some colourless cement. This mode of
imitating stained glass may be applied to panes that
are already set in the sashes, as well as on pieces of
glass that are not yet put in the places they are
intended to occupy. All that it is necessary to do is
to set out the dimensions of the pane accurately on
paper, and cut and arrange the coloured glass on this
before attaching it to the window glass.
~ -fr ~
PHOTOGRAPHY:
ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
By TEOMAS DUNMAN.
—The Bath and Its Accessories.
::i BY no means unimportant part of the
M'jhS'aL essentials to success in the art of photo-
graphy, is some form of " dark room;" but
I presume that some of my readers will,
by the exercise of a little ingenuity, such
ceed in adapting some small apartment for the purpose,
and I will therefore continue our description of the
necessary apparatus, leaving until my next chapter the
instructions and working drawings, which I intend to
give for the benefit of those who may wish to build a
special dark room for themselves.
Next to the camera and stand the most important
item in the apparatus of the photographer is undoubt-
edly the " bath." In order to understand the import-
ance of paying special attention to this part of the
photographer's plant, it is necessary to have a clear idea
of the part which it plays in producing photographic
pictures.
It has been already noticed that certain salts of
silver are blackened by light, and of these one of the
most sensitive is the iodide of silver. The object of
the photographer is to obtain a film of iodide of silver
upon his glass plates, in order that this maybe exposed
to the action of light in the camera. It is notpossible
to obtain this sensitive film by a direct process, but it
is obtained indirectly in the following manner. A sub-
stance known as collodion is poured on to the glass
plate, and is allowed to set. It is then placed for a few
minutes in a bath containing nitrate of silver. The
collodion, as prepared for photographic purposes, con-
tains iodine, and in the bath this acts upon the nitrate
of silver so as to produce upon the glass plate a
deposit of iodide of silver, which the tenacity of the
collodion causes to adhere to the glass. The formation
of iodide of silver in this way may be illustrated by a
very simple experiment, which also demonstrates its
sensibility to the action of light. Procure from a
chemist a weak solution of iodide of potassium and a
similar solution of nitrate of silver. These solutions
will be perfectly clear and colourless so long as they
are kept separate, but upon mixing them a very dense
white precipitate will be formed, and if this be
exposed to ordinary daylight it will turn first brown
and then black. The precipitate is, of course, iodide
of silver, the same substance which is formed when a
plate is " sensitised " in the bath previous to exposure
in the camera. This sensitising the plate is a very
delicate chemical process, and like all chemical pro-
cesses it must be conducted with scrupulous care if a
perfectly satisfactory result is desired.
The usual form of the bath which contains the
sensitising solution is shown in the accompanying
illustration (Fig. 7). A wooden case contains a narrow
but deep glass or porcelain vessel into which the solu-
tion is poured, the size of this vessel of course depend-
ing upon the sized plates for which it is used. The
case is provided with a cover, which should be hinged
on to the body of the case so that it may be easily
opened or shut without falling off. A leg hinged on to
the back of the stand admits of the bath being placed
in a nearly vertical position, as in our illustration. The
bath must be provided with a " dipper," which is a flat
piece of vulcanite or porcelain, having a ledge at its
lower extremity, on which the plates may be rested
and lowered into the bath, and which also permits of
their being readily withdrawn from it. The cost of a
bath, with case and dipper complete, varies from eight
to sixty shillings, according to size and material. The
case may be easily made by anyone having a turn for
carpentring, and this will materially reduce the cost.
There are several formulas for the sensitising solu-
tion to be used in the bath, and most makers of
collodion give one with each bottle supplied. One of
the best for " positive " pictures is the following : —
Re-crystallised nitrate of silver § ounce.
Distilled water ... ... S ounces.
Positive collodion ... ... 1 drop.
These materials must be well shaken together, and
the solution filtered through filtering paper. Two drops
PHOTOGRAFHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
57
FIG 6.— STAND
FOR FILTER.
of pure nitric acid must then be added, and the bath
solution is ready for use, and may be poured into the
bath, which must be scrupulously clean. The cover of
the bath should be kept closed to prevent the dust
which is constantly floating about in the atmosphere
from getting into the solution.
For the production of " negative " pictures a some-
what different bath will be found
necessary. The following formula
is one of the most reliable : —
Solution A. — Re-crystallised ni-
trate of silver ... i ounce.
Distilled water ... 2 ounces.
Solution B. — Iodide of potassium
1 grain.
Distilled water ... 1 ounce.
Mix these two solutions carefully,
and shake well until the precipitate
of iodide of silver disappears. Then
add a solution of two grains of
nitrate of barium in nine ounces of
distilled water, and carefully filter
as before ; the bath solution will
then be ready for use.
In the foregoing paragraphs I have spoken of
" positive " and " negative " pictures, and it will be as
well to explain here the difference between them. A
positive picture is one in which the dark and light
shades are the same as in the object photographed ;
for instance, the face of a sitter will in such a picture
be white, and the clothes will be light or dark, accord-
ing to the materials worn. In a negative picture the
light and dark tints are reversed, the face being black,
and a black coat or dress appearing white in the
photograph. Positive pictures are completed on the
glass and are at once framed, as is the case in the
cheap photographs of itinerant photographers. Nega-
^ges, on the other hand, are transferred to paper, when
the tints are again reversed and the ordinary carte-de-
visite picture produced.
The next important material required is "collodion."
This is a preparation of gun-cotton dissolved in a
mixture of alcohol and ether. It can be procured
ready-prepared at a small cost, and as its preparation
is attended with some danger, it is not at all worth the
photographer's while to attempt to manufacture it for
himself. For positive pictures a somewhat different
kind of collodion is required than that used for nega-
tives; it is therefore necessary to specify, when ordering,
the purpose for which it is intended. The best makers
of collodion are Mawson, Rouch, Thomas, Blanchard
and Huggon, and their collodions can be obtained at
any respectable photographic repository. As a general
rule the collodion and the "iodising" solution are
supplied in separate bottles, with instructions for
mixing the solutions. In this case it is advisable to
iodise the collodion a few days before it is required for
use, as it always works much better when it has been
iodised for some little time. The cost of either positive
or negative collodion is about eight shillings and six-
pence per pint, smaller quantities being charged rather
more in proportion.
After the sensitised plate has been exposed to the
action of light in the camera it presents no difference
in appearance from that which it exhibits when taken
from the bath. Important changes have taken place ;
but these are not rendered apparent until the plate has
been subjected to a further process, by which the
latent image is " developed." For this purpose various
solutions are employed, and with each bottle of collo-
dion sold a formula for development is usually supplied.
For positive pictures the following solution is inex
pensive, and produces very good results : —
Protosulphate of iron ... 100 grains.
Glacial acetic acid ... 4 drams.
Spirits of wine (alcohol) ... 4 drams.
Pure nitric acid ... ... 4 drops.
Water ... ... ... 10 ounces.
A very good developer for negative pictures is the
following : —
Protosulphate of iron ... 2 drams.
Glacial acetic acid ... 2 drams.
Alcohol ... ... 4 drams.
Water... ... ... Bounces.
It is as well not to make up too large quantities of the
developer at one time, as it deteriorates if kept too
long. Moreover, a comparatively small quantity of the
solution lasts some time as only a little is required for
each picture. After keep-
ing a short time the de-
veloper turns brown, but
this fact does not inter-
fere with its efficiency.
After the picture, which
is brought out by the
action of the developer, is
complete in all its details,
it is necessary to "fix" it.
The iodide of silver if left
unaltered would still be
affected by light, and the
consequence would be that
the image would become
altogether obscured by the darkening of all the ma-
terial on the plate. To prevent this, which was the
early difficulty in the way of the inventors of photo-
graphy, it is necessary to convert the unused iodide of
silver into some other substance which is not affected
by light ; this process is termed "fixing" the photo-
graph. The best fixing solution is cyanide of potas-
C2
FIG. 7.— BATH FOR SENSITISING
SOLUTION.
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
sium in the proportion of a quarter of an ounce to ten
ounces of water. This is a highly poisonous material,
and should be kept with the greatest care out of the
way of ignorant or careless persons. Instead of
cyanide of potassium, hyposulphite of soda may be
used, though the former is undoubtedly the best ma-
terial for the purpose. The formula for the " hypo "
solution is as follows : —
Hyposulphite of soda
Water
... 4 ounces.
... 5 ounces.
Either of these fixing solutions may be used over
and over again almost indefinitely, so that they may
be poured back into the bottle each time after using.
When the picture is fixed it has a very unpleasant,
sandy tint, and to remove this it is usual to employ a
"toning solution." Several materials are used for this
purpose, the most common being " bichloride of mer-
cury," or "bichloride of platinum." The former is
almost infinitely cheaper than the latter, and is, in the
writer's opinion, quite as effective. About fifteen
grains of either material, in as many ounces of water,
is a very good strength to employ. As in the case of
the fixing solution, the toning material may be used
over and over again, and should be returned to the
bottle each time after use. Toning a picture is not an
essential process, but it greatly improves the appear-
ance of a positive photograph, as it turns the sandy
tint to a pleasing purplish black.
In addition to the chemicals mentioned above, the
beginne, will require three or four ounces of photo-
grapher's varnish with which to coat his pictures when
finished, in order that they may be less liable to get
scratched or otherwise injured. A four-ounce bottle
of good varnish may be obtained for about a shilling.
As my readers will perceive for themselves, a pair
of apothecaries' scales and a set of weights will be
absolutely necessary, in order that they may make up
the necessary solutions. These may be obtained for
about three shillings and sixpence in a neat box.
Two or three glass measures will also be necessary.
The best sizes are one twenty-ounce measure, one
ounce measure, and one four-ounce measure ; all three
may be obtained for about four shillings and sixpence.
It will also be necessary for the photographer to
familiarize himself with the system of weights em-
ployed by the apothecary, including the symbols em-
ployed to represent them. In case any of my readers
have forgotten the lessons learned at school on this
subject, I subjoin a table of —
Apothecaries Weight,
20 grains make one scruple
3 scruples „ one dram
8 drams „ one ounce
12 ounces „ one pound
9
3
3
ft
The table of liquid measure is also given here, a;
all glass measures are graduated in accordance with it
Apothecat ies' Fluid Measure.
60 minims make one fluid dram.
8 drams „ one fluid ounce.
20 ounces „ one pint.
8 pints „ one gallon.
In making solutions it is important to adhere rigidly
to the formulas given, or disappointment and failure will
result. I would also remind my readers that many
of the materials employed in photography are deadly
poisons, and the most scrupulous care should be
observed in using them. Always wash the hands care-
fully before partaking of food, and be sure that all
chemicals are put out of harm's way when done with.
In addition to the chemicals named above, it will
be necessary for the beginner to supply himself with a
few more necessaries, but these are all comparatively
inexpensive. The most important will be the squares
of glass upon which the pictures are to be taken.
These may be obtained ready-cut at any photographic
repository, for from one and sixpence to fifteen shillings
per gross, according to size and quality of glass.
For cleaning the plates previous to use a soft cloth,
as free as possible from lint, will be required, and a
little " tripoli powder " will be found useful in removing
occasional stains. An ounce of this powder, which
may be obtained at any chemist's for a few pence,
should be placed in about a pint of methylated spirit,
and well shaken. A spot of this on a dirty plate,
supplemented by a little " elbow grease," will soon
remove the most obstinate stains.
Cleaning plates with a duster invariably leaves a
quantity of small particles on them, and it will there-
fore be necessary to provide a small camel's-hair brush,
such as is used by grainers, with which to lightly brush
these particles away.
A very useful tool is a pair of horn forceps, which
cost ninepence, and save staining the fingers.
Many operators wear a pair of India-rubber gloves
while at work, and this of course effectually prevents
the chemicals staining the hands, but as these gloves
cost six shillings a pair, and are not very durable, many
will probably look upon them as a luxury rather than
as a necessity.
The bath, and some of the other solutions, will
require occasional filtering. This is effected by means
of a piece of filter paper being r>laced in a glass funnel,
and the fluid poured on top of it. A glass funnel costs
but a few pence, and a packet containing one hundred
filter papers, ready cut, can be obtained for ninepence.
A stand to hold the filter can be easily made, or one
can be bought for about a couple of shillings. If the
fluid which is being filtered be allowed to run into a
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
59
bottle no stand is required, as the funnel can be placed
in the neck of the bottle. The filter papers are circu-
lar in shape, and when about to be used one should be
folded into four, and then opened out, when it will fit
into the funnel with ease. Care should be taken to
prevent the solution getting between the paper and the
sides of the funnel, as in this case the solution will not
be filtered at all. As some of my readers may wish to
make a funnel stand, Fig. 6 shows a very good form.
When the amateur has supplied himself with the
above apparatus and materials the next indispensable
requisite for carrying out the process is a dark
room, in which to prepare and develope the plates.
In my next paper I intend giving full instructions for
building a special dark room, accompanied by working
drawings ; but some of my readers may have a small
room at their disposal, which they may, with a little
trouble and ingenuity, adapt for the purpose. I will,
therefore, point out the essentials which are, >n "urn h
case, absolutely required. It must be borne in mind
that in the "wet" process, which I intend first to
describe, it is of importance to exclude all -dilute
light; but the room may, nevertheless, be fairly lighted
with orange-coloured light, which has no action upon
iodide of silver, and is therefore said to be " non-
actinic." If, therefore, a suitable room is at hand it is
only necessary to carefully exclude all white light, and
to fill in the window, either with orange-coloured glass,
or to cover the white glass with paper of the requisite
tint. The cost of this paper is two shillings per quire.
It must be borne in mind that every chink which
will admit white light must be stopped up, and that the
door should shut quite close ; if it do not it is best to
have a black curtain on the inside, which can be drawn
over after the door is shut. If these precautions be
neglected your pictures will be spoilt.
Havingsecurely shut out all but non-actinic light from
the operating room, all that is necessary will be a shelf
upon which to keep the necessary solutions, and some
means of washing the plates. If the water is not laid into
the room, a jug and basin will answer for this purpose.
If it is not convenient to fill the window of the
work-room with non-actinic material, the room may be
entirely darkened, and a lamp or candle used, but in
this case an orange-coloured glass or shade should be
placed round the light. A good plan is to place some
green glass or other materLl over the orange, as this
neutralises the somewhat unpleasant effect of a yellow
light, without interfering with its non-actinic properties.
Whatever be the nature of the dark room employed,
a small spirit lamp will be required, not as a source of
light, but for warming plates previous to varnishing
them. Some glass stirring rods, which costs one
shilling per pound, will also be found very useful.
(To be continued.)
MODELLING IN CLAY.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ART OF CARVING
IN WOOD.
II.— The Management and Manipulation of the Clay.
LAY is a very peculiar substance, and when
the amateur first begins to handle it, he
will encounter a great many difficulties
which to him will appear to be insur-
mountable; and possibly they would be
so, if he neglected to attend with scrupulous care to
the instructions which are about to be given for ovei-
coming them. By this means, however, its manage-
ment may be made quite easy, and its use attended
with very little trouble.
Perfectly pure clay, like Kaolin, or porcelain clay, is
much too soft and greasy for use in its raw state ; and
the amateur, as it has been stated in the previous
article, must not attempt to use it in this condition,
but must procure it prepared for the purpose in view
from one or other of the sources that have been indi-
cated. It must not be supposed, however, from what
has been just said, that clay is an utterly intractable
material. On the contrary, it has so many good and
pleasant qualities, that, although numberless efforts
have been made to find a substitute for it for making
models of work in relief, none have yet been discovered
which at all approach it in its almost numberless
advantages.
In order to trace all the steps necessary to be taken
in its manipulation, it is needful to describe the pro-
gress of a piece of work from its commencement to
its completion. A bracket which is not to be perforated
will form a very good lesson. In actual practice the
design will probably be given in some such form as
shown in Fig. 8 — at least, no more than this will be
found in a tracing, or the outline patterns usually fur-
nished to work from. This design consists of a spray
of leaves. There is little or no indication of relief;
the whole of this portion of the work is to be left to
the carver. In the first place, the design must be
transferred in lead pencil to the slate or board on which
the modelling is to be done. White marble slabs offer
a very good surface on which to prepare a model, as
they show lead-pencil marks so plainly. Lead pencils
may also be used upon slate. The amateur modeller
must be careful to have the whole outline upon the slab
before beginning the work of putting on the clay.
Little inaccuracies need not be noticed, as they can be
corrected during the progress of the work. When the
outline has been traced on the modelling board, the
work is ready for the clay. The design presented to
the amateur in Fig. 8 is intended to be carved in a
sunken panel. No portion of it will, therefore, rise
6o
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
FIG.
II. — CLAY PROPERLY
APPLIED.
above the general level of the sides
or framing which encloses the
panel, as shown in the profile.
The drawing is not made to scale,
and the modeller may suit the
work, as far as size is concerned, to
his own requirements. In the bracket
now before him, the measurement trans-
versely may be taken at 9 inches, and vertically
at 10J inches, or even 11 inches.
After getting a bowl of water, and a tolerably large
brush — a painter's dusting-brush will do, or even a small
whisk-brush, made of cocoa-nut fibre — with which to sprinkle
the clay from time to time, to prevent it from drying too rapidly,
the operator is ready to begin work. The first thing to be done
is to take a piece of clay, and roll it into a little cylinder between
the thumb and finger, as shown in Fig. 9. This cylinder, when made,
must be laid along some portion of the outline, and the modeller must
press it down firmly with the forefinger of the left hand upon the slate, at
the same time preventing it from spreading over the line by means of the
chisel-shaped tool (see Fig. 3, page 12), which
is held against the slate upon the outline. The
method of doing this is clearly shown in Fig. 10.
In this way the whole outline can be easily followed
in all its details. It is necessary to be sure that the
clay is packed closely down upon the slate, touching
it in every part, so that no air-bubbles are left, and no
cracks or upraised edges are to be seen. If the leaf is
wide, and the roll of clay does not spread all the way
across, the margin will appear in section as shown in Fig. 1 1.
Both edges when they meet the slate are squeezed down
firmly, so as to be in close contact with it.
Fig. 11, it should be said, shows how the work
would appear if it were properly laid down
on the slate, and then cut across with some
suitable instrument, so as to show the section,
a portion being removed for this purpose from
one side of the incision or the other. Fig. 12,
on the contrary, shows in section a piece of clay that has been
improperly put on the slate, and not pressed firmly down to it,
the edges appearing rough and upraised from the slate, and an
air-bubble below the mass towards the edge on the right.
When clay is put on in this manner, it is liable to crack off, and
cannot be firmly united to anything that may be put on after-
wards. The amateur modeller may be recommended to try the
effect of two pieces of clay placed near together on the slate — the
one properly and perfectly, the other improperly and imperfectly,
and to note the result. He will thus gather knowledge from actual
trial, and the experience thus gained will be of as much use to
him as any that may be gained by mere accident ; and he will
have the satisfaction of not having obtained his experience
through coming to grief over any piece of actual work. In
making the stems, where a rough roll of clay, when pressed
firmly, will extend all the way across the outline, or, rather, the
space between the outlines that indicate its limits on either side.
A
FIG. 12. — CLAY BADLY APPLIED.
FIG. 8.— PATTERN
OF BRACKET TO
BE MODELLED
IN CLAY.
FIG. 13. — BUILDING UP EDGE WITH ROLL OF CLAY.
FIG. 9. — MAKING SMALL ROLL OF CLAY.
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
61
the tool can be used first on one side and then on
the other, and so the clay can be kept within bounds
while being pressed down upon the slate.
In joining two pieces of clay together, or putting a
piece upon work already begun, it is necessary to make
the surfaces smooth that are to come together, and
somewhat moister than the other portions. Then, after
they have been joined with the tool, or fingers, smooth
up and obliterate any trace of the joint. They will
thus adhere firmly. If the line of joining is not oblite-
with the other. No portion will have to be destroyed,
because it has been modelled without a suitable foun-
dation.
After the outline has been solidly fastened by pres-
sure and guidance of the chisel-shaped tool to the
slab or board, the building-up may be begun by apply-
ing little rolls of clay along the middle or sides, as the
case may be. How this is done is shown in Fig. 13,
in which the process of building-up, or heightening an
edge with a roll of clay, is exhibited. After the roll is
FIG. 10. — APPLYING CLAY AND FILLING UP FIGURE DRAWN IN OUTLINE ON SLAB.
rated a crack is begun, and the added piece is
always liable to come off, or the work will inevitably j
break at that point.
When the outline is all finished, and no more can
be done to perfect it, the work is necessary for the
next step. Here it is necessary to observe in model-
ling no two steps should ever be mixed ; all parts of
the work should be in the same stages. The reason
for this the amateur will find out to his sorrow when-
ever he violates it. He must take care to have all the
outline filled before the following step of building-up
is begun, and then there will be no interference of one
pressed down in place, the chisel-shaped- tool must
again be brought into operation to smooth the edge
and obliterate the mark where the clay joins upon the
edge of the work, and the finger can do the same
work for the seam upon the surface.
This process of building-up should be carried on
until the outside wall, which represents the surface of
the board from which the design is to be carved, is as
high as it is designed to make the bottom of the panel
deep. When a leaf or a stem is raised to a proper
height, smooth it up, giving it vertical sides and a flat
top, as if it were intended to have it in this condition.
62
MODELLING IN CLA J".
The finish, indeed, should be carefully imparted as if
it were intended to leave it thus.
In order that the beginner may have as little
trouble as possible in carrying out his work, he should
attend to the following items in regard to the manage-
ment of his material. He has been already made
acquainted with the modes and method to be scrupu-
lously and precisely followed in its manipulation.
Do not, on any account, hold a piece of clay too
long in the hand. It soon becomes warm, and the
consequence is that the moisture will rapidly evaporate
from it, leaving the clay too dry to be worked properly.
This should be noted, and the piece in the fingers
frequently changed, throwing that which has become
too dry, ^and which has, in consequence, hardened,
back into the bowl or box in which the supply is kept.
Clay absorbs water with great rapidity, and in very
considerable quantities. During the progress of the
work the beginner must be constantly on his guard to
have water enough, and, at the same time, not too
much. The consistency of soft putty is what should
be aimed at, and this will be a good guide for the
amateur in keeping his material fit for manipulation
and in thorough working order. There is this diffe-
rence, however : soft putty when worked about in the
hand, in fastening in a pane of glass, gets sticky and
clings to the fingers, small portions breaking away
from the main mass, but clay will not do this, as it is
more truly cohesive than putty. It will soil the fingers,
but when of a suitable consistency for working it will
not stick to them.
When beginning any piece of work, the clay may
be used in a much softer condition than is necessary
as the work progresses. After the first stage, the clay
that is applied to the work should be softer than the
work itself. It then stays in place better, and does
not disturb the mass. When laid on wet, the absorp-
tion of the water by the drier clay below brings the
two portions closely into contact, and makes a solid
joint.
The clay can best be kept in a wooden pail with a
tight cover. Amateurs will find the wooden tubs in
which lard is sent to this country from America suitable
receptacles for clay, when carefully washed and freed
from grease. Some of these are already fitted with
covers, and are used in many households as flour-tubs.
They are furnished with a wooden handle, which
turns on two pins, one on either side, after the manner
of the handle of a pail, and is convenient for lifting
them from place to place. They may be bought of
most grocers or buttermen, for a shilling or there-
abouts. When set aside for a time, the clay must be
sprinkled with water, and a wet cloth thrown in on top
of it, to prevent the moisture from evaporating. While
at work, especially in a warm room, it may need fre-
quent sprinkling in order to keep it in good working
condition. As the clay has a constant tendency to
grow drier by the evaporation of moisture, it is desirable
after it has been standing for some days, to knead it
thoroughly before beginning work, so that all portions
may be of the same consistency. Other things being
equal, a light-coloured clay is better than one of a
darker tint, because it brings out the light and shade
of the work better.
When the work has been under way for some time,
and is considerably hardened, so as to be somewhat
firm to the fingers, it can be finished much better than
when it is in the soft and plastic condition so desirable,
and, indeed, so necessary, at the commencement.
Moist clay is not entirely plastic, though it seems
so at first touch. In working the clay after the model
has been blocked out, the amateur must not attempt
any alteration of form by pressure. He must not try
to make a hollow by pressing the finger into the mass,
or to make an elevation by squeezing the materials
up. Any attempt to work in this way invariably
results in the distortion of the neighbouring parts.
When hollows are required, the clay should be cut
out ; and when a projection or elevation is wanted, it
should be obtained by building it up with new material.
If the clay that is added is a little softer than that
on which it is placed, there will be no danger of dis-
turbing the surrounding portions of the work. Careful
attention to this rule will save a great deal of annoy-
ance and unnecessary labour after a subject is well
advanced.
It is little by little, and step by step, that the
greatest results are invariably accomplished and brought
about ; and if the amateur sedulously follows the in-
structions given in these papers seriatim, noting every
particular as to what to do and what to avoid, care-
fully putting them into practice, he cannot fail to attain
proficiency in the art of modelling in clay, in due time.
He has been shown how to make all the tools and
appliances that are required, and how to manage and
manipulate the material that he must use. He has
also been fully instructed in the mode of drawing a
subject in outline on the board, executing this outlin
in clay by the aid of his fingers and modelling tool,
and building it up to the necessary height. The best
thing that he can do for the present is to practise the
manipulation of the clay in making outlines, and
placing it firmly on the board, bearing in mind that
this practice will help to produce perfection when he
proceeds to carry a piece of work from its commence-
ment to its completion. Time employed in practising
is never time lost, although to those who wish to have
something to show for the time taken up it may some-
times appear so.
( To be continued.)
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
63
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
By PAUL N. RASLVCK.
—An Amateur's Lathe Described.
EFORE proceeding to describe the details
of a plain lathe that could be constructed
by an amateur, it will be advisable to
make him acquainted with the general
construction of a lathe of more compli-
cated form. The objects of various contrivances will
be made known in this manner. The amateur will
also become acquainted with the technicalities of lathe
making. Before attempting to make for oneself it is
well worth while to carefully examine what has been
made by others. The investigation can but lead
to the' acquirement of knowledge. A careful in-
spection of a good lathe will enable us to judge the
particular essentials that are most to be desired in a
lathe adapted to suit any special purposes. Those
who intend to devote their attention chiefly to wood
turning will require a light running lathe ; one that
can be driven at a high speed. If metal work is to
be undertaken, a heavier tool is wanted, and for large
work back gearing is necessary. For many purposes
a slide-rest is indispensable ; it is, however, a costly
addition to a lathe, and as much work is done without
the aid of a slide-rest, this adjunct is frequently dis-
pensed with. It may be e.dded to a lathe at any
subsequent time, and when an amateur has thoroughly
mastered the uses of hand-turning tools he will be
better able to appreciate the value of a slide-rest.
Tools fixed in a slide-rest cannot be made to
accommodate themselves to the peculiarities of the
work, as may be managed with hand tools. A gouge,
or chisel may be tilted a trifle more or less, at the
discretion of the operator, who judges by the effect
produced. When it is obvious that the best result is
attained, the workman at once knows that he is apply-
ing the tool to the best advantage. In the slide-rest
the tool is fixed, and therefore it is of the greatest
importance that it should be fixed in the best position.
The great difference in the effect caused by a very
trifling alteration in the height of a tool, or the angle
at which it is applied can only be estimated justly by
those who have themselves worked with hand tools.
The best advice that can be given to a learner is, com-
mence by using hand tools, and thoroughly master
them before attempting to work with slide-rests and
automatic gear. Also begin with wood-turning in
preference to metal-turning. The former is more
difficult than the latter to a novice, but nevertheless it
should be the first branch for practice.
Tools used for wood have keener edges, and the
material under operation is more easily wrought. It
follows naturally that the difference between good and
bad workmanship is more easily discerned. Cutting
and scraping are obviously different processes when
wood is operated upon, but in dealing with metal the
totally unpractised manipulator may be less able to dis-
tinguish clearly the difference. Some metals crumble
under the action of the cutting tool, and the portion
removed falls in powder, that it is difficult to recognize
as having been cut off. In wood the action of a
cutting edge is apparent at a glance ; if the material
is separated by splitting, the surface reveals the fact.
A turning chisel applied too nearly approaching a
radial position will " dig in," and by stopping the lathe,
or breaking will at once show it. If too much in the
other direction tangentially it will not cut. The
operator will soon learn to appreciate the difference,
and will profit by his experience when working in
other substances. At a future time the cutting angles
of various turning tools may be discussed more fully.
A good plain slide-rest is shown at Fig. 5. The
apparatus illustrated is one made by the Britannia
Company, Colchester, and the design is of the best.
The figure shows a top view, the lower slide is at right
angles to the lathe-bed, the upper one lying parallel
with it. Having the two slides, it is called a com-
pound slide-rest, but it may be mentioned here that
a slide-rest with only one slide is, comparatively
speaking, an object that may take rank with a one-
wheeled coach, both for usefulness and rarity. The
price of the apparatus shown, is in accordance with its
size, and ranges from £2 for a rest suited to a 2A inch
lathe, to ,£8 for one suited to an 8 inch. The large
rests being somewhat different in design.
Such apparatus as slide-rests cannot be made by
amateurs, unless they be very expert ; it will there-
fore be advisable to purchase them complete and
ready to fit on the lathe-bed. To guide those who
may contemplate purchasing, I have only to repeat
that a slide-rest should be strong enough at all parts,
not merely to resist absolute breakage, but to main-
tain perfect rigidity under the wear and tear of a
heavy cut. Several items have to be taken into con-
sideration, when judging the strength, or rather in-
flexibility, of a slide-rest. A certain amount of metal
is requisite to make a solid tool, but much more
depends upon the way in which it is fashioned than
appears to be generally understood. The design,
independent of the weight, is an item of great import-
ance, though judging from the clumsy apparatus that
are frequently seen, it is one that is often neglected.
Good fitting in the sliding parts is essential to the
main object in view. A carefully-fitted slide-rest, of
neat and elegant design, will stand more hard wear
and tear than half-a-dozen of the clumsy, heavy* badly-
64
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
proportioned tools that are sometimes manufactured
for sale.
The screws that actuate the sliding saddles, and
called leading-screws, should be made of steel. The
saddles should be long, to afford ample bearing sur-
face, and also to protect the screws from dust and
turnings. The tool-holder shown is good for small
rests and light work, but one having two clamping
screws should be used on large rests for heavy work.
Unless the slide-rest tool rested flat on the top saddle
of the rest the tool would be apt to chatter if clamped
by one screw only.
The slide-rest is well designed, and very similar to
the illustration (Fig. 5), with a saddle-piece added to
it. The rack fixed under the dovetail is to allow the
slide-rest to be wound
along the bed quickly. The
long handle, which is
slightly out of place in the
drawing, has a pinion gear-
ing in the rack, and by this
contrivance the slide-rest
may be wound along the
bed from end to end. It
will be readily understood
that the saddle being fitted
to slide tightly on the bed,
the rest cannot be shifted
along as in ordinary lathes.
The top slide of the rest
swivels over on either side,
about 500 for turning
cones, etc. The saddle on
which it swivels is gradu-
ated in degrees, so that
the amount of taper may
be readily determined. The
back poppit is fitted with
a square-threaded steel screw, and a bright turned
hand-wheel.
The entire lathe weighs i£ cwt., and is sold com-
plete for fifteen guineas. This includes two chucks,
a face plate and centre plate, spanners, band, etc.,
as illustrated.
While on the subject it will be well to give full
particulars of screw-cutting gear. This particular
branch will then be done with, and need not be brought
up again in a subsequent chapter. "Lathe-Work."
contains an entire chapter devoted to screw-cutting
by self-acting motion, and it will be found a compre-
hensive treatise on the subject
To fully understand the theoretical principles of
screw-cutting in the lathe, by automatic traverse, we will
hypothetically treat a cylindrical rod turned true, and
tunning between the lathe-centres. A cutting tool is
fixed in the slide-rest, this is geared with the leading
screw which runs in bearings parallel to the cylindrical
rod. When the rotary motion of the cylinder is
imparted to the screw, and they are both revolving,
the slide-rest will traverse in the direction of the
axis of the work. If the tool is made co cut the
work, a spiral groove will be produced, this being the
screw-thread. It is evident that when the cylinder
and the guide-screw make equal revolutions contem-
poraneously, the thread cut on the cylinder will be the
same rate or pitch as that of the guide-screw. Further,
if the guide-screw and the cylinder revolve in the same
direction, the threads will be in the same direction,
but if the rotation is in contrary directions the threads
will be reversed— that is, one will be right-handed, and
the other left-handed-
When the relative velocity
of the guide-screw and
cylinder is varied, the ratio
between the respective
threads is varied in the
same proportion. Thus
when the cylinder m; kes
two revolutions to each one
revolution of the guide
screw, the thread cut will
have twice the number of
threads per inch that the
guide-screw has. These
conditions, once perfectly
understood, screw-cutting,
by means of change-wheels,
will be no longer the
mystery it is to some.
When the pitch of the lead-
ing screw is known, the
production of threads of
any desired ratio is
merely a matter of calculation.
Heavy screw-cutting lathes, and indeed most lathes
in general use, have cast-iron change-wheels. These
are very cheap and effective. High class lathes,
made without regard to cost, are frequently fitted
with gun-metal, or brass, engine-cut wheels. The
teeth in these engine-cut wheels are much finer than
those that are cast. Cast wheels, for foot-lathes, are
generally about 10 or 12 pitch, cut wheels are from
16 to 20 pitch. Here we may explain that "pitch"
means the number of teeth per inch diameter. A
wheel 5 inches in diameter, and 10 pitch, would have
50 teeth ; if it were 20 pitch, it would have 100 teeth.
A simple train of wheels consists of three only ;
two have to be in definite proportion, the third is
merely an idle wheel. One is fixed on the mandrel —
it is called the driver. One is fixed on the leadinrr-
— COMrOUND SLIDE-KEST.
LATHE-MAKING TOR AMATEURS.
65
screw, it is called the driven. The intermediate wheel,
called a stud-wheel, is of any size convenient for con-
necting the driver and the driven. A compound train
of wheels, in its most simple form, consists of four
wheels. It differs from the simple train, just described,
only inasmuch that the stud-wheel is replaced by two
wheels of different sizes. They are fixed on the same
axis, and revolve together, one driven by the mandrel-
wheel, the other driving the screw-wheel. The rela-
tive size of these two wheels form elements in the
calculation, the driver
becoming a part of
the mandrel-wheel, the
driven part of the
screw-wheel.
The possessor of a
screw - cutting lathe
should prepare a table
showing the threads
that can be cut, and
the wheels required.
Every different form
of lathe will require
certain modifications
in the table, and dif-
ferent pitches of guide-
screw will of course
necessitate different
calculations. The table
must therefore be pre-
pared according to the
rate of the guide-screw,
the wheels available,
and the arrangement
of the wheel-plate ;
once made, the table
is used for reference,
and all trouble of cal-
culating for each ope-
ration is obviated.
A formula for cal-
culating the wheels
is all that need here
be added. There are very many rules, and various
ways of stating them, but the following is, perhaps,
the easiest : — Write down, in the form of a vulgar
fraction, the number of threads in a given length
of the guide-screw, and the number of threads in
the same length of the screw to be cut. Multiply
both by a number that will produce a numerator and
denominator equal to the number of teeth in some
two wheels in your set of change-wheels. Put the
quotient of the guide-screw on the mandrel, or as
driver, and that of the pitch to be cut on the guide-
screw, or as driven. Arranged in this way, the desired
FIG. 6.
BENCH-LATHE, WITH SCEEW-CUTTING MOTION AND BACK-GEAR
result will be attained. Sometimes, when the fraction
will not include two wheels, it is necessary to break
up the numbers, so that they will comprise four wheels
and so make a compound train. In this case the
quotients of the guide-screw form d?ivers ; those of
the screw to be cut are the driven wheels. This
calculation involves only very elementary knowledge
of arithmetic, and few can fail to work out the simple
rule.
The illustration, Fig. 6, shows a very complete
lathe recently intro-
duced by The Britan-
nia Company, Col-
chester, as a speciality
for amateurs. It has
a self-acting screw-
cutting motion, and
back gearing. The
headstocks are 3-inch
centre, but the bed is
fitted with a gap-piece,
which, if removed,
allows a disc over 10
inches in diameter, to
swingin the gap. When
the headstocks are at
the extremities of the
bed the distance be-
tween the centres is
19 inches, so that bars
up to that length may
be mounted for turn-
ing.
The bed is machine
planed, the edges being
under cut dove-tailed
to take the sliding car-
riage of the slide-rest.
The bed is 30 inches
long, measures 2i
inches across the face,
and 2j inches deep.
The gap is i\ inches
deep, and nearly 3 inches wide. Two short feet
support the bed on a wooden table, which is itself
fitted on cast-iron standards. The driving-wheel, or
fly-wheel, is 20 inches in diameter, with four grooves
for various speeds. It is mounted on a stud fixed in
the left hand standard, instead of having the usual
crank. The treadle oscillates on a stretcher-bar fixed
to the lower part of the standards on the rear side.
The headstock is fitted with a cast steel mandrel,
running through both bearings, and supported at the
back end by a screw-tail pin. This affords a bearing
for the mandrel when drilling, etc., without it the cone
66
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
bearing would be liable to jamb. The mandrel has steel
lock-nuts to take up any end play that may occur.
The back gear arrangement, shown in this illustration,
was fully explained in the first chapter (see page 5).
That portion of the mandrel projecting to the left,
carries a small pinion, which communicates motion
to the leading screw when the screw-cutting gear is
in operation. A plate carrying two wheels gearing
together, and either of which may be geared with
the pinion on the mandrel, gives the means of reversing
the motion, from right to left or from left to right,
instantaneously, without stopping the lathe.
The leading screw is shown on the front side of the
bed. It is i inch in diameter, and accurately cut to j inch
pitch. This leading screw gears with the slide-rest,
by means of a split nut, which can be made to
grasp the screw, or disengaged from it by giving a
half turn to the straight lever handle, shown pointing
upwards towards the left in the illustration. An
excerpt from " Lathe-Work '; will explain the gene-
ral principles of screw-cutting lathes.
Screw-cutting lathes are those which, by an
arrangement of wheels receiving motion from the
mandrel and conveying it to the leading screw, move
the slide-rest along the lathe bed at a uniform rate, so
that a tool fixed in the slide-rest will cut a regular
spiral on the surface of a cylinder revolving between
the centres. By arranging the wheels, which transmit
the motion from the mandrel to the screw, in relative
proportions, the rate or pitch of the thread cut on the
work may be coarse or fine to any degree within the
compass of the wheels available. These are called
change-wheels, twenty-two usually constituting the
set.
The lathe herewith illustrated has a full set of
change-wheels. The smallest having 20 teeth, the set
comprises wheels from 20 to 25 teeth, advancing by
one tooth, and from 25 to 100 advancing by five teeth.
The wheels are cast iron, turned true on the edges of
the teeth. They run smoothly and without much noise.
The leading screw itself revolves, in bearings
attached to the bed ; the end towards the mandrel
projects, and is made to take change-wheels. In the
illustration the screw is shown in front of the bed.
Some makers put it between the bed, but in that
position it cannot be cleaned so readily, which is a
disadvantage. A slotted arm, called the wheel-plate,
swinging round the screw, carries one or more studs, on
which the change-wheels also fit. The piece of
mandrel which here carries a pinion, is often made to
allow wheels of any size to be put on it. In use, a
wheel on the leading screw, another on the stud, and
another on the mandrel, make a combination pro-
ducing an effect proportionate to their relative dia-
meters.
A screw-cutting lathe not only enables one to cut
threads of any rate and diameter perfectly true, but it
is also available for working as a self-acting machine
when turning cylinders, the rate of screw then being
cut amounting to nothing more than a regular feed.
In " Lathes and Turning" amateurs are advised
to purchase their lathes of a respectable maker
and not attempt to make one for themselves. It will,
however, be my aim to show how a useful lathe can be
made by an amateur. Some of the parts must be
bought ready made, as they necessitate the use of
extensive and expensive plant for their production.
Headstocks with the mandrel and poppit fitted ready
for work are not easy to make without a large assort-
ment of various tools. Amateurs who desire to build
the framework of their lathes and add the head-stocks,
may suit their requirements from the Britannia Com-
pany's works. Single-gear headstocks will be sup-
plied by that firm at the following prices :— 2 in. £1 ;
3 in. ,£1 10s. ; 4 in. £3 5s. ; 5 in. £4 5s. ; if with back
gear the cost is increased, 3 in. £3 5s.; 4 in. £5 ios.;
5 in- ££> 5s- These headstocks are really useful
machinery. A few words of advice to purchasers of
lathes are given in the book above-named, and these
may be commended to the attention of intending
buyers.
In purchasing a lathe the tyro must not suppose
that all those made for the same purpose are neces-
sarily alike. Each maker has his own peculiar style,
and although lathes differ much in design and work-
manship each maker probably considers his own
make the best. The design of a lathe more especially
affects its convenience and usefulness, and the
workmanship the quality and accuracy of the articles
manufactured in the lathe. With regard to the
workmanship there can be but one opinion, and
that is that it cannot be too good or too accurate.
Money spent in burnishing, or otherwise uselessly
ornamenting a lathe, is money wasted ; but money
spent in procuring accuracy of workmanship is well
invested.
By judiciously shaping the component parts of a
machine, a good mechanic will contrive to give the
whole a graceful, finished, and mechanical appearance.
This he does without extra expenditure, and without
impairing the usefulness of the machine. Another
workman will cut a number of beads and mouldings
on his work, and will burnish a great portion of it, so
as to make as much bright work as possible ; the un-
polished, or black parts, he will paint with some
gaudy colour, and daub it with gilt and bronze. This
he does, imagining he improves the work, whereas he
impairs it. The beads and sharp edges and all angles
weaken the machine considerably. In the course of
working they are sure to be bruised and dented ; they
A CHEST OF BRA WERS IN MINIATURE,
67
also cut and bruise the hands of the workman. Bur-
nished machinery usually has the appearance of being
so treated to cover defects, and the style becomes what
is known as deep scratches and high polish.
As to the design of a lathe, that depends much on
the fancy of the user, and is much a matter of opinion.
When one is accustomed to use a lathe of any pecu-
liar design — even though it be in reality a bad arrange-
ment—being familiarised with its defects and incon-
veniences, one is apt to overlook its bad features, and
be prejudiced in its favour.
{To be continued.)
A CHEST OF DRAWERS IN MINIATURE.
N amateur who is beginning to attain some
little proficiency in the art of carpentry,
and can manage to put together any kind
of rough framing, will naturally desire to
try his hand on some piece of joinery
which affords plenty of scope for the exercise of con-
structive skill, and yet does not involve manual work of
such difficulty as may perhaps lead to failure. Such a
piece of work is to be found in the chest of drawers in
miniature whose, front elevation and side elevation, as
well as the method, involved in the construction of its
different parts, are represented in the accompanying
illustrations. The idea has been suggested by an article
in an American contemporary, recommending a small
chest of drawers of this kind as a receptacle for some of
the many odds and ends that are so often to be found
lying about here and there in the kitchen or the living
room, and which, but too frequently have no fixed
place where they may be put away until wanted. " I
have noticed," says the writer of the paper to which
allusion has been made, " that in many instances there
is no place in which to keep the family spices, except
loose paper-bags or dilapidated tin-cans, and the case
is much the same with the table-knives, which are
usually kept in a box or basket, or loose on a shelf.
In either case, they are liable to become rusty or
covered with dust. The article which is here described
meets both these wants. It may be made of ordinary
soft clean wood, well seasoned and painted, with the
mouldings of a darker shade, or it may be stained in
imitation of black walnut and varnished, or it may be
made of hardwood with walnut mouldings, and var-
nished. Its dimensions exclusive of projections should
be about 12 inches high, 12 inches long, and 9 inches
deep, with a thickness of § or h an inch.
Now, although a combined spice-box and knife-
box, may b ; very desirable in establishments in which
the former are kept in paper-bags, and the latter are
left lying loose on a shelf, the size which is recom-
mended, being in fact three-fourths of a cubic foot,
appears somewhat cumbersome for the purpose, and,
to certain extent, unnecessary, when more convenient
tin spice-boxes can be bought for household use that
take up far less room, and knives can be kept free
from rust by a little regular cleaning, even if placed in
an ordinary knife-box. But like many other pieces of
joinery of this kind, this chest of drawers in miniature
is eminently suggestive, for what could be better than
a cabinet thus made as a depository for nails and
screws of all sorts and sizes or, when constructed on a
larger scale and of stouter materials, as a receptacle for
iron work and iron fittings of all kinds, new and old.
Indeed, it is mainly for such purposes as these that
this contrivance is introduced here to the notice of
amateurs, although, very possibly, there are some who
might like to make it for use within doors for the
storage of small articles in the kitchen or elsewhere,
and for this reason the dimensions originally suggested
shall be adhered to, as far as the holding capacity of
the chest of drawers is concerned ; that is to say, we
will take that part of the cabinet or box in which the
drawers are to be inserted as being 12 inches x 12
inches x 9 inches, or 1296 cubic inches in solid
content.
These, however, are not the absolute dimensions of
the cabinet, or chest of drawers, in height, or even in
width and depth, when complete ; they are merely the
dimensions of that part of it in which the drawers are
inserted ; so for the better instruction of the amateur
it is needful to go through the whole structure seriatim :
first, the carcase, and then the drawers, and some
various adjuncts that may be ap-
pended to them, to render them
better adapted for purposes that shall
be mentioned.
Let us look, first of all, at the front
elevation and side elevation of the
chest of drawers, which are shown
in Figs. 1 and 2, and which are
drawn on a scale of 2 inches to 1
foot. An inspection of the figures
will show at once what is meant by the
" holding capacity " of the cabinet. It is the part in-
cluded between the top and the moulding below it, and
theplinth and its superincumbent moulding; or, in other
words, it is the portion shown between the bottom of
the top moulding and the top of the bottom moulding.
Now, if such holding capacity as has been mentioned
is required for the drawers, the height of the casing
must be taken at 14 inches, in order that room may be
obtained for fixing on the upper moulding immediately
below the top, and the plinth and its moulding round
the bottom. Thus the dimensions of the casing or
n\
FIG. 3. — NOTCH.
ING IN FRONT.
68
A CHEST OF DRA I VERS IN MINIATURE.
carcase will be 14 inches x 12 inches x 9 inches. Now,
supposing it is determined to make the chest of
drawers in these proportions, it will be necessary to
have a piece for the back 14 inches x 12 inches, and
two pieces for the sides 14 inches x 8 inches ; the
width of the sides being taken at 8 inches, because,
f the board that is used be £ inch thick, and the
back and the framing that forms the front be bradded
and glued up to the sides, this, together with the
width of the side-piece, will make up the outside
measurement of the side to 9 inches, since £ + 8
inches + i inch = 9 inches. The general appearance
and construction of the chest of drawers are shown in
Figs. I and 2 ; the former, as it has been said, repre-
senting the front elevation, and the latter the side
elevat io n.
The back, as
a matter of
course, is so-
lid, and so
are the sides,
to a certain
extent ; but
the portions
of the sides
in which the
side -drawers
are inserted
should be cut
away bodily,
and a cross-
piece of wood
dovetailed
into the side
and back, as
shown at A in
Fig.2 ; for as
the grain of
the wood runs
from top to bottom in the side-pieces, it is manifest that
there would be but slight cohesion or cohesive strength
in the narrow piece that would be left when openings
had been made for the two drawers, and it would soon
break away. Both sides of the cabinet are alike. It
should be said, that if the amateur determines to
connect front and sides by notching, or dovetailing,
and sides and back by dovetailing, the width of the
wood taken for the sides should be 9 inches instead
ef 8 inches, as when the connection is to be made
by merely nailing the parts together, edges to
ends.
The front is altogether different to the back and
sides, as it consists of a framework presenting open-
ings for the reception of the drawers. If the sides be
made 9 inches in width, the transverse pieces may be
notched or dovetailed into the edges of the sides. 01
the five transverse or horizontal pieces required, the
top piece must be 1 inch wide, the bottom piece 2
inches wide, and the three pieces in the middle i inch
wide. If the sides be made 9 inches wide, there will
be wanted only three vertical pieces, each £ inch wide,
to make the divisions between the drawers ; but if they
be 8 inches, two side-pieces of the same width and 14
inches long will be required. The wood used for this
framing will be £ inch thick, and the pieces may be
notched together, as shown in Fig. 3, the transverse
pieces and the vertical pieces being so notched, that
the former may drop into and on the latter. When
this framework has been made, care should be taken
to see that the front, back, and sides all fit accurately
together; but
they must not
be bradded
and glued up
until the in-
terior fittings
are prepared
and ready for
insertion.
The detail
of the front
and the run-
ners for the
drawers in
the front,
which form
the chief part
of the inte'
rior fittings,
are shown in
Fig. 4, which
is drawn on
a scale of 6
inches to 1
foot, and shows the upper corner of the cabinet
to the left. In this A and B are the top piece, and
the transverse piece below it, notched into the sides
C and the vertical piece D forming the opening E F G H,
which is 2| inches square ; and this, it must be re-
membered, is the size of the opening for all the
small drawers in front and the width of the opening
for the bottom drawer, which extends along the
whole length of the cabinet. For the runners, pieces
of wood £ inch square, as shown at K, enclosed by
solid lines above and below, and by dotted lines at
the sides, should be glued to the sides in the position
indicated as in relation to the framing of the front;
and the intermediate runners, as shown at L, should
be 1 J inches wide and £ inch thick, with a piece of
stuff J inch square glued on the top of each, as shown
I.— FRONT ELEVATION. FIG. 2.— SIDE ELEVATION.
CHEST OF DRAWERS IN MINIATURE.
A CHEST OF DRA WERS IN MINIATURE.
6g
£
at M, to keep each drawer
apart and in its place. All
the runners extending from
the front inwards towards
the back should go only so
far as the drawers themselves
extend into the interior, and
should there meet and be
notched into a piece of board
i inch thick and gl inches
wide, placed across the in-
terior from side to side. This
extends downwards as far as
the bottom of the runners on
which the lowest tier of small
drawers slide in and out, and
it not only receives and sup-
ports the ends of the runners
stretching from the front
towards the back, but also
serves to carry the runners
that support the
inner sides of
the drawers in-
serted in the
sides of the
cabinet at the
back, as shown
in Fig. 2.
As soon as
the runners
have been fitted
into their
places, the ama-
teur artisan may begin to
put the carcase of his
cabinet together. First
of all, the runners for the
side drawers must be
attached to the back and
to the partition within.
Next, the back may be
glued and bradded to the
sides, if not dovetailed,
and the interior partition
inserted and secured by
brads. It will be better
if shallow grooves are cut
in the sides to receive the
partition. The runners for
the front drawers must
then be fixed in their
respective places, and,
lastly, the front must be
put on. When this has
£
rl
^7
CJ
M
FIG. 4. — DETAIL OF FRONT AND RUNNERS.
V
r
FIG. 5. — CONSTRUCTION OF DRAWERS — SIDE VIEW.
FIG. 7.— NOTCHED SLIPS IN DRAWER TO HOLD KNIVES.
been done, it will be better
to secure the casing thus con
structed with clamps, and
leave it thus for about
twenty-four hours, until the
glue is perfectly hard.
For the bottom a piece
of wood must be cut 11
inches x 8 inches, which may
be dropped into its place,
and be fitted against and
glued to the runners attached
to the sides, to receive the
large drawer at the bottom,
and two extra pieces | inch
square placed between the
ends of these at front and
back, so as to form a frame.
Small blocks may be put at
intervals in the angle formed
by the bottom and the interior
of the casing
that surrounds
it, in order to
strengthen the
structure. For
theplinthpieces
must be cut
2§ inches wide,
andof the shape
shown in Figs. 1
and 2, and
attached to the
exterior of the
casing, so as to overlap it,
and extend or project
beyond it. One inch is
allowed for the attachment
of the plinth to the casing,
the bottom of which is
denoted in these illustra-
tions by dotted lines. In
order to take away from
the abruptness of the
angle formed by the plinth
and casing, a small
moulding, \ inch square,
hollowed along one edge,
as shown on a larger scale
at N in Fig. 4, may be
dropped into the angle all
round by way of finish.
It was in order to form a
holding for the plinth and
moulding just described,
H
D; F |E
FIG. 6. — END VIEW OF
DRAWER.
70
A CHEST OF DRA JVERS IN MINIATURE.
and the similar moulding at the top, that the casing
was made 14 inches in height.
In order to complete the casing, nothing now re-
mains but to put on the top. The board which forms
the top is 14 inches X 11 inches. The edges are
rounded, as shown at O in Fig. 4, and a moulding is
placed below it, attached to the casing, as at N. When
the top has been fastened down, ledges should be
placed round it at the back and sides. The ledges
should be 2 inches deep, and] made of \ inch stuff.
They are fitted on to the top, directly over the sides
and back of the casing below.
The length of the drawers in front will depend on
the width of the drawers at the sides of the cabinet,
and vice versa. Suppose, for the sake of argument,
that the width of the side
drawers is 5 inches, as shown
in Fig. 2, then the length of
the front drawers will be
5 inches, measuring from
fig. 8.— partition in large the surface of the framing
DRAWER. that forms the front_ Qf
course, it will be understood that it is necessary to
regulate the width and length of the drawers respec-
tively in front and at the sides before commencing the
work ; and before the amateur puts tool to wood, he
should prepare accurate working drawings of every
part.
The construction of the drawers is shown in Figs.
5 and 6, which are drawn on a scale of 6 inches to the
foot. First of all, a piece of wood is cut, 1% inches
square, supposing the drawer under consideration to
be one of the small drawers in front, which should fit
accurately but easily into the opening in the framing
of the front whkflfc it is intended to fill. In order to
secure a close joint, a piece of wood % inch thick, and
overlapping the block on every side by £ inch, and
therefore 2# inches square, is^glued to the front. This
accounts for the projections shown at the sides of
Fig. 1, and on the left side of Fig. 2. The edge of
this projecting piece should be taken off all round,
being bevelled or gently rounded as the amateur artisan
may prefer. Before proceeding with the construction
of the drawer, it may be said that the drawer may be
finished in front by a small knob, not more than J inch
in diameter — less than this would be better — or a ring
passing through a small knob, to which a screw is
attached. This, however, is a matter of minor detail,
n which the amateur must be left to follow the bent o;
his inclination.
To return to the construction of the drawer, the front
block, \ inch thick and 2| inches square, is shown by E F
G H, and the overlapping piece by the dotted lines out-
side and parallel with the lines E F, F G, G H, H e. Fig. 5
gives a longitudinal section of the drawer, showing
how the different parts are put together. Thus A is
the piece that enters the opening in the framework
of the front, and B the piece that overlaps it. Sup-
posing that the drawers are made of \ inch stuff, a
rabbet i inch square must be made round the \ mcn
block. Two pieces of wood 4! inches by 2I inches
are then cut for the sides, and another piece of the
same length, and if inches wide for the bottom,
shown in section at c in Figs. 5 and 6, while the sides
are shown in section at D and E in Fig. 6. At \ inch
from the inner end of the sides and bottom a shallow
groove, say to inch in depth, is made to receive the
back. F, shown in section in Fig. 5, and in elevation
in Fig. 6, the dotted lines showing the extent of the
back, and the solid lines the extent of the sides and
bottom in section. When the pieces are ready, each
drawer should be glued up, and secured otherwise
with a few small brads. If it be thought desirable, a
cover may be made to the drawer, sliding in small
grooves in the sides and front, as shown at G in
section in Fig. 5, and in elevation in Fig. 6, the
depression at H denoting a thumb-notch for the with-
drawal of the sliding cover.
The large drawer at the bottom, if used for the
reception of knives as a knife-box, or for putting away
chisels or carving tools, may be fitted with slips cr
even blocks of wood from f inch to \ inch thick, and
from i inch to I inch deep, placed apart at such dis-
tances as may be found necessary. These are de-
noted in Fig. 7, by the notched slips A, B, c. In the
figure which represents a view of the interior of the
large drawer, these slips are arranged for the reception
of table-knives. The figure is not drawn to scale, as
the dimensions and notches must be regulated by the
amateur according to his own requirements. For
knives blocks about 1 inch in length would be as well
as, or even better than slips, but the slips need not be
glued down to the bottom of the drawer, and are
therefore removable at pleasure. A slip might be
placed on each side of the drawer, and another in the
centre, as shown in the figure, so regulated that the
narrow openings in the middle slip are opposite the
wide openings in the side slips. Thus the handles of
two knives oppositely placed, may be dropped into
the wide openings at the sides, and their blades
would fall into the narrow opening in the centre. If
intended for the reception of cutlery, the drawer should
be lined entirely, and the blocks covered with green
baize or soft leather. It will be found useful if the
large drawer at the bottom be used as a knife-box, to
put a partition across it from side to side, shaped as
in Fig. 8, and slipped into the shallow grooves in the
sides. The partition, which helps to strengthen the
drawer, must be well glued and bradded in.
Lastly, to those amateurs who may not be skilful
VIOLIN MAKING : AS IT IV AS, AND IS.
7i
enough to make these small drawers, or who may be
disinclined to make so many, it may be said that they
can save themselves much labour and trouble in this
way, by buying at a tobacconist's a number of small
cigar-boxes to serve as the drawers, and adapting the
carcase to the dimensions of the boxes. Nothing
more is then necessary than to glue on a piece of thin
wood, larger than the end of the box every way by
f inch, to form the overlapping face, and secure a close
joint. The wood used for the carcase of such a chest
of drawers in miniature as has been described, should
be good clean pine, and the drawers, if not formed of
cigar-boxes to save trouble, should be made of the
same material. Mahogany may be used, of course, if
the amateur prefers it, and this would look better than
pine for household use.
VIOLIN MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD H. ALLEN.
H
I.— The History and Origin of Bowed Instruments.
HE series of articles, of which this is the
first, is dedicated to that large brother-
hood of amateurs whose ambition has
prompted them to inquire — too often
without response — "How to make a
fiddle?" The object of these chapters will be to
enlighten them on this subject, and to set before them
the directions and rules which they must follow to
attain their object The exterior form of this king of
musical instruments varies considerably when viewed
with the eye of a connoisseur ; but though with a little
experience these differences are easily discernible, it
requires the study of years— nay, of a life time, it has
been said, before one can say, on seeing an instru-
ment, " That scroll was chiselled by Nicolaus Amati,
that outline was cut by Stradivarius, this vamish was
compounded and laid on by Guarnerius," and so on.
" Bah ! " I fancy I hear some one say, " as if there
was any difference in fiddles." To that man I should
say, " Go to any collector, and get him to show you a
Long Strad and a Grand Amati, a Gasparo Tenor
and one by Kennedy, and come back " a wiser and
humbler man." This art of " naming" instruments is a
very rare one ; perhaps no one ever understood it better
than the late Mr. Charles Reade, who is no better
known for his literary and dramatic works, than as an
enthusiastic and genuine collector and connoisseur of
the members of the violin family. To his valuable
letters, published in the " Pall Mall Gazette," August,
1872 (the time of the Great Exhibition of Musical
Instruments at South Kensington), we are indebted
for much valuable information in the forthcoming
chapters.
Before entering upon the purely mechanical portion
of the art of violin making, I will, as shortly as pos-
sible, go over in review, the history, origin, and makers
of the violin, and its relations, which since its perfec-
tion in its present form, in the sixteenth century, may
justly be said to have ruled the musical world. For
fuller details, into which time and space forbid me to
go, I cordially recommend to my readers the valuable
and interesting works of Messrs. Hart, Dubourg,
Sandys and Forster, and those of MM. Fetis and
Coussemaker, whose principal works have been trans-
lated from the original French, and which ought to
form a leading feature in every violinist's library.
With these few remarks, by way of introduction, for
which I crave the indulgence of my readers, I will pro-
ceed to consider the history and origin of the four
instruments, which are the principals in every or-
chestra, and of whom the smallest is the king : namely,
the Violin, Viola (Alto, Tenor, Ouinte), Violoncello
(Basse), and Violon (Double-bass, Contre-basse). I
shall confine myself to rapidly sketching the outlines
of the progress of the instrument from the earliest
antiquity to the sixteenth century, which saw the com-
pletion of the violin in its present form, which has not
altered since that time, though a few important experi-
ments on alteration of shape, to which I shall refer in
a future chapter, have been made.
Going straight back to the ancient Egyptians, we
find, on the Tomb of Osirtasen I., (the probable
Pharaoh of Joseph,) a group of figures, perhaps repre-
senting the arrival of the Israelites in Egypt, one of
which is playing an instrument (Fig. 1), which it will
be seen is, roughly, very like the " crwth " of the
Ancient British and Welsh ; but with this difference,
that it was played with the fingers, or plectrum. It is
on this word plectrum that, a great deal turns. If the
word " plectrum " can properly be construed " bow," as
it too often is, the use of bowed instruments is little
short of pre-historic ; but it is not so : the highest
authorities agreeing that the plectrum was an instru-
ment used for hitting or plucking the strings. It is
held by learned classics and antiquarians, that the
Phoenicians colonized Spain, and that Britain was
peopled from thence long before the Roman invasion ;
and as they naturally took their music with them, it is
at least plausible to argue that the bow was an inven-
tion introduced in this country, suggested by the
friction of the plectrum. According to Mr. Carl Engel
(who advances strong evidence in support), the inven-
tion of the bow belongs to the Hindoos, who used it
with an instrument called " ravanastron," at least
2000 years ago. That the chrotta, crwth, or crwd,
was a British instrument, is evidenced by the words
72
VIOLIN MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS,
I. — ANCIENT STRINGED IN-
STRUMENT.
some considered identical with the
chrotta, or crwth, is the "rotta,"
or " rote," which was more or less
incurved at the sides, to give play
to the bow, as in the old oblong
shape the bow must necessarily
have struck several strings at once,
though, according to M. Fetis, the
rote was a percussion instrument of
the guitar description.
M. de Coussemaker gives an
illustration from a MS. of the
eleventh century, at Limoges, of a
crwth, or rote, with three strings,
which is reproduced in Fig. 2.
There is also one in Worcester
Cathedral (Fig. 3), of about the
twelfth century, which is figured by
Carter in his " Antient Sculptures,"
which will be seen to have been
held like the modern violin. M. de
Coussemaker gives an illustration
(Fig. 4) of a crwth of the thirteenth
century, from the Cathedral at
Amiens, which has six strings, and
sound-holes
of Venantius Fortu-
natus, Bishop of Poic-
tiers, who, A.D. 570,
mentions the "Chrotta
Britanna." This early
instrument has lasted
to comparatively re-
cent times among the
Welsh, and we can
trace its existence from
century to century
among old sculptures,
MSS., and the like.
Derived from, and by
one John Morgan,
of Newburgh, Angle-
sea. I give a figure of
the six-stringed crwth
(Fig. 6), which conse-
quently needs no
further description.
Attention is directed
to the arrangement of
the six strings, four on,
and two off the finger-
board, which last
appear to have been
played pizzicato with
VIOL (10TH CENTURY).
FIG. 2. — ANCIENT CRWTH OR ROTE.
FIG. 3. — CRWTH
TURY).
not unlike the
modern/ holes. We find it
again among the sculptures
ortside Melross Church, built
in the fourteenth century ;
and we have a poetical des-
cription of the instrument
given us by Edward Jones,
in his " Reliques of the
Welsh Bards," from which
description it appears that
the back of the instrument
bulged like the modern violin
back. As late as 1770, Daines
th cen- Barrington described the
crwth as being played by
the thumb, the flattish bridge placed
obliquely, the circular sound-holes,
through the left of which one of the
legs of the bridge passing to the
back serves as a sound-post, the
other resting naturally on the belly.
I believe only one specimen of this
primitive instrument now exists,
the property of W. G. Wynne, Esq.,
who exhibited it at South Kensing-
ton in 1872. This unique instru-
ment is figured by Sandys and
Forster, without strings, bridge, or
tail-piece. It is labelled 1742, but
is probably of far greater antiquity ;
it measures 22 inches in length, gj
in width, and 2 in depth ; the
finger-board measuring io| inches.
From the word chrotta, crwth, or
crwd, comes the old English word
" crowd," for a fiddle, which is met
with in a Cornish play of the four-
teenth century (the Cornish dialect
being identical as to origin with the
Welsh). Middleton uses the word
seventeenth, and
in the
Richards in the eighteenth
century. It is also met with
in the works of Ben Jonson
and Marston.
The word " fiddle " is of
immense antiquity, being
derived in all languages from
the old Gothic. Thus we
have in the old German, vide
(a fiddle), videtere (a fiddler)
videln (to fiddle) ; in the
Icelandic, fidla ; in th
Danish, fedel ; in the Dutch
videl, viool, and veel ; the
Flemish, videl ; and the
FIG. 5. — GIGUE (BOS-
CHERVILLE).
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
IS
FIG. 10. — THREE-STRINGED
VIOL 'I2TH CENTURY).
FIG. 14. — VIOI. DA GAMRA ft6;oV
FIG. IS —PER A, OR POCHE,
WITH BOW '1636V
74
VIOLIN MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
modern German, fidel, or fiedel. All these are given
in M. Dubourg's interesting work on the violin. As
an Anglo-Saxon word, " fythele " is of great antiquity,
as countless extracts prove, of which I shall only quote
one, from the legendary life of St. Christopher, written
about A.D. 1200, In this we find —
" Chrystofre hym served longe,
The Kynge loved melody of fythele and of song.**
From the word " fythele " is probably derived the
French word " vielle," which is now only applied to
the hurdy-gurdy, which is nearly allied to the old
" organistrum," which is well represented in the
museum at Rouen, from a bas-relief of the twelfth
century, at Boscherville.
A great advance in the way of change of shape is
mentioned in a MS. of the fourteenth century, which
ascribes to one Albinus, who seems to have lived
about A.D. 804, the invention of a four-stringed instru-
ment, tuned C, D, G, E, much incurved at the sides, as
shown in the figure (Fig. 7). The Cotton MS., tenth
century, gives a figure playing a viol held up to the
chin, and played with a bow (Fig. 8). It is pear-
shaped, and has a slim neck and two circular sound-
holes, but no appearance of bridge or finger-board.
There is also one (Fig. 5) from the bas-relief ; t
Boscherville, to which reference has been already made,
similarly held, and having two semicircular sound-
holes and three strings, with four pegs, but no bride e
or finger-board : this was probably a gigue. From the
same bas-relief is another similar figure playing on an
instrument, possibly a rebec, held not unlike the viol
da gamba of a later day (Fig. 9). In the porch of the
Cathedral of Notre Dame de Chartres, also of the
twelfth century, is found a viol with three strings and
a bridge (Fig. 10). It is particularly thick, heavy, and
cumbrous in make, the bridge deeply grooved to re-
ceive very thick strings, and the sound-holes very
large.
The gigue, from which is derived the modern
German word " geige," was a pear-shaped viol with
three strings and four sound-holes, but no bridge or
finger-board. It was in vogue in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, and towards the end of the four-
teenth the head was not unlike the modern scroll.
Fig. 11 is from the Cathedral at Mans, fourteenth
century. Martin Agricola (1545) mentions four sorts
of geig, or gigue ; the Discantus (Fig. 12, which shows
the improving head), the Altus, Tenor, and Bassus,
which all had a bridge, a tail-piece, three strings, two
crescent-shaped sound-holes, and practically a finger-
board, as will be seen in Fig. 12. This last date,
1545, brings us very near indeed to the invention of
the present perfect violin. In 1542, Luscinius, a
Benedictine, in his " Musuragia seu Praxis Musicae,"
gives rough figures of a true viola da gamba, and also
of a rebec, a sort of three-stringed violoncello, which is
also mentioned by Gerson, in the fourteenth century.
A most interesting figure, playing the rebec, held to
the chin, is found in the Minstrels' Gallery at Exeter
Cathedral, of the fourteenth century.
It is now that we arrive at the time of the true
viols, the immediate forerunners, and, indeed, early
companions, of the violin as it now exists. At the
beginning of this fifteenth century, viols began to be
well incurved, and as makers we hear of Ott, and Frey,
of Nuremburg ; and, about the middle, Joan Kerlino,
of Brescia, the probable founder of the Brescia school.
There was extant in 1450, according to Laborde, a
viol of Kerlino, dated 1449, which was exhibited by
Koliker at Paris in 1804, which was converted into a
viola by the substitution of a new head. In the first
half of the sixteenth century we come across Duiffo-
prugear of Bologna, Linarolli of Venice, Dardelli of
Mantua, and others, who have been cited by some as
violin-makers ; but it is now certain that they only
made the viol class of instrument, such as the viola
d'amore, or treble viol, the viola bastarda, or alto viol,
the viola da braccia, or tenor viol (hence the modern
German bratsche for tenor), and the viola da gamba, or
bass viol. These all had six strings, and frets to stop
the notes with. We sometimes come across tenors
ascribed to one or other of these old " Luthiers," as
M. Fetis calls them ; but they can only be thus as-
cribed when they have new heads, necks, and finger-
boards. There were two such in the Exhibition of
1872, made about 1520 by Ventura Linarolli, of Venice;
both of these had the old six or seven-pegged heads,
replaced by the modern (or rather sixteenth century)
four-pegged scroll. As Mr. C. Reade justly remarks,
the immense breadth between the J/ holes shows that
they were meant for five, six, or seven strings. They
were played upon the knee ; and as the same connois-
seur points out, old tenors and basses always appear
much older than they really are, from the fact that at
that time (1550 et seg.) such instruments were, as a
rule, hung up against a wall when not in use, not nursed
in cases.
From about 1555 we find the instruments of Gas-
paro da Salo, the first maker of violas and violins, and
as such he will be spoken of in his proper place in the
next chapter ; but he also was a maker of viols ; and
there exist some inestimably rare tenors by him, having
only two corners. In 1530, John Oporinus, a printer
at Basle, had for his device a six-stringed instrument
(Fig. 13), which comes very near the true tenor. The
violin proper is first referred to by Zacconi in 1 596, who
describes it with a compass identical with the modern
one, without Hie shift, which would imply that the shift
was then unknown or little used, as it was certainly
impossible with the frets on the old viols, which were,.
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
75
used fretted late on into the seventeenth century, with
frets made, as a rule, of pieces of glued catgut, tied
round the neck at intervals, so as to project over the
finger-board.
Perhaps the most perfect viola da gamba in exist-
ence is that in the possession of Mr. G. A. Forster,
who figures it in his " History of the Violin." An illus-
tration of this instrument (Fig. 14) is taken from an
instruction book, " The Division Violist," published in
1659. The remarkable similarity to the modern double-
bass should be noted. The first known violin player
of any renown was Baltzarini, who went to the Court
of France from Italy in 1577. Mersennus, 1636, gives
an illustration of a " pera," or " poche," which seems
to have been the equivalent of our almost modern kit,
a long oval instrument, very like the old gigue (Fig. 1 5)
which, being a small instrument used by dancing-
masters, probably originated the word "jig." The
same author also figures a barbiton major, which is
identical with the viol da gamba, and a barbiton minori
which is identical with our modern tenor. In 1620,
one Prastorius gives a list of instruments, among which
he names — 1. Gross contrabass geig, like our modern
contrebasse, with five strings, s S sound-holes, no frets,
and modem scroll and bow; 2. Violone, like our
violoncello, modern scroll, six strings, six frets, two
S S sound-holes ; 3. Viola da gamba, much the same as
the violone, with two crescent-shaped sound-holes,
carved head, seven frets, six strings ; 4. Viola bastarda,
the same shape, six strings, modern scroll, two crescent
and one round sound-hole, and seven frets ; 5. Klein
posche (or kit), a little oval instrument like a gigue,
with one S hole in the centre under the strings ;
6. Rechte Discant geig, almost identical with the
modem violin; 7. Tenor geig, much like a modem
short-necked viola; 8. Bass geig de bracio, like a
clumsy short-necked 'cello.
Mr. Lidel, in 1849, exhibited an instrument made
in 1687, called a "barytone," which had six gut-strings
fastened to the tail-piece, passing over the bridge, and
eleven steel strings passing through or under the
bridge, from an ebony bar placed there obliquely,
which, being tuned in unison, vibrated in unison when
the others were struck with the bow, with a very sweet
effect. In 1676, a Piedmontese, named Todini (the
supposed inventor of the double-bass), published a
pamphlet describing certain inventions of his, amongst
which were — a violin which could be instantaneously
heightened from a tone to a fifth by a mechanical con-
trivance ; another, which had a second set of octave or
** kit" strings so disposed, that either, or both together,
could be played at the will of the performer ; and,
lastly, a viola da gamba, on which, without shifting,
the treble, alto, tenor, or bass viol could be played.
Thus far it has seemed necessary, before entering upon
the actual manufacture of the violin, to notice the
various instruments which led up to it. In the next
chapter I shall, as briefly as possible, sketch the various
characteristics of the violin's most celebrated makers,
before entering upon the practical and mechanical part
of our work.
(To be contimced)
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS:
HOW TO ADJUST, CLEAN, AND REPAIR THEM.
By PAUL N. BASLVCK.
in 1370.
Movements described ; tools required.
HE illustrations given herewith show the
construction of ordinary English clocks.
The first is one of the first clocks of
which we have any authentic description.
It was made for Charles V. of France,
The vertical verge, shown in Fig. 1, was
afterwards placed horizontally so that it might carry
a weighted bob, or pendulum. To effect this alteration
the scape-wheel had to be placed with its axis vertical,
and it was driven by a crown-wheel in the place of
the wheel H. The second illustration, Fig. 3, shows
the movement of an ordinary long-case hall-clock.
These are frequently to be found in country houses,
and are almost invariably family heir-looms, in the
conventional sense.
The clock made by Henry de Wyck, and briefly
mentioned in our first chapter is, shown by the illus-
tration, Fig. 2. This is handed down to us as one
of the most ancient balance clocks, and a description
of its going parts will be interesting for comparison
with that shown by Fig. 3, which is a superior kind
of house clock. This will be described later on.
Referring to Fig. 2, and describing it minutely, we
shall get a knowledge of the various parts, their names
and functions. Reid's "Treatise on Clock and Watch-
making," published upwards of half a century ago,
contains the illustration here copied, and also the
description. To a professional artist, a mere view of
the illustration would suffice, but to an amateur the
following particulars are necessary : —
It has a weight suspended by a cord, which is
wrapped round a cylinder or barrel keyed spring —
tight on an axis or arbor a a, whose smaller parts b b,
called the pivots, enter into holes made in the plates
C C and D D, in which they turn. These plates in the
ancient clocks were made of iron, and put together by
the kneed pieces E E, which are formed from the ends
of the plate C c. A screwed part at the extremity of
the knees connects this plate by nuts to the p!ate dd.
76
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
This assemblage of the plates and kneed parts is
called "the frame."
In modern clocks the plates are invariably made
of brass, and they are held together by means of
pillars, also made of brass. The pillars are riveted
into one plate, and have the other end shaped to form
a shoulder, with a pivot-like projection. A pin, put
diametrically through this projecting part, secures the
second plate. A glance at Fig 3 will show this.
In Fig. 2 the action of the weight necessarily tends
to turn the cylinder B, so that if it was not restrained,
its descent would be by an
accelerated motion, like that
of any other body which falls
freely, But the cylinder has
at one end a toothed ratchet-
wheel I', the teeth of which
strike or butt on the end of
the click c. The click is
pressed by a spring d, which
forces it to enter the ratchet-
wheel. It is this mechanism
which is called the click and
ratchet work, and by means
of which the weight, when
wound up, is prevented from
running back. By this means
the action of the weight is
transmitted to the toothed
wheel G, which is thus forced
to turn. The teeth of this
wheel gear with the small
weeel, or, technically speak-
ing, the lantern -pinion e, and
thus the axis f is made to
turn. This gearing, which,
by the communication of
motion from one wheel to
another, or from a wheel to
a pinion, causes it to rotate,
is technically called the pitch-
ings or depths.
The wheel H is fixed on the arbor of the lantern-
pinion e ; thus the motion communicated by the
weight to the wheel G is transmitted to the pinion e,
and consequently to the wheel H, causing it to turn
on its axis/ The last-named wheel pitches into the
lantern-pinion g, the axis of which carries the crown-
wheel 1, this is called the escapement-wheel, or, in
trade language, the scape-wheel. We have traced
how the motion of the descending weight is trans-
mitted through a variety of pitchings to the levers or
pallets h and i, which project from the vertical axis,
thus moving on its pivots at the ends. It is on this
last axis that the balance or regulator L is fixed.
FIG. 2. — CLOCK OF HENRY DE WYCIC
This balance is suspended by the cord M, and can
move round its pivot in arcs of circles, going and re-
turning alternately, making vibrations. The angle-
piece, screwed to the frame at E, and marked /, forms
a bearing for the top pivot of the verge.
The alternate motion or vibration of the balance
is produced by the action of the teeth in the scape-
wheel on the pallets of the balance axis or verge.
These pallets project from the axis at nearly right
angles : thus when a tooth has pushed the pallet h
sufficiently far to escape past it, the other pallet 2 is
presented to a tooth in the
wheel nearly diametrically
opposite. The pressure of
the wheel I now acts on the
verge in the opposite direc-
tion, and causes the balance
to swing in the reverse way
till that tooth escapes ; then
the opposite one comes into
action, and so the motion is
maintained. These vibrations
of the balance moderate and
regulate the velocity of the
wheel I, and consequently
exercise a similar effect on
the other wheels that com-
pose the train. Any assem-
blage of wheels and pinions
that convey motion are desig-
nated a train.
The balance L is formed
of two thin arms projecting
from the verge ; on these
arms several concentric
notches are made, a small
weight m is appended to each
arm. By placing the weights
m nearer to, or further from,
the axis, the vibrations will
be shortened or lengthened,
and the clock made to go
The action of the scape-wheel I on
faster or slower.
the pallets h i is called scaping.
The wheel G makes a revolution in one hour. The
front pivot b of this wheel is prolonged beyond the
plate C, it carries a pinion u, which pitches in, or
leads the wheel N, and causes it to make a turn in
twelve hours. The axis of this wheel carries the index,
or hand, o, which points out the hours on the dial.
It must be explained what determines the wheel G to
make one revolution precisely in one hour ; for this
purpose, it must be known that the vibrations of the
regulator or balance are slower as it is made heavier,
or the diameter is increased. Suppose that the
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
77
balance L makes vibrations exactly equal to one
second of time, this may be regulated in the manner
already mentioned, by moving the weights m; this
being understood it may be shown how, by properly
proportioning the numbers of teeth in the wheels and
pinions in the train, the wheel G may be made to
make one revolution in exacdy one hour. With 30
teeth in the scape-wheel, I the balance will make
60 vibrations for each turn of the wheel ; the teeth
acting once on the pallet h and once on i. Accord-
ng to the former calculation, the scape-wheel will
make one turn in each minute. The wheel G will
have to make one turn to every
sixty turns of the scape-wheel.
To determine the number of
teeth in the wheels G and H, and
<n their pinions, it must be under-
stood that a wheel and pinion
geared together, turn in inverse
ratio to the numbers of their teeth.
Supposing the wheel G has 64
teeth, and the pinion e 8 teeth,
this pinion will turn eight times
to every turn of the wheel. This
is self-evident, for the wheel and
the pinion move simultaneously
tooth for tooth ; every turn of the
pinion allows the wheel to turn
an equal distance — that is eight
teeth. Every turn of the wheel
allows the pinion to turn through
sixty-four teeth, or to make eight
complete turns.
The wheel H having sixty
teeth, and the pinion g eight teeth,
the proportion is as 7J is to I.
Thus the pinion makes seven and
a-half turns to each one of the
wheel. The wheel H carries the
pinion e, making eight turns to
one of the wheel G ; then the
8 times 7J turns, or sixty turns
of the wheel G. Having supposed that the wheel I,
turning with the pinion g, makes one revolution
in a minute, it is obvious that the wheel G
makes a turn in one hour. By the same reasoning, we
see that the pinion u carried by the wheel G makes
twelve turns during the time that the wheel N makes
one. This wheel must have twelve times more teeth
than the pinion. Ninety-six teeth in the wheel N,
and eight teeth in the pinion it, will answer the pur-
pose. Twelve pins project from the side of the wheel
N ; these pins are for the purpose of discharging the
striking gear.
When the clock has been inaction sufficiently long,
FIG. 3. — MOVEMENT OP AN ORDINARY
LONG-CASE HALL-CLOCK.
pinion g makes
to each one turn
the cord by which the weight is suspended wholly runs
off the cylinder. Then the clock requires to be
"wound up." A key, having a square hole in its
cannon to fit the square arbor P, is used, and by this
aid the weight is wound up. The wheel R and the
ratchet-wheel F, together with the barrel, turn indepen-
dently of the wheel G. The ratchet and click motion
have already been explained. On ceasing to wind, the
pressure of the weight against the click forces the
wheel G to turn with the cylinder, and so transmits
the power through the train to the scape-wheel. The
small pinion n, on the arbor P and gearing with R is
not used in modern clocks, as may
be seen on reference to Fig. 3.
Reid says that either Julien
le Roy or Berthond must have
made a mistake in giving thirty
teeth to the escape-wheel of De
Wyck's clock. It is well known
that the crown-wheel, or verge
scapement, necessitates the use of
a scape-wheel having an odd
number of teeth. With the verge
passing diametrically across the
scape-wheel, an even number of
teeth would not act on the pallets.
Had the number been 29, all
would have worked well, only
the weights when on the balance
would require to be adjusted so
that they allowed the vibrations
to equal 58 per minute, instead of
60, the number required for a
wheel of 30 teeth.
The clock made by Henry de
Wyck, or de Vick, as he is some-
times called, has been consider-
ably improved ; but, as Sir
Edmund Beckett says, it was
very like our common clocks of
the present time, except that it had only an hour hand,
and a vibrating balance (but no balance-spring) instead
of a pendulum. It seems strange that the apparently
simpler contrivance of a pendulum should not have
come till four centuries after clocks were first invented ;
yet this is the general tradition.
The going part of a common regulator, or a house-
clock of superior character, is shown by Fig. 3. Sir
Edmund Beckett, in his " Clocks, Watches, and Bells,"
gives an illustration from which the drawing herewith
published is adapted. The movement is that com-
monly found in the long cased hall-clocks — now only
found as remnants of a past age, yet still very plentiful.
These clocks appear to have an almost endless period
of existence. They are made on far better principle?
78
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
than can be carried into effect in the confined space of
mantel-clocks. Long, heavy pendulums give much
greater regularity in action, and they are not so easily
affected by irregularity in the motive-power. Weights,
again, are preferable to springs for the purpose of
accuracy in time-keeping, inasmuch as the weight acts
with a uniform pull, whereas a spring does not. Also,
in transmitting the power of the spring to the wheel
work, a more or less complex arrangement is neces-
sary, which frequently absorbs much of the power that
should be transmitted to the escapement. The me-
chanism is larger, and consequently less affected by
particles of dust, etc., than in the modern time-pieces.
Keeping these peculiarities in view, the longevity of
the old-fashioned hall-clock may be better understood.
Referring to Fig. 3, A a is one of the pallets on the
arbor a, and F/ is the crutch and fork, which usually
embraces the pendulum rod, but sometimes goes
through it, as shown, especially when it is a wooden
rod. The weight is not hung by a single line, but by
a double line going through a pulley attached to the
weight. This device prevents the line from untwisting,
and a thinner one may be used ; the fall of the weight
is also only half as much as it is with a single line. A
larger barrel or a heavier weight frequently compensate
for this. The barrel is fixed to its arbor ; the back
end has an ordinary pivot, but the front is square, and
prolonged to the dial at K. This is the wind-up square.
G is the great wheel which rides loose on the arbor
between the barrel and a collet shown just above G.
The great wheel is connected with the barrel by a
click and ratchet-wheel, the same as in De Wyck's
clock.
The great wheel G drives the centre pinion c,
which always turns in one hour, its arbor goes through
the dial and carries the minute hand. The dial
wheels will be alluded to later on. The centre-wheel
C drives the second pinion d, which carries a wheel P,
which drives the scapement pinion, and at the same
time the wheel itself E. In moderately good clocks
the pinions have all generally 8 teeth, or leaves ; the
wheels in that case have 96, 64, and 60 teeth in the
centre, the second, and the scape respectively. This
allows the scape-wheel to turn once a minute, and its
arbor may cany a hand showing seconds.
The minute hand is not fixed rigidly on the centre
arbor, if it were the hand could not be altered. The
hand is fitted on the cannon of the wheel M. This
wheel is solid with the cannon or pipe, bored to fit on
the centre arbor loosely. Under the wheel m a
spring is put ; this spring is fitted to a square shoulder
on the centre-wheel arbor, and turns with it. The
collet on the outer end is also made to turn with the
arbor, by having a pin put through it transversely.
The minute hand is fitted on a square end of the can-
non. Between the spring behind and the collet in
the front, the wheel M and the hand are held in a
spring-tight grip. The hand, and with it the wheel,
may be moved as desired, but when left to its normal
course it is carried round by the centre-wheel arbor.
A bridge is fixed to the front plate by screws, one
of which is shown at L. This bridge has a tubular
projection, which goes over the cannon of the wheel
M, but does not touch it. The tube carries the wheel
H, called the hour-wheel, to which the hour hand is
fixed. The motion is conveyed from M to H, by the
wheel and pinion marked N n ; so proportioned that
the minute wheel makes twelve turns to one of the
hour wheel. The wheel N is shown fitted on a stud
fixed into the plate, but more often a cock is used to
secure it. It may be advisable to point out that many
defects in ordinary household clocks are to be traced
to imperfections in the motion work : that is the
wheels M, N, H. There should always be sufficient
friction between the spring and the wheel M to cause
the latter to turn, even though a slight obstacle should
be placed in the way. The spring should always fit a
square shoulder on the centre-wheel arbor, and revolve
with it.
In the accompanying diagram the top pillar z i
shown prolonged to take a socket fixed on the dial-
plate, and secured to the pillar by a transverse pin ;
the lower pillar X is similarly prolonged. The usual
method is to have four short pillars riveted to the dial-
plate, and made to pass through the front plate of the
movement where they are secured by transverse pins.
The pillars used for connecting the frame are then
cut off, just beyond the front plate.
On the left side the pendulum is shown marked
P ; it is suspended from the traverse piece o o by the
spring S. This is called the suspension spring, and is
simply a piece of mainspring. On the right the minute,
hour, and seconds hands are shown in the order enu-
merated.
The dials are usually made of polished brass plate ;
the figures are engraved, and filled with black sealing-
wax, the plate being silvered. Common clocks have
dials of sheet-iron, painted white, and with the figures
afterwards painted black. The common Dutch clocks
have wooden dials, also so have some American
clocks. French time-pieces have enamelled dials, but
the commonest kind are simply cardboard.
If the reader has studied with care what has been
said with regard to the construction of the clocks
that have been described, he will be in a position
to understand the general principles of construction
of clocks in general, and be prepared for the instruc-
tion that will be given in future papers in adjusting
cleaning, and repairing timepieces.
{To be continued.)
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
79
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
By GEORGE EDWINSON.
II.— Getting Ready for Real Work.
N my last, I explained the process of
simple silvering, and showed its uses
in silvering barometer and clock-dials.
I then proved it to be a process some-
what foreign to that of electro-plating,
since it depended on the chemical affinity of one metal
for another to effect the deposition of a film of silver
upon an article, and not on the extraneous aid of that
mysterious force known as electricity. I now propose
helping my readers to get ready for some real electro-
plating work, and to explain the difference between
this and that of simple silvering.
As .the first question is one of cost, and this fre-
quently determines the adoption or rejection of a new
process or scheme, I will say at once that this method
of laying on silver is far more costly than that men-
tioned in my last It also requires more skill on the
part of the operator, and more care in the use of the
materials employed, since they are all more costly
and many of them dangerously poisonous. But, as a
set-off to these objections, it must be stated that the
deposit of silver is far more durable than any laid by
simple immersion, for the following reasons : — In the
simple process, the metal is thrown on loosely, and is
limited by the attackable portion of the article, for, no
more silver goes on after all the brass is covered from
the attack of the salts in the silvering mixture. In the
electro process the surface of the article is as closely
in contact with the deposit of silver as it would be
were the latter welded to it by heat, whilst the thick-
ness of the coat, or the thinness of it, is quite under
the control of the operator. But this is not all : not
only can he put on a coat of silver that will defy any
attempt to peel it off by mechanical means, and of any
thickness he may desire ; he can also put on the silver
in a condition resembling pure annealed soft metal ; or
in a hard condition resembling silver after it has been
hammered ; or he may deposit an alloy of silver and
copper together. The methods of doing this will be
noticed as I proceed ; our attention must now be
given to a collection of materials, their cost, and other
matters.
The list of articles required will comprise — a depo-
siting solution, two pints, 3s. per pint ; a vessel to hold
the solution, is. 6d. ; a sheet of pure silver, 6s. per
ounce ; a galvanic battery of the constant type, 5s. ;
one pound of nitric acid and bottle, is. 4d. ; five
pounds of sulphuric acid and bottle, is. gd. ; three
ounces of cyanide of potassium and bottle, is. 9d. ;
one pound of sulphate of copper, 6d. ; half a pound of
caustic soda and bottle, Sd. ; distilled water, 4d. pei
quart ; a small iron saucepan, is. 6d. ; three ounces of
mercury and bottle, is. ; one scratch-brush of fine
brass wire, 6d. ; one fine file, 8d. ; one Water of Ayr
stone, is. ; two or three steel burnishers, is. 6d. to 3s.
each ; some copper wire, emery cloth, bathbrick,
wash-leather, whitening, etc., is. ; a good cupboard
or box, to keep the whole under lock and key when not
in use, about 12s. 6d. Total, about 50s.
I give the prices quoted above, approximately, as
a guide to intending purchasers, these being the
figures for articles as purchased by me in some Lon-
don shops. But the ingenious amateur artisan and
mechanic, with a slender purse, may curtail expenses
considerably by making certain parts of the apparatus
himself, and in this work I proffer my aid. The first
necessary article will be a galvanic battery of the
constant type, and I take it for granted at once that
some of my readers are ignorant of what is meant by
a galvanic battery, so I will explain.
That mysterious form of energy known to us by
the name of electricity, is produced by various methods,
which I will briefly notice, in order that we may pick
out the one most suited to our requirements. If we
turn the handle of a so-called electrical machine, com-
posed of glass, brass, silk, and polished wood, we pro-
duce a kind of electricity, which collects in the prime
conductor of the machine, and may be drawn from
thence, in the form of a long crackling spark, when a
discharger is presented to it, or it may be collected in
a number of jars lined with tinfoil, and those jars con-
nected together to form an electric battery. This kind
of electricity is named frictional, or static electricity — ■
frictional, because it is produced in this case by fric-
tion ; static, because it is supposed to possess all
bodies, even when they are at rest. The same kind of
electricity flashes from the thunder-cloud in the form of
lightning, and plays fantastically in the Arctic regions
in the form of Aurora Borealis, or the Northern Lights.
It is electricity in a high state of tension, and even
when harnessed, is unsuitable for our purpose here.
A second method of producing electricity may be
shown by the aid of those tiny magneto-electric
machines, which we sometimes see in the streets,
attached to shocking coils. A magnet, wound with
silk-covered <;opper wire, is made to rapidly revolve in
front of a piece of iron (also wound with wire), and
thus electricity is produced. I will explain that elec-
tricity is, in this case, produced by the natural ten-
dency of the magnet to pull the soft iron of the
armature to itself, whilst the hand of the operator is
whirling it around the point of attraction. As it is
thus cle.irly the conversion of mechanical into elec-
trical force, it has received the name of dynamic
electricity, and the machines by which it is produced
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME
are named magneto - electric, or dynamo - electric
machines. As a matter of fact, these latter differ a
little from the former, but not sufficient to warrant us
in making a distinction here. Large and small
machines of this kind are now made, and are avail-
able for large operations in electro-plating, as well as
those of electric-lighting, and every other purpose to
which this force can be applied ; but I will not sup-
pose my readers able to secure the current from such
machines, or make or buy one for themselves.
The third method of producing electricity, is that
known as the Galvanic, or Voltaic method, so called
after the names of its inventors, or first discoverers,
Galvani and Volta, two Italians, who lived about a
hundred years ago. Since its discovery by the above
illustrious men, this method has undergone many
important alterations and improvements, but the prin-
ciple remains in them all, viz., that of producing electric
force by chemical action on metals, and as this is the
kind most suitable to us,
we will give it our close
attention. If a piece of
zinc is plunged into weak
oil of vitriol, a violent
chemical action will take
place, in which the zinc
will be dissolved, and
large volumes of a stinking
gas given off into the air.
whilst at the same time
heat is produced in the
liquid. If a piece of copper
is immersed in the same
liquid, both copper and
zinc will dissolve, but if the ends of the strips of
copper and zinc are made to touch each other above
the liquid, the copper will cease to dissolve, but will
be covered with a black film, whilst the amount of gas
given off from the zinc will be perceptibly lessened.
If now the zinc is thoroughly cleaned and rubbed with
quicksilver, until it is made bright with the new metal,
and again plunged into the acid liquid in connection
with the copper, it will be observed that the chemical
action is less violent, and the evolution of gas lessened,
but the film on the copper increases, and ultimately
stops all action. We will now pause in our experi-
ments, and seek to know the cause of the various
phenomena observed in them. In the first experi-
ment, a gas named oxygen united with the surface of
the zinc and formed zinc oxide, this was dissolved off
by the acid, and, whilst the fine zinc united with part
of the sulphur of the acid to form sulphate of zinc,
another part of the acid was thrown off into the air in
the form of a gas named hydrogen. In the second
experiment, another metal was dissolved by the acid,
FIG. II.
DANIELL CELLS FOR PLATING.
Fig. 9.— Copper Cylinder, Corrugated. Fig 10.— Two Zinc Strips
attached at Top. Fig. 11. -Cell Blounted for Use.
and a salt named sulphate of copper was formed ; but
when the two metals were united above the liquid, the
copper ceased to dissolve, and part of the hydrogen
of the acid also ceased to pass off into the air ; under
the new conditions, this gas passed through the liquid
to the copper plates, and formed thereon a film of
black hydrate of copper. When the surface of the
zinc was covered with quicksilver, scarcely any hydro-
gen was thrown off by the zinc into the air, but it
traversed the liquid to the copper plate, and there
became fixed. These experiments illustrate a crude
form of the galvanic battery, for, if a wire is attached
to each metal, and then connected to a toy telegraph
instrument, or a current detector, such as those used
by the repairers of electric bells, it will be seen that a
current of electricity passes from the zinc to the cop-
per, and from the copper through the instrument back
to the zinc again, thus completing the circuit. This
action would continue until all the zinc were dissolved,
or the strength of the acid
;xhausted, if another
obstacle did not present
itself to prevent it ; this
obstacle is the film of
hydrogen which forms on
the copper plate, and
offers such a resistance
.o the passage of the cur-
rent as to entirely stop
all action in the liquid.
To avoid this inconveni-
ence, Mr. Smee proposed
to replace the copper
with a plate of plati-
nised silver, made rough, to throw the hydrogen off
into the air. Subsequently Mr. Walker (Superin-
tendent of the South Eastern Railway) effected a
similar result with plates of gas carbon instead of
platinised silver, and thus reduced the prime cost of
the battery. Batteries of the Smee and Walker type
are now largely used, not only by amateur platers and
men in a small way of business, but also by large
respectable firms in the trade. They are easily and
cheaply made, and are useful for short jobs, but they
possess two drawbacks which deter me from heartily
recommending them. It will be seen that they throw
off a stinking gas named hydrogen, into the air whilst
working. This is an inconvenience to the amateur.
And the current from them becomes rapidly reduced
after the first hour's work.
It will be scarcely advisable to go to the expense of
procuring platinised silver to make a Smee battery ,
but probably some of my readers have carbon and
zinc plates by them, and would like to know how to
make a Walker batter)', so I will give them the neces-
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
t$v
sary information to make one. A tall stoneware jar,
holding from one to two pints of liquid, will do for the
containing pot ; a salt jar or a tall jam jar will do very
well Geta plate of zinc, £ inch thick, 2 J inches wide, and
4 inches long (Fig. 2), and have it of rolled sheet rather
than of cast zinc. Wash it with water in which strong
tvashing soda has been dissolved, to remove grease,
then pickle it in acid prepared as follows : — Pour into
the stoneware jar above mentioned one pint of water,
and into this water pour very carefully one gill of
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). Caution : — The novice
cannot be too careful in obeying these instructions lite-
rally, for a slight spill of this acid on hands or clothes
will be dis-
astrous
to
either.
Al-
ways
pour
acid
into
water (not
the reverse),
and pour low
and slowly
to avoid
splashing.
The acid will
combine with
the water,
and produce
a heat almost
equal to boil-
ing water.
Now get a
shallow dish
— a baking-
dish will do
— a piece of
flannel made
into a pad on
a bit of fire-
wood, and
some mercury (quicksilver) ; pour the mercury into
the dish, take the zinc plate between the finger
and thumb of the left hand, immerse it in the warm
acid for a minute or two, withdraw it, hold it in
the baking-dish, and rub mercury over every part of it
with the flannel pad until it shines bright like silver ;
then place the other end in the acid as before, and
treat this likewise, until all the plate has been covered
with the mercury. This process is called amalgamat-
ing the zinc, and the reason for it has already been
partly given. Cylinders and rods of zinc for all bat-
teries are thus amalgamated, to prevent what has been
termed " local action on the zinc." The plate of zinc
(Fig. 2) thus prepared may now be fitted with a brass
binding screw (Fig. 3) — obtainable from a dealer in bat-
Fis
tery apparatus for 6d.) — immersed in the jar, opposite a
plate of carbon of similar dimensions (Fig. 4), also fitted
with binding screw ; or the zinc plate may be clipped
between two carbon plates in a manner now to be
described. Put the zinc plate in a vice, and carefully
rasp down a portion of the upper edge of the plate,
until a tongue of zinc about 1 inch wide and f inch
long projects from the top, and it assumes the shape
shown in the annexed figure (Fig. 5). Now take a
strip of tough wood, long enough to rest on the edges
of the containing pot (when placed across), and about
1 inch square. Trim this up to the shape shown
(Fig. 6), and cut a groove in one side large enough to
just admit
the edge of
the zinc
plate, and
§ inch deep ;
in the centre
of this groove
cut a hole
large enough
to allow the
tongue on the
zinc plate to
pass through,
and varnish
the wood with
sealing-wax
or with shel-
lac varnish.
When the
varnish has
dried, place
the zinc in
the prepared
groove, and
fasten the
binding-
screw on the
THE WALKER BATTERY : ITS PARTS AND CONSTRUCTION.
2.— Zinc Plate. Fie. 3.— Brass Binding Screw, Full Size. Fig. 4.— Carbon Plat?. Fie. 5—
Top of Zinc Plate, Showing Projecting Tongue. Fig. 6.— Cross-head nf Wood, Grooved, to
receive Tongue of Zinc. Fig. 7.— Brass Clamp, to hold and connect Carbon. Fig. 8. —
"Walker, or Smee Cell, mounted for use.
projecting tongue. Then place the two carbons on
each side of the strip of wood, and attach them to
it by two binding screws, or clamps of the form shown
in (Fig. 7). When the plates are thus prepared, they
may be immersed in a solution of I part sulphuric acid
to 15 parts of water in a pot, as shown (Fig. 8), and
will thus form one cell of a battery.
As I write these articles for the benefit of young
men seeking to become acquainted with the art of
electro-deposition, as well as for the instruction of
amateurs wishing to practise it at home, I will
give a few explanations to guide them in making
experiments, and thus lead them to take an intelligent
interest in the work.
Referring to the method given for making up this
D -z
S2
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
most simple galvanic battery : The zinc plate is thus
pin' ed between two carbon plates, in order that both
surfaces of the zinc may be acted upon at once, and
thus ensure a full current of electricity. It is placed
in a frame of wood, to make the plates portable ; for,
when thus arranged, they can be dipped to any depth
in the liquid, and thus made to regulate the current — a
most desirable convenience in the operation of electro-
plating, as we shall see. The wood also (being a bad
conductor of electricity) insulates the carbon plates
from the zinc, and this is made more perfect with the
coat of varnish. The groove in the wood prevents the
zinc from touching the carbon plates, and (not being
carried quite through) protects the edges of the zinc
from contact with the clamps used to not only hold the
carbon plates in their places, but also connect them
electrically with each other. When it is desired to
take current from the cell, we attach one of the con-
ducting wires to the binding screw on the tongue of
the zinc plate, and the other wire to one of the brass
clamps holding the carbons. When the zinc plate
needs cleaning and re-amalgamating (which it does
when it becomes foul, and loses its brightness), the
clamp can be easily unscrewed, and the whole taken
to pieces. I have been led to thus minutely describe
this arrangement because it is a useful one for other
battery solutions besides that given here. For instance,
the whole arrangement may be used as a single fluid
cell with any of the bichromate of potash solutions, as
in the old bichromate battery, or in the newly-invented
mixtures of Fuller, Anderson, and Dale.
But single-fluid cells or batteries are uncertain,
inconstant, and as a rule noisome and dirty ; so we
will turn our attention to the large class of more
modern and constant double-fluid cells. In this class
we must dismiss the powerful Grove and Bunsen bat-
teries, because they are dangerous and unwholesome,
as well as costly. The best and cheapest cell for the
amateur and the novice in this art is one constructed
on the principle invented by Professor Daniell. He
discovered that the hydrogen given off from the zinc
in working the galvanic battery could be made to pass
through a porous diaphragm into a solution of sulphate
oi copper, and there be made to do duty in depositing
copper in a metallic condition on the negative plate of
the battery instead of being thrown off into the air as
a stinking nuisance. To this discovery we not only
owe a most useful and cheap generator of electricity
but also the whole art of electro-deposition. I will
not stop to examine the form of cell employed by him,
nor the various modifications of his invention, but
proceed at once to describe a form with which I have
earned many a bright shilling in depositing silver.
The ever-useful jam-pot or the salt-jar will again
serve our purpose for an outer containing pot ; or we
may purchase a stoneware jar for is. 4d. Take a
sheet of very thin copper, and cut from it a strip long
and wide enough to exactly enclose the earthenware
jar, then bend it into a series of grooves or corruga-
tions, extending from top to bottom, as shown in Fig. 9.
This corrugated cylinder of copper goes inside the
earthenware pot, and the grooves form spaces to hold a
supply of the copper salt used to charge the cell.
Inside this cylinder, but not touching it in any part,
must be placed a cell of porous earthenware tall
enough to stand about \ inch above the edge of
the copper cylinder. Whilst this cell is new and
dry, \\ inches of the top and £ inch of the bottom
should be well soaked in hot melted paraffin wax,
to close the pores, and thus prevent the copper
salt from entering them and destroying the cell. A
bolt of zinc is usually cast to go in this cell ; but I
have found rolled zinc to be far more economical and
effective than cast zinc, and therefore recommend that
two strips of rolled or plate zinc, well amalgamated,
be used instead of the bolt of cast zinc. These should
be just wide enough to slip easily into the cell without
touching the sides, and long enough to touch the
bottom. Place a strip of wood between the tops of the
plates, and bind the two together with a carbon clamp,
as shown in Fig. 10. The strip of wood should be
long enough to rest on the edges of the cell, and thus
suspend the zincs in it ; for if these are allowed to touch
the sides or bottom, some nodules of copper will form
in the pores. The inner or porous cell is charged
with a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, as made
up for the Walker cell ; but the outer cell is charged
with a saturated solution of sulphate of copper ; that
is, as much " blue-stone " or blue vitriol as water will
dissolve. A reserve of the blue crystals is placed in
the grooves of the copper cylinder next the sides of
the outer cell, a binding screw is fitted on the cylinder,
and this battery, or at least one compound cell of this
battery, as in Fig. 1 1, is ready for work.
The reader will find ample food for reflection in
what has been said in this paper with regard to
getting ready for genuine work in Electro-plating. If
he intend to follow up the process, and attain
proficiency in the art with as little drain upon his
purse as possible, he will do well to practise making
his batteries, and thus get ready for the next step,
which will be described in the paper that will
next follow. If he can make a single cell in a
batter)', it follows, as a matter of course, that he
can make a complete battery without chance of
failure. The cells that compose the Walker and
Daniell batteries have been minutely described ; and
with ordinary attention to the instructions given, no
one can fail to make them properly.
{To be continued.)
BOOTS AND SHOES.
83
BOOTS AND SHOES:
HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
By ABEL EAEXSEAW.
II. — Tools, Leather and Grindery, Setting to Work.
Tools, Their Uses and Cost — "Grindery" — Preparing the
Leather — How to Last the Boots — To affix the Soles and
Heels— Withdrawing the Last.
T must be understood that the list of tools
which is given below by no means com-
prises all that a skilled workman would
consider as indispensable in the formation
of a complete " kit," as he would term his
collection. Nevertheless, the articles here mentioned
will be sufficient for the amateur's purpose, and by
their aid he may construct or repair almost any kind
of boots.
First and foremost is the shoemaker's knife, which
will cost 3d. This, a plain steel blade, about 4 in.
long, fixed in a simple wooden handle, must be kept
very sharp, if even passable workmanship is hoped for.
Not to be able to use the knife well, or keep a keen
edge on it, means in the shoe trade that the user is an
indifferent workman. The buff strap, as the sharpen-
ing apparatus is termed, is simply a piece of wood
fashioned like a razor-strop, having on one side a strip
of emery cloth pasted to the wood, and on the other a
piece of buff leather, similarly fastened. Any old
piece of military belting will answer this purpose.
The method of sharpening is to lay the blade of the
knife nearly flat on the emery side of the buff strap,
and draw it steadily backwards and forwards half-a-
dozen times, reversing the side of the blade at each
stroke. By so doing a thin edge will be obtained.
The same process is repeated on the buff side, and
this smoothens the edge, making the knife cut keenly.
A hammer of the kind specially made for shoemaking
will be necessary, the cost being from 8d. for the com-
monest kind, to 2s. or 2s. 6d. for the best. A pair of
pincers will cost is., or thereabouts, size No. 1 or 2
being large enough for any purpose. The use of these
is to draw the upper tightly over the last ; and, as
ihey have to stand very heavy strains, more especially
in the hands of beginners, the purchaser should see
that the articles he selects are not too light in the jaws.
Among other articles necessary for putting the boot
together, are : a " sleeking-stick," which is a round
piece of box-wood, about a foot in length and f in. in
thickness, used for rubbing down the sole into posi-
tion before it is sewn or othenvise fastened, and for
hardening it afterwards ; and a " driver," which is
simply a worn half-round file, with its ends broken off
so as to leave about 10 in. of the centre. This is
used in driving rivets or nails into the so'e and heel,
the holding surface preventing the rivet or nail from
slipping on one side, as it is apt to do if struck with
a hammer. For finishing, a small rasp will be re-
quired, costing is. This is used to get the edges of
the boot into shape after they are pared by the knife.
Next is an edge-knife, or scraper, which can be made
from a stay-busk, or any piece of thin steel. The size
required is about l£ in. by 1 in. To make it ready
for work it must be slightly rounded, and made per-
fectly smooth at the ends, which are, however, left
their proper substance, and not brought to a thin edge.
By passing the blade of an awl over this edge, a small
portion of the metal is turned outwards, forming what
would be generally known as a " burr." This, when
passed round the edge of the leather, after rasping,
will take off all remaining roughness. Before the
steel-edge knife was in vogue, this operation was per-
formed with a piece of broken window-glass. As a
substitute, this is always at hand if the material for an
edge-knife should not be obtainable ; still, as its use is
somewhat dangerous, both to the work and the hands
of the workman, it is preferably avoided. A "fore-
part-iron " will be required for " setting up " the edges
of the soles, and a " waist-iron " for the bevelled part
of the soles in the waist, or arch. These, together
with their handles, will cost about is. each. If, on
account of a variety of boots with soles of different
substances having to be made, several irons have to
be purchased, a considerable reduction is made on the
set. A " burnisher " may be made with any fragment
of smooth rod-iron, to which a handle can be added at
each end. This, when moderately heated, is used to
obtain the bright polish on the edges of the heel we
are accustomed to see. The " seat-wheel " is the only
remaining tool of which the cost is an appreciable one.
The commonest kind of seat-wheel is sold at about
half-a-crown. Its use is to press in any irregularities
at the " seat " (by which is understood that part of the
back of the boot where the heel joins with the upper),
while a small wheel revolving on a central pivot makes
that line of small indentations which is to be seen a
little distance away from the actual edge. Beside
these articles, the amateur will need a small collection
of awls of different sorts and thicknesses, in view of
his requirements in sewing, stitching, and repairing.
These articles may as well be purchased before the
commencement of the work. The kinds necessary are
sewing-awls, which are curved in the blade ; stitching-
awls, which may be straight or slightly curved ; stab-
bing-awls, which are fine straight piercers only ; and
peg-awls, which are short and square, and are used in
making the holes for any needful pegs. The cost of
this collection need not be more than a couple of
shillings.
64
BOOTS AND SHOES.
I now come to " grindery," or the general furnishings
of the shoemaker's bench. For making riveted boots, the
first requirement in this line is a quantity of " tingles."
These are very small tacks, about \ in. in length, and
correspondingly fine. As they are only used for the
purpose of tacking the upper to the inner sole, the
finer and smaller they are, as long as they are capable
of holding it down, the better. Tingles cost from gd.
to is. per pound. An assortment of brass rivets will
be needed, the lengths most required being -r%in., ^in.,
and | in. Brass rivets cost is. per pound. Their use,
it is scarcely necessary to say, is to hold the sole,
upper and inner sole firmly together. Besides these, a
small quantity of \ in. iron sprigs or brads, and some
fin. iron rivets for the heels will be required. The
sprigs cost 2d. per pound, and the iron rivets 4d. A
quarter of a pound of each kind of the above articles,
except the two last named, and half a pound of these,
will be sufficient to last the amateur for some time.
For the purposes of finishing he will only need a small
quantity of finishing ink and a black and a white heel-
ball, the cost of these
articles being about 3d.
If pegged boots are to be
made or repaired, wooden
pegs will have to be pur-
chased. The lengths will
be the same as those given
for the brass rivets. For
hand-sewing, a ball of
hemp for sewing, a ball
of flax for stitching, some
bristles and shoemaker's wax, will be all that is needful
— the whole costing, say, 6d.
Having now described the uppers, lasts, bench,
tools, leather, and " grindery," and supposing that the
amateur has all these necessaries ready for use, he
now needs to be shown how to construct the boot. As
has previously been remarked, the riveting system of
construction is the simplest, and it is therefore advis-
able to explain it first, leaving the more difficult
systems until the amateur may be supposed to have
obtained some insight into the work. The first opera-
tion is that of " fitting the stuff." By this is meant
getting the rough or bottom leather cut out, trimming
the loose fibres, technically known as "flesh," from the
under sides, so as to leave none but useful leather to
6e worked up, " skiving " the stiffenings, or bevelling
Aem off at the edges, and separating the split-lifts. In
order to allow this to be done, all the leather except
that intended for the inner soles should be placed in
1 tub of water and allowed to remain until it is tho-
roughly wetted through. It must then be taken out
ind allowed to drain. When the water has drained
rrom it, if it is left for a couple of hours or so, it will
then be in the state in which it is easiest and best to
work. In this condition the shoemaker applies to it"
the appropriate adjective " mellow." In this mellow
condition, the soles, top-pieces, and lifts may now be
hammered, to increase their solidity and wearing
qualities. Care should, however, be taken not to
overdo the hammering, or the leather will become un-
workable. In order to get the shape of the sole
correctly, it will be necessary to round up the inner
sole to the shape of the last, and then cut out the sole
according to it. The iron last must be placed on the
upright stand, and the two small holes at the toe and
ball filled up with pieces of hard leather driven in
tightly by the hammer. The leather for the insole is
next to be temporarily attached to the last by a couple
of long rivets driven through it into the holes above-
mentioned. It must now be pared round evenly, the
edge of the last being taken as a guide in the " fore-
part " and at the heel, and the waist shape being ob-
tained by making a very gentle inward curve on the
hollow side, keeping the outer side nearly in a straight
line. The rounded inner
sole may now be taken off
the last, to be used as a
pattern for the sole. In
marking out the sole
shape, an allowance of
■j*0 in. must be left on all
round the forepart from
the joints (i.e., where the
sole broadens at the ex-
tremity of the waist), this
allowance being slightly increased at the end of
the toe. The sole in the waist will need only about
tV in. allowance of extra width, but as the heel part is
approached more allowance must be made, and beyond
the corners of the heels the allowance of ^ in. will
again be necessary. The accompanying diagram will
make this clear, the joints being shown at A a, and the
commencement of the heels at B B. One sole having
thus been prepared, it will be an easy matter to cut the
other one from it, taking care that in marking the
second sole the first one must be laid with its grain side
to the grain side of the one to be cut, otherwise both
soles will be cut for one foot — an accident which not
infrequently happens to inexperienced workers. Any
loose fibre which may show itself on the flesh side of
the leather should now be taken off with the knife, and
the soles are ready for use.
The middle soles may be shaped from the sole-
pattern. They reach from the toe to just below the
joints. The lifts and top-pieces may be roughly cut
out by the back part of the sole, the size being slightly
decreased if small and high heels are required. For
low heels they should be the same size as the back, or,
-DIAGRAM OF THE SOLE.
BOOTS AND SHOES.
85
as it is termed, " the seat " of the sole. The split-lifts
have now to be divided. The method of doing this is
to lay the leather — a piece 7 k in. long and J in. wide —
on a piece of board, and, holding the knife at an acute
angle, commence a cut j in. from the edge, bringing
the blade of the knife out on the under side f in. from
the other edge.
The stiffenings, having previously been cut to fit
the opening between the lining and outside of the
uppers, have now to be "skived." This is a very
important operation, for the comfort or otherwise of
the wearer depends on its being properly accomplished.
It consists in bevelling off the stiffening towards its
edge, so that at the actual
edge there is nothing
which, when the stiffening
is in the boot, can in any
way hurt the foot. In
"skiving," the knife is held
in the same way as in
dividing the split-lifts.
Commencing at the end
of the stiffening, the
worker pares away the
edge on the flesh side of
the leather with a smooth,
steady cut. Thus the
stiffening is left very thin
at its edge, but has its full
substance half an inch
away from it, that is to
say, if the stiffening is net
more than | in. thick. If
the leather is stouter, it
must be pared, evenly
away all over until this
thickness is arrived at.
The stiffening is now
turned over, and a small
shaving is taken from its
edge on the grain side,
for the purpose of preventing an undue hardness
when it becomes dry. The smallest inequality to be
found anywhere about a stiffening must be removed
before it is fit to be used in a boot.
The next step is to arrange the grindery and tools
on the bench, and the actual process of construction
may now be commenced. The stiffening is first bent
to a semicircular form, the grain side being left out-
wards, and it is then put into the back of the upper,
care being taken that it is placed close under the
spring or the golosh seam, if the upper has one. A
small quantity of thin flour-paste is then rubbed on
with the forefinger, so that the lining of the upper may
adhere to it The inner sole, which we have supposed
FIG. 4. — LASTING THE BOOT— PULLING OVER THE JOINTS,
to have been removed from the last, must now be re-
placed, and slightly bevelled all round, but not more
than 1% of an inch from the edge. The upper having
been placed over the upright stand, and beneath the
last, is now to be placed evenly in position upon it, and
drawn tightly over the toe by means of the pincers. The
portion which comes beyond the edge is pressed down
by the thumb of the left hand, and a tingle driven
through it and the insole ; this clenches on the last,
and holds it in position. The maker must now see
that all the seams of the upper have fallen into posi-
tion exactly opposite each other ; if they have not, the
position needs to be altered. If no " side-linings "
have been put in by the
upper manufacturer, they
will now have to be added.
Side-linings are strips of
leather or canvas, which
are put in between the
lining and the fronts of
uppers, in order to
strengthen the latter at
the point where the great-
est friction is caused by
walking. A strip of thin,
soft leather, i£ in. wide
at one end, and tapering
off to J in. at the other,
with all edges "skived,"
makes the best side-lining.
These are now to be
placed in position between
the lining and outside,
with the narrow ends to-
wards the toe. The sides
are now to be drawn
over, the grip taken by
the pincers being about
1 in. from the end of the
toe. The upper must be
drawn forwards as well
as over ; this is in order that the boot-upper may
sit well when made. Having drawn over both
sides tightly, and tacked the leather down, the same
thing is done at the joints where the line A A is
shown in Fig. 3. The portion of upper between
the two fronts may now be brought into position, and
also tacked down. Lasting in the toe, the next step to
be performed, is a somewhat difficult process, and
requires to be done with much care. A quantity of
leather has to be drawn tightly and smoothly in, and
there is a very small space to be occupied. The work-
man begins by taking hold of a piece of upper leather,
as near to the central toe-tack as his pincers will per-
mit. He then pulls it steadily, and giving it a slight
86
BOOTS AND SHOES.
twist, forms it into a pleat, which he tacks down as
near to the centre as possible. This operation he re-
peats six or seven times, working his pleats towards
the centre all he can, and causing them to fall in
smoothly by tapping them with the small hammer on
the under-side of the pincers. Having done this on
both sides of the central tack, he may level any trifling
inequalities by rubbing the leather inwards with the
handles of his pincers. The back of the upper is now
to be drawn up, and about half an inch of it, together
with the same amount of stiffening, turned over and
tacked down. The sides of the upper and stiffening
are to be drawn over, fastened in the same manner,
and the surplus leather at the back pleated in the same
way as at the toe, though the pleats will not need to be
pulled in so laboriously, but will fall easily into posi-
tion.
It only remains now to last the waists. This
operation is commenced from the joints, the hollow or
inside waist being first drawn up and tacked down.
Lasting the waist frequently requires the exercise of
considerable strength of wrist, as the upper often seems
to possess an obstinate resolve not to allow itself to be
placed in position. The whole of the inside waist
having been made fast, the upper leather outside comes
easily into its place, and the lasting is completed. It
will probably be found that there are some portions of
upper-leather at the toe and other places which are not
required, more than sufficient having been turned
over.
All these may now be cut away, so as to leave
the partly-constructed boot as level as possible. The
hollow which will appear in the centre between the
edges of the upper must be filled up with a piece of
thin leather, cut to the required shape, and fastened by
pasting it in. The boot is now ready for the middle
sole, which should be nailed on with half-a-dozen
£ in. brads. Its position must be very carefully ar-
ranged, so that its edges are an equal distance over the
toe and each side of the upper. Its lower end must
now be " skived " straight across, in order that, when
the sole is placed over it, there is no ridge nor awkward
join to be noticed. The "shank" has next to be in-
serted. This is a narrow strip of hard leather, which
is fastened in the centre of the waist by three or four
brads, its sharp edges being afterwards pared away by
the aid of the knife. The object of the shank is to im-
part a certain amount of stiffness to the boot, as with-
out it the sole bends very much indeed, and cannot be
depended upon to resume its position. By omitting
the shank, extra flexibility is given to the boot, but
certainly not extra durability.
The boot is now ready for the sole, which should
be put on in a mellow condition, so that it may bed
down properly. The worker should slightly bend the
sole lengthwise, lay it on the boot even with the
middle sole, and tack the fore part down with four or
five rivets. The last and boot should next be taken
from the stand, and the position of the sole examined
from the upper side. If it is seen to protrude from
the upper an even distance at the end of the toe, at
each side of it, and at each side of the joints, it is
correctly placed. If at any of these points it is either
unduly prominent or not sufficiently so, the sole must
be lifted up and its position altered. The heel part is
now to be tacked down evenly so that there is an
equal quantity of leather showing beyond the upper
both at the back and sides. The sole must next be
made to lie closely to the upper ; and in order to
accomplish this object it is to be lightly hammered
all over.
The waist part will be the most difficult to get
into position, but by the use of the hammer and
sleeking-stick, it will bed down if a little patience is
exercised. A line is next to be drawn all round the
sole at a distance of \ in. from its edge. In this a row
of small holes is to be made with a peg awl, at a dis-
tance of i in. from each other. These holes are for
the rivets, which are now to be driven through sole
middle-sole, upper and inner-sole, until their points
clench upon the last. Some judgment must be exer-
cised in the selection of the length of rivets to be
used. If they are too long it will be almost impossible
to drive them properly home, and the leather will be
cut unnecessarily by th»ir points turning back ; if, on
the other hand, they are too short, the parts of the
boot will not be held together. A fairly safe guide is
to see that the rivets are a little over g in. longer than
the substance of the sole and middle-sole — that is, if
the upper leather is not very thick. If it is stout they
may be used r3j in. longer. It is the practice of the
workmen who make boots in this way to put the rivets
in their mouths, as the most convenient receptacle
available, and because another member — the tongue —
can be pressed into service. By its aid the rivets are
placed in the most convenient position for rapid use,
each one being passed by it between the lips, head
foremost.
But although this mode of procedure answers
the workman's purpose very well, I cannot recommend
it to the amateur, who might find brass rivets unsuited
to his digestion. A better way for him will be to take
them from the box one at a time. It is very essential
that in putting in the rivets, which now has to be done,
each one should be driven straight home and, if
possible, at a single blow. Those driven in the waist
will need to be quite j in. shorter than are used
in fore-part. Having filled all the holes, and riveted
the sole firmly at the heel, the worker must next
hammer it all over, beginning at the edges and
DECORATIVE WORK FOR BRUSH AND CHISEL.
87
going all the way round, finishing in the centre, so that
all is made level, and the fore-part nearly flat. The
waist is tc be left rounded at its centre. The sleeking-
stick is now to be brought into play — the sole being
first slightly damped with a sponge. The stick is to
be rubbed backwards and forwards vigorously, all
possible pressure being placed on it meanwhile. This
rubbing sets the leather firmly and closes up its
pores.
The heel has now to be built. The split-lift is
first blocked into a semicircular shape by manipu-
lating it with the fingers, and afterwards by lightly
hammering it. It is now placed on the back, or
" seat" of the sole, and being of full substance at its
outer edge while the inner one is, when fastened on,
practically of no thickness, it counteracts the ro-
tundity of the boot at this point, and affords a level
surface for the first lift following it. The split-lift is
usuallv fastened on with ten or a dozen brads, these
not being intended to do more than hold it firmly in
position. The first lift must now be put on and
securely riveted down by not less than a dozen f in.
rivets. All the remaining lifts may now be added, it
being understood that each two thicknesses following
should be separately fastened with the f in. heel
rivets. This being accomplished, and the heel, if the
boot is for a man, having been built squarely up, the
top-piece has to be put on. It may be attached by a
row of h in. rivets put in all the way round, or by
rivets in front and iron "bills," which are simply
very stout cut brads, at the back.
The boot is now complete, as far as its construction
is concerned, but before it is taken from the stand the
upper leather and stiffening should be beaten in closely
where the sole joins them, and all the roughness
should be pared from the heel, so that it may be in
decent form when the finishing part has to be com-
menced.
The boot has next to be taken off the last.
This is done by first drawing out the movable portion
at the instep by means of the last hook. It will be
found that this movable portion, or block, has a hole
pierced through its upper end to admit of the insertion
of the hook. Considerable force may have to be
applied to withdraw this, particularly if the boot has
been lasted very tightly. After the block is drawn the
last has to be replaced on the stand, and the boot is
pushed upwards, forwards, and eventually off, by its
heel and stiffening. Another mode is to turn the stand
round, so that the toe of the boot is towards the
worker, who, steadying the boot by pressing his chest
against it, raises it at the back with both hands, at
the same time drawing it towards him, and so from the
last
{To be continued?)
DECORATIVE WORK FOR BRUSH AND
CHISEL
{For Illustrations, see the Supplement to this Part.)
S decorative work for the interior of a house
there can be nothing that surpasses wood
carving and painting, especially painting
on china and glass. To determine which
of these arts has the best claim to the
highest rank is not possible, each, as a matter of
course, has its ardent and enthusiastic supporters who
will declare that their favourite art is facile princess, and
allow no one to put in an objection to their assertion.
Perhaps the best way of meeting the difficulty is to
say, as it sometimes happens in whist, that " honours
are divided," and that neither can fairly claim supe-
riority over the other. It is true that the carver's
work may be more appropriate in one place, and the
work of the artist in another ; but they are often seen
in admirable combination in which the effect of either
would assuredly be partly lost without the aid of the
other. For example, how much is the effect of
coloured tiles round a fire-grate heightened by the rich
dark hue of the jambs and lintel of an oak mantelpiece
with which they are encompassed, almost as a picture is
surrounded by its frame. And again, to how great an
extent is the monotint of a piece of furniture in wood,
such as a sideboard, or even a bracket, relieved by
the insertion of a painted tile or plaque in any suit-
able position, lending a lightness to the appearance of
the entire work which it could not possibly possess
without its introduction.
In the Supplement to this Part of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, various designs are given for decorative
work of different kinds in painting on china, carving
in wood, and the enrichment of surfaces. Of these,
as will be shown presently, some may be made avail-
able for the double purpose of carving and painting,
and others for painting and modelling in clay, others
again are suitable only for execution in a single branch
of art.
The dessert plate, shown in Fig. 1, affords ah
elegant design for painting on china, but it cannot
well be utilised for any other kind of decorative work.
It has been reproduced from the Art Amateur, from
which all the illustrations given in this Supplement
have been selected. The design is from the pencil of
Mr. Camille Piton, who is one of the most regular and
valuable contributors to this beautiful fine-art maga-
zine. It represents a group of " Ranunculus and Bar-
berries." With regard to the colouring, the ranunculus
is white (white of china, sky-blue and yellow for mixing,
shaded with grey) on purple (purple shaded with the
same) ; the barberries are carnation with a very little
S3
DECORATIVE WORK FOR BRUSH AND CHISEL.
bit of silver yellow ; the stem of the ranunculus is light
green (apple-green shaded with grass-green) ; the
foliage ot the two plants is deep chrome-green and
yellow for mixing, shaded with grass-green and brown.
In Figs. 2 and 3 are shown two Solon Pilgrim Bottles,
which were exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1S78.
These designs may be reproduced in cream or white
on a green or red ground of a deep tint, and may be
made available for painting on china or for modelling
in low relief in clay in the form of a plaque or medal-
lion for insertion in woodwork. The figure in each
composition represents a Cupid, seated, with a basket
by his side. In Fig. 2 Cupid is taking hearts from his
basket, and ruthlessly threading them one by one on
a threaded needle that he holds in his right hand In
Fig. 3 a lamp takes the place of the flower by the side
of the basket in Fig 2 ; but Cupid, tired of stringing
together the hearts that he has gathered, if the phrase
may be permitted, is carelessly throwing the few that
he has left on hand over his right shoulder.
Figs. 4 and 5 are illustrations of decorative work
of the highest merit, which may be utilised either for
carving on wood or for painting on china. The sub-
ject of each is the sunflower conventionally treated, in
modes that at first appear to be very much alike, but
which, on close examination, will be found to present
a striking difference. The pots or bowls from which
the stalks of the flower issue, are indeed alike, and so
is the general style and treatment ; but with this the
resemblance ceases, for in each subject the conven-
tionalised form of the leaves, the open flowers, and
the buds, are so unlike in every particular, that one is
led to admire the ingenuity and artistic talent of the
designer, who could contrive to present the same
object in two such different phases of form and outline.
This design may be carved in low relief, in panels of
wood, and would look well surrounded by a bold
moulding of considerable depth. These may also be
painted on tiles, to surround a fire-grate, either design
being repeated on each side from top to bottom, the
intervening space over the grate being filled by a repe-
tition of the central portion on the dark ground, or at
least half of it, as it will be necessary to make each
side of this part exactly alike, for the sake of symmetry.
For example, suppose a horizontal line be drawn
across the middle of the central flower in Fig. 2, this
line will be vertical in the tiles that fonn the lintel,
and on either side of it should be repeated the upper
portion in which the flower-buds are shown. In the
matter of colour there is but little choice. The princi-
pal coloui in the flowers and buds must be yellow,
shaded with brown ; the leaves must be light-green,
shaded with a darker tint, and the ground of the
central part, which is distinguished by shading of
cross lines in the illustration, should be of a rich
brown, inclining to red. The remainder of the de-
sign, namely the flower-pot, and the mosaic-like ground,
with which it is surrounded without the dark circum-
scribing circle, should be coloured in tints of cream,
brown, and red, the entire ground of the flower-pot
being of this last-named colour, drapered and shaded
with brown, or with a deeper tint of the same.
In Figs. 6 and 7 are shown rosettes of various
designs, which will be found useful for various kinds of
work. They are well adapted to serve as roses for the
decoration of ceilings in distemper, or, if the amateur
prefer it, to be drawn and painted on paper for attach-
ment to the ceiling. They may also be used as
patterns for the embellishment of small china circlets
or tiles, to be used in the decoration of brackets, or
for any similar purpose. The same may be said of the
design for a tile given in Fig. 10, for which, as well as
for the rosettes, harmonious combinations or contrasts
of colours will readily suggest themselves to the ama-
teur who has some acquaintance with the theory of
colour — a subject which should be far more studied
than it is.
In Figs. 8 and 9 hints are given for borders and for
diapered work for the decoration of surfaces, which
have been suggested by the ornamentation of ancient
sculptured work in Chartres Cathedral. Although,
when subjected to a close analysis, the composition or
the design in each case is tolerably simple, yet the
effect produced is rich in the extreme, and conveys an
idea of elaboration from which the design is altogether
free. There is much to be gained from a study of
work of this description. With the workmen of old
times, in strict conformity with the old Latin legend,
" Laborare est orare," their earnestness, their love of
art for its own sake, their aspirations after perfection
in their work, as far as it was possible to attain to it,
were such as to show that to them work was prayer
indeed, inasmuch as they sought diligently to do
their best and utmost therein, a seeking and striving
which sanctifies all honest work, and makes it truly
acceptable to Him to Whom all things should be done
in singleness of heart.
Little yet remains to be said on the remaining illus-
trations embodied in the Supplement now under con-
sideration. Fig. II furnishes a design for a border
which will be found highly effective in carving in low
relief, and which, with a very little trouble, may be
equally well adapted forstencilling, or for the border of
a window in coloured glass, in which colour is to be
found in the border, only the portion within the border
being formed of glass of a greenish tint that allows the
passage of light through it is not transparent, like
glass that is used for ordinary purposes. Figs. 12 and
13 are examples of diapered work, or work for the
decoration of surfaces, bearing a close resemblance to
THE REPRODUCTION OF COINS AND MEDALS
89
Japanese work of this character. The effect produced
by this style of ornamentation in surfaces of limited
area is very good, the only thing that militates against
its adoption being the extreme care that is necessary
to avoid mistakes in carrying out the design from
commencement to completion which renders the work
somewhat tedious. As the reader will see on close
and critical examination each pattern is produced by
the delineation of lines, eta, of different thicknesses, in
black or some colour on white or a light tint which
affords a sufficient contrast to the colour of the mark-
ings that are traced on it. It is possible, of course,
to introduce two colours in the lines that are traced on
the plain surface ; thus in Fig. 12 the circles may be in
one colour and the square spots in the centre and the
curved lines in the spaces formed by the intersection
of the circles of another, and the same may be said of
the thick and thin lines that combine to form the
intricate pattern exhibited in Fig. 13.
THE REPRODUCTION OF COINS AND
MEDALS.
|p HE study of numismatics, or the science of
coins and medals, is one that presents
many attractions to a large section of
amateur workers and collectors. It is,
moreover, a pursuit that should be en-
couraged in all young persons who show any taste and
liking for it, as it tends to keep up and increase the
knowledge of history that they may have already
gained, and, in a less degree, that of geography. Nu-
mismatics, as a science, has the same divisions as
history. Ancient numismatics extends to the fall of
the Western Empire ; the numismatics of the Middle
Ages commences with Charlemagne ; and modern
numismatics with the revival of learning. The science
appears to have been wholly unknown to the ancients.
The first treatise on the subject was published by a
Spaniard, Antonio Agostino, in 1577. As the re-
searches into the different branches of the subject
became more extensive, more attention was paid to
this matter, and the works of Vaillant. Spanheim,
Gessner, Pelerin, and other writers on the subject, dis-
play immense stores of learning, and are worthy of
perusal, although they are not altogether to be relied on.
There is no intention here of entering into any con-
sideration of the best modes of pursuing the study :
the object of this paper, as will be seen presently, is a
very different one. Before proceeding any further,
however, it may be as well to point out that the study
of numismatics is often likely to develop into a good
investment for the future, either for the collector him-
self, or for the benefit of those who may succeed him.
As a proof of this, it may be said that some of the
more important public and private collections of coins
in Europe in the present day are of great value ; and
as instances of this, it is on record that the private col-
lection of Greek and Roman coins made by the late
Lord Northwick realized .£9,138 when sold, and that
of the Duke of Devonshire fetched £6,915. Collec-
tions of all kinds gradually acquire considerable value.
It is said that a collection of articles sold at a penny
in the streets of London, which was made by a gentle-
man who was struck by the number and variety of
articles offered at this price by street-hawkers to
passers-by, was eventually disposed of by him for a
sum amounting to several pounds.
There is a difference of a marked kind between a
coin and a medal, though in the appearance of objects
of each kind there is, to a casual observer, nothing that
implies any distinction whatever. The difference that
exists may be thus explained : — Coins are pieces of
metal on which different marks have been impressed
by public authority, to indicate in some cases their
weight, and in others their value, in order to make
them a convenient medium of exchange ; medats are
pieces of metal similar to coins, not intended as a
medium of exchange, but merely struck to commemo-
rate some important event. Thus coins, as a general
rule, cany the beholder's attention to a certain extent
of time, namely, the reigns and lives of the monarchs
whose impress they bear ; but medals refer only to a
certain epoch of time ; as, for example, the medal
which was struck in commemoration of the infamous
massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Now it is clear that, in making anything approach-
ing to a complete and systematic collection of coins
and medals, there will be considerable difficulty,
partly by reason of the expense involved in making
purchases of specimens, and partly through the ex-
treme difficulty of becoming possessed of objects of
rarity, especially of this kind. To a certain extent,
collectors may render each other valuable assistance
by lending coins and medals for reproduction, or, what
is far better, reproducing them themselves for presen
tation to others who are engaged in the same pursuit,
or to be utilised as exchanges. As medals are, for the
most part, of large size, it is to these that reproduction
is most applicable. There are several methods by
which medals may be reproduced, and of these the
following, which are taken from the columns of an
American contemporary, are the simplest, and afford
the most satisfactory results : —
The Stereotype Process, — The medal, thoroughly
cleansed, dried, and coated with a thin but uniform
film of pure sperm or olive oil, is bound around the
edge with a piece of cardboard, so as to form a box,
go
WA YS AND MEANS.
the bottom of which is the medal. A small quantity
of finest plaster of Paris is then mixed up quickly into
a thin cream, and applied all over the exposed surface
of the medal with a camel's-hair pencil, so as to fill all
depressions and exclude air-bubbles. A thicker cream
of plaster is then at once poured in, until the box is
nearly or quite filled. When the plaster has properly
hardened, the cardboard is taken off, and the plaster
adhering to the rim of the medal trimmed off with a
knife ; the medal can then be easily detached from the
cast. Another cast may then be taken of the reverse
side of the medal in a similar manner. These casts,
after trimming, are set aside in a warm place until they
become quite dry, and are then clamped securely, face
upward, in a small shallow iron tray, so that their face
is about half the thickness of the medal distant below
the top or edge of the tray. The spaces in the tray
about the casts are then filled up even with the inferior
edge of the casts with plaster, papier mache\ or dry
clay. The tray thus arranged is put into an oven until
the temperature of its contents is uniformly heated to
about 2 500 Fahr., when it is removed, and immersed
wholly below the surface of a potful of ordinary type-
metal, heated just hot enough to make it quite liquid.
As soon as air-bubbles cease to escape, the tray is
slowly and steadily raised out of the pot, and the con-
tents allowed to chill and harden in the air (sometimes
it is preferable to plunge it in water, so as to facilitate
the removal of the " cake " from the tray). When the
plate of type-metal is cut out of the tray, a correct
(reversed) copy of the plaster moulds will be found on
its under-surface ; and when the superfluous metal has
been cut away, and the pieces trimmed to proper
dimensions and thickness, they may be soldered to-
gether back to back, and the edges cut, turned, or
milled, as the case requires, to produce a con-ect imi-
tation of the original medal. Cleansed by dipping
momentarily in a strong, hot solution of caustic potash,
and, after quickly rinsing in running water, in hydro-
chloric acid, it may be coated with silver or copper, if
desired, by electro deposition.
The Electrotype Process. — Melt pure white wax,
and stir well into it while cooling about one-fifth its
weight of finest flake white (plumbic carbonate).
Having uniformly coated the faces of the medal with
a film of finest graphite or plumbago, arrange it in the
box of cardboard as in taking the plaster stereo cast,
and pour in the wax preparation, previously heated
just enough to make it semi-fluid. Having thus ob-
tained a mould in wax of both faces of the medal,
harden the wax in a cool place, then coat it perfectly
with a film of pure graphite, wrap about the edges a
number of turns of clean copper wire, and brush on
plumbago, so that the film of the latter may have con-
tact with the wax and wire all around. Suspend the
wax cast thus prepared by the copper wire in a satu-
rated (or nearly saturated) aqueous solution of pure
sulphate of copper, jarring it so that all bubbles of air
may escape from the deep lines of the cast. Close in
front, but not touching the immersed mould (or its
connections), suspend by a copper wire a sheet of clean
copper. Connect the copper by stout copper wire with
the silver (or carbon) pole of a Smee battery of three
cells (in series), and the copper wire on the mould, in
a similar manner, with the zinc pole of the same
battery, and let the deposition of copper on the mould
proceed until it becomes thick enough to separate
without breaking (about as thick as this paper). Then
carefully detach it fiom the mould, embed the pieces,
face downward, in dry plaster, and fill up (after drying)
with melted type-metal (or fusible metal). Trim to
proper size and thickness, solder the pieces together,
back to back, and cut or mill the edges to proper form.
These copies may be coated with a thin film of silver
by electro deposit. The surfaces may be given an
aged appearance by immersing them for a few moments
in a dilute solution of sulphide of soda in warm water
When a copy, as produced by stereotypy, of a
medal is taken in metal, the latter coated with plum-
bago, and immersed in a bath composed of three-
quarters of a pound of sulphate of nickel and ammonia
per gallon of water, under the conditions described in
electrotyping with copper, a hard she'l of nickel is
obtained, which, when separated, and backed with
type-metal, may be used as a die. It is difficult, how-
ever, for an amateur in electro-metallurgy to obtain
good results in this way. Steel dies cannot be pro-
duced in this way. Moulds for stereo or ordinary
casting should be heated.
For a fusible silver-white alloy melt type-metal, and
mix it with one-eighth its weight of grain tin, remove
from the fire, and stir well before pouring.
WAYS AND MEANS.
[The Receipts brought together under this title are gathered
from various sources. They are given here because they are each
and all apparently possessed of value, and likely to be useful to the
Amateur. It is manifestly impossible for the Editor to test them,
or to have them tested, and he therefore disclaims all responsibility
for their accuracy or otherwise. Amateurs who may try them are
requested to communicate the results arrived at.]
Preservation of Wood. — A new wood-preserv-
ing process has been invented in France by M. Jacques.
He first impregnates the timber thoroughly with a
simple solution of soap, mixed with an acid— prefer-
ably phenic acid. This causes the fermentation, in a
few days, within the wood, of a fatty acid, which is in-
soluble in water, and impregnates the innermost fibres.
The reaction of the acid on the soap does not take
place until a portion of the water has evaporated. It
WA YS AND MEANS.
9i
is claimed that more perfect impregnation can be had
in this way than with creosote, and there is no danger
of the washing out of the preservative from the exposed
surfaces, as when sulphate of copper is used.
Waterproof Glue. — Glue may be made water-
proof by adding about 1 part of bichromate of potash,
first dissolved in water, to every 30 or 40 parts of glue,
but you must keep the mixture in the dark, as light
makes it insoluble. When the substances are glued
together, and the joint exposed to the light, every part
of the glue thus exposed will become insoluble and
therefore waterproof. If the substances glued together
are translucent, as paper is, all will become water-
proof; if opaque, like wood, only the exposed edges
will become so, but they also protect the interior, not
exposed parts, against the penetration of moisture.
To Soften Putty and Remove Old Paint. —
Take 3 pounds of quick stone lime, slack the lime in
water, and then add 1 pound of American pearl-ash.
Apply this to both sides of the glass, and let it remain
for twelve hours, when the putty will be softened, and
the glass may be taken out without being broken. To
destroy paint, apply it to the whole body of the work
which is required to be cleaned ; use an old brush, as
it will spoil a new one ; let it remain about twelve or
fourteen hours, and then the paint may be easily
scraped off.
Paste FOR Laeels. — For adhesive labels dissolve
ii ounces of common glue, which has laid a day in
cold water, with some candy sugar and \ ounce gum
arabic, in 6 ounces hot water, stirring constantly till
the whole is homogeneous. If this paste is applied to
labels with a brush and allowed to dry, they will then
be ready for use by merely moistening with the
tongue.
Effect of Zinc on Hot Coals. — A piece of zinc
placed upon the live coals in a hot stove, it is said,
will effectually clean out a stove pipe, the vapour pro-
duced carrying off the soot by chemical decomposition.
Cleaning Metals.— A writer in the Metal World
says that he has found the following recipe very good
for cleaning all kinds of metals. It is very satisfactory
indeed, he says, for copper, brass, and zinc, as anyone
will find who gives it a fair trial. To make the mix-
ture, dissolve in one gallon of rain water 4 ounces
oxalic acid ; add 4 ounces pulverized tripoli, 4 ounces
dark rotten-stone, and 20 drops alcohol. Shake well,
apply briskly, and wipe dry.
Uses of Asbestos in Laboratories. — The
remarkable properties of asbestos, such as its noncom-
bustibility and its resistance to the action of acids,
render it peculiarly well adapted for use in chemical
operations. It was employed centuries ago for the
orocess of filtration of liquids, a plug of the material
oeing inserted in the neck of the funnel through which
the liquid was poured. The asbestos paper produced
at the present time presents an excellent material for
filter paper, as the latter can be washed an almost
infinite number of times without being destroyed. The
working tables of laboratories may be furnished with
coverings of thick sheets of this paper, which coverings
prevent any destructive action of acids, however strong
the latter may be. In addition, the material is elastic
to such an extent that articles of glass may be allowed
to fall upon it without serious risk of fracture. The
paper under consideration is moreover employed in
the manufacture of porous cells for electric batteries,
gloves, coverings for the hands when handling corro-
sive products, and various other articles of utility.
Air-tight and Water-tight Corks.— A Ger-
man chemical journal commends the use of paraffine
as the best method of making porous corks gas and
water-tight. Allow the corks to remain for about five
minutes beneath the surface of melted paraffine in a
suitable vessel, the cork being held down by a per-
forated lid, wire screen, or similar device. Corks thus
prepared can be easily cut and bored, have a perfectly
smooth exterior, may be introduced and removed from
the neck of flask with ease, and make an absolutely
perfect seal.
Coloured Photographs.— A recent communica-
tion to the French Academy of Sciences announces a
new method of taking photographs in colour, which,
although it is not a solution of the prime problem for
photographers, how to produce Nature in her own
hues, is at least some mechanical approach to it. It is
the invention of MM. Ch. Cros and J. Carpentier, and
consists in taking three separate photographs of the
red, yellow, and blue tints, then combining them.
Three negatives of the object are first taken— one
through a screen of orange liquid, one through a screen
of green liquid, and one through a screen of violet.
The varying opacities and transparencies of these
negatives indicate the relative qualities of red, yellow,
and blue tints in the object. The proofs are taken on
plates of glass, coated with coagulated albumen, which
has imbibed bichromate of ammonia. A transparent
negative, or first photograph, is applied to one of these,
and exposed for some minutes to a diffused light, so
that the transparencies and opacities of the negative
shall imprint themselves on the sensitive albumen.
The proof plate is then plunged into a colouring bath,
and in the parts protected by the opacities of the
negative the colouring matter spreads and fixes itself.
By repeating this operation with the three different
negatives the three colours are combined on one glass
plate, and a fair imitation of the original object is the
result. Of course, for the image obtained through the
green screen the colouring bath is red, for that through
the orange screen blue, and that through the violet
92
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL,
screen yellow. The same screens and pigments serve
to reproduce all sorts of polychromes. The screens
hitherto used are glass vessels filled with solutions of
chloride of cobalt, chromate of potash, and sulphate of
copper. When the electric light is used the screen is
put before the lamp, so that the object will be illumi-
nated by a monochromatic light and photographed in
the ordinary way.
Colouring Zinc Roofs. — Among recent German
inventions is a simple process, depending on the use
of acetate of lead, by which every kind of colour is
applicable to sheets of zinc. By mixing blacklead, for
instance, with the salt, a very agreeable light brown
hue is obtained. It is by this process that the cupola
of the synagogue at Nuremberg has been painted. A
sufficient length of time has already elapsed, it is said,
to show that the atmosphere has had no influence on
the zinc sheeting of the roof, thus showing the practical
value of the process in such cases. By the addition of
other colouring matters, light or dark shades of yellow
or grey may be produced.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL
[The Editor reserves to himself the right of refusing a reply to
any question that may he frivolous or inappropriate, or devoid of
general interest.]
ERY numerous are the suggestions and
offers of assistance that have come from
writers in all parts of the United King.
yjTi y |H | dom, and even in many of the Colonies,
and in reply to these, individually and
collectively, it may be said that all proffered aid is
welcome, and will be accepted if the papers that are
sent prove suitable, and that careful attention shall be
given to every suggestion whatever may be its nature.
With regard to questions proposed by those who are
seeking information on various subjects in which they
take an interest, they are so numerous th&t it will not
be possible to satisfy all in this present part of
Amateur Work, Illustrated, having regard to
the space at command. It will be sought, however,
by the use of smaller type in this portion of the
magazine, in future numbers, to clear up all arrears as
speedily as possible, and to find room without unne-
cessary delay for prompt replies to all querists.
St. E. says : — "May I suggest that a place be
found in AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED, for the
construction of small windmills, such as a>-e used
extensively in the United States, I believe." Will
any reader who is acquainted with these wind-
mills, and the purposes for which they are used, furnish
a paper or two on this subject ? The construc-
tion should be clearly explained by description and
illustration, and the writer should show how they may
be utilised in this country. Instructions for building
a really cheap greenhouse will be given very shortly,
with working drawings of every part.
A. W. C. {Camden Town). The small organ, whose
construction is described in AMATEUR WORK, ILLUS-
TRATED, has no pedals. In a short time another
series of papers on this subject will be commenced, in
which the fitting of pedals and stops will be fully
explained, and directions given for making pipes far
cheaper than the cheapest that can now be made in
wood or metal.
A. I. P. {South Camp, Aldershot). — Etching on
glass is generally termed " embossing." The etching,
or embossing, liquid for which a recipe was given in
"Ways and Means," in Part I., is applied in the ordi-
nary way, and not with a pen or pencil. The use of
the word " etching " has apparently conveyed a wrong
idea of the process. For embossing on glass stencil-
plates should be used having perforations correspond-
ing with those parts that it is wished to leave clear.
Varnish the glass that appears through the open
spaces in the stencil-plate with Brunswick black, and
when this is dry subject the glass to the action of
hydrofluoric acid. Then wash in clear water and remove
the black ground. Every part that was not protected
by the varnish will have been eaten into by the acid.
G. D. B. {Liverpool) asks for "a description of a
nice fernery suitable for a drawing-room." Papers
will shortly be given on this subject which will afford
the information that is sought for. To deal with it
here would occupy more space than could be fairly
given.
C. H. {Bideford). — As you suppose, the details and
dimensions of the "Simple Fret -Sawing Machine"
were not given as fully as they ought to be in the
original description on which the article was based.
The only way to determine the dimensions witr.
accuracy is to make a working drawing to scale, ac-
cording to those measurements which are given. The
terms " scroll saw " and " fret saw " are applied indif-
ferently to the little narrow saw used in fret-cutting.
Saws of this kind, but from 10 to 12 inches long, are
made. A cheap saw has lately been brought out
called "The Holborn," consisting of a bowed frame,
or handle, roughly cut out in beech, something like the
iron frame of a hack saw for metal but without the
handle, having clamps at the ends of the arms of the
frame to hold the blade, which was tightened by a nut
on the outer side of the lower arm. The complete saw is
sold at 7jd., the saw-blades, which are 9} inches long,
at 3d. each. Tiiese might answer your purpose. The
ordinary fret saw may be used in the machine, large
as it is, by having clamps made of sufficient length to
hold the small blade. With regard to the iron plates,
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
93
they should be specially made by a smith and let into
the inner sides of the uprights of the principal frame.
Grooves might then be cut in the outer sides of the
small frame to receive small iron wheels — small pulleys
would do — which would project but slightly beyond
the surface of the wood and work against the iron as
the inner frame moves up and down.
J. B. {Barnard Castle) wishes to know "how to
make a cooling-room to keep meat and poultry in hot
weather, about four or five feet square." Will he say
whether he washes for instructions to build a small ice-
house, or a kind of safe in which meat may be kept
cool ? and if the latter, state in what place or position
he wishes to keep it. The failure in making the liquid
glue by soaking glue in whiskey, was possibly owing to
want of strength in the whiskey. Here is another
recipe for liquid glue : White glue, 4 oz ; dry white
lead, 1 oz. ; soft water, half a pint ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; stir
together, and botde while hot, w-hich may be useful if
J. B. fails again with the spirit.
W. B. (Bristol) is thanked for his commendation
of Amateur Work, Illustrated, and his endea-
vours to promote its sale. It will be sought to make it
the best serial of its kind.
A. W. B. B. [Jamaica) writes with reference to the
preliminary notice of Amateur Work, Illustrated,
that appeared in " Every Man His Own Mechanic " :
"In my opinion, a Magazine of this nature will fill a
recognised want among amateurs, there being at prese7tt
no representative organ for the vetitilation of their
' hobbies.' Such papers as ' The English Mechanic]
and '■Design and Work] have become too intricate for
amateur work, and of late the occasional paragraphs in
The Bazaar'' are all that amateurs have had {so far
as I am aware) to fall back upon!' An inspection of
Parts I. and II. will show A W. B. B. that all his sug-
gestions have been anticipated, except two, which shall
have attentive consideration.
W. R. (Nottingham) thinks "that an Exchange
Column, similar to the one, say, in ' Science Gossip,'
will be very useful'' He wishes for offers in Exchange
for a "Portable Photographic Apparatus, complete,
new four months ago." This is the only proposal for
an Exchange that has yet been received. If more are
sent in, Rules and Regulations for effecting exchanges
will be drawn up, and inserted at the head of the
Exchange Column for the guidance of subscribers.
Meanwhile, any offers for the above shall be forwarded
to W. R. immediately on their receipt.
G. A P. B. (Parkstone).— The subjects mentioned,
with the exception of cne, will not be treated at pre-
sent Any article that you may send will be care-
fully read and considered, with a view to its acceptance
if found suitable for the magazine.
Subscriber. — The proprietors of this magazine
are also the proprietors of the works issued by the
gentleman you name in your letter. There is there-
fore no necessity for doing as you suggest.
Birdcage. — In order to straighten wire, such as
copper wire for hanging bells and slight brass wire for
cages, make a loop in one end of it, put the loop thus
made over a hook driven into the wall or piece of
wood-work, at any convenient place, and then draw
the wire over some rounded surface, such as the
handle of a hammer.
E. P. C. (Muswell Hill). — Making varnish is an
operation which is attended with some danger, as the
ingredients of which it is composed are very inflam-
mable. The "hard oak varnish that has been kept
several years in a tin can, and has become too thick to
lay on smoothly," might possibly be thinned by warm-
ing it over a fire made out of doors, after adding a
little boiled oil to it, and then pouring in a little oil of
turpentine when the mixture is cool enough to receive
it without converting it into vapour. Sharpening
lancets is a delicate operation, which should be per-
formed by the surgical instrument maker. E. P. C.
says : — " I want a few hints as to sharpening lancets
and other surgical instruments. What is the right
oilstone to use, and what oil ? What are the tests of
proper sharpness ? How is the polish added ? " Can
any reader who has had experience in this matter
supply the desired information ?
J. E. — Our space is limited, and it is not possible
to treat on everything at once. A thoroughly practi-
cal article, with working drawings to scale, on making
a model locomotive, is on the list of papers to appear
in Amateur Work, Illustrated, in due course.
J. B. (Telsworlh, Oxon), commenting on the reply
given to A.J. M., in Part I., says: — " I fail to see
how I can use a rebate plane for cutting the back of
fret-frames, as I have mostly cut them out of a single
piece of thin wood, and fastened or7iamental slips oj
wood oti the front to form the rebate for picture and
glass, and I have done it with pegs behind." In this
J. B. has given a useful hint to amateurs who may
wish to make frames for photographs and small pic-
tures, without cutting out the four sides and putting
them together by the aid of the mitre-box. Having
formed his rebate by putting two layers of wood to-
gether, so that the upper layer overlaps the lower
layer all round, there is no necessity whatever for him
to bring the rebate-plane into action. A. J. M. had put
the four sides of his frame together without first fornv
ing the rebate in the separate pieces before gluing
them up, and he found a difficulty in making the
rebate after this was done. Hence the reply, that if
he made the rebate before joining up the pieces, a
rebate-plane wao the only thing that he stood in need
of to enable him to do so.
94
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
E. G. (Blackjiiars). — In due time it is intended to
give articles on Harmonium Building, but these must
be deferred until the present articles on Organ Build-
ing aie completed.
E. P. P. {Syston, Leicester). — Thanks are due to
you for your commendation of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, and your good services in making it
known to your friends and procuring subscribers. The
magazine is especially produced to meet the require-
ments of men, and to treat on practical work to which
men may turn their hands. Few amateurs, if any,
would care to take to tailoring, and inquire into its
mysteries ; and, indeed, it is too closely allied to milli-
nery and dressmaking to find a place in its pages.
There are many magazines devoted to these subjects
which would doubtless respond to an appeal for in-
structions in cutting out and making up boys' clothes.
S. G. {Brixworth). — With reference to the draw-
ings you mention, will you kindly point out in what
respects they do not appear to agree with the text.
P. C. (Leig/ilon Buzzard). — It is not desirable to
make this magazine an educational work, strictly
speaking. The instruction given in it applies only to
practical work of all kinds. As it has been stated,
there are works which will in every way meet your
requirements. One of these is " Scientific Recrea-
tions," also published by Messrs. Ward, Lock, & Co.
R. C. {Cults, Aberdeen) wishes for practical hints
on wicker-work, and the manufacture of baskets,
hampers, etc. . Papers on this subject will be given
in due course, with instructions for the culture of
osiers, which is highly remunerative.
A. M. {Holbom). — The Pentagraph is useful for
enlarging or diminishing drawings. Instructions, with
working drawings for making a fret-work book-case,
shall be given in a future number. " Every Man His
Own Mechanic" is published by Messrs. Ward, Lock,
and Co., complete in one volume, at 7s. 6d.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
HEN woodwork has to be repainted it is
very frequently found to be necessary to
remove the whole of the old paint, and
to go through the whole work de novo,
from the priming to the finishing coat.
There are certain preparations used by painters for
the removal of old paint, but as the action of these is
found to be detrimental to the wood, the process is
usually performed by the application of heat, which
softens the old paint, and so enables the painter to
scrape it away. For the amateur this is both a tedious
and a difficult process, and he will naturally desire to
resort to the aid of a " remover." The question then
arises as to what may be the best and most effectual
preparation to use, and there would still be some diffi-
culty in meeting the inquiry in a satisfactory manner,
had not Messrs. W. E. Rendle and Co., of 3, West-
minster Chambers, Victoria Street, S. IV., already
solved the difficulty, and given a sufficient answer by
the production of a patented novelty, to which they
have given the name of "The Electric Paint Remover,"
and which is a chemically-prepared compound for re-
moving old paint, varnish, tar, rust, grease, etc., from
wood, metal, stone, and fabrics of all kinds, including
textile fabrics. I have not yet had an opportunity of
testing this useful composition, and therefore cannot
speak from personal experience as to its merits, but it
is a preparation so likely to be of use to, and to be used
freely by, amateurs, that I do not hesitate to borrow, for
the benefit of my readers, the following account of its
properties and action from the Building News, one of
the best authorities in matters of this kind. The writer
of this account, it should be stated, had been invited
by Messrs. Rendle and Co. to witness some experiments
made with the new remover upon various specimens of
painted wood and metal.
These specimens, he tells us, "were all old samples,
well painted with several coats of good oil colour.
The compound, which is of a cream-like subsistence,
quite white, is spread over the painted surface, and
after being left on a few minutes, is \riped off. The
inventor made some remarks upon the chemical
properties of different sorts of paint ' removers ' known
to the trade. These were generally compounded of
alkalies, soda and potash, mixed with lime, which
latter was known to have a dehydrating action on the
fibre of the wood. The result of the use of these pre-
parations was, that only the first film of paint was
removed, the body of paint being imperfectly acted
upon. While some of these preparations remove
paint of ordinary work, for paint-work of several coats
they are quite inoperative. The new ' Electric Paint
Remover' is chemically prepared according to a
scientific formula, in which potash and soda are the
principal ingredients, but in which there is not a trace
of lime present. Its action upon the body of the paint
is thorough and complete ; a soporification is set up
which continues, the soda is liberated, and fresh soap
formed ; and this process goes on, the alkali being
liberated as it is wanted until the whole of the paint
is removed."
To continue the description of the process. The
specimen that was acted upon " only remained about
a quarter of an hour subjected to the action of this
caustic preparation, and the compound being wiped
off, every trace of paint was found cleanly removed,
and the wood exposed appeared as if it had been
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
95
planed. Nothing could be a more satisfactory test of
the destructive action set up by this material. Directly
the compound touches, soporification is set up. The
action of this preparation seems to be twofold : there
is first the destructive action of the applied alkali,
always caustic, and next a continued sponge-like
action going on— in other words, a constant and per-
fect causticity is maintained. The result of the pre-
paration on metal was equally convincing. A gas-
meter which had been thoroughly coated was exposed
to the compound for about twenty minutes, after
which the japan was removed, and the bright metal
exposed.
" The other forms of this preparation were of a
weaker character, and nearer soap in their composi-
tion. They are intended to remove dirt, and their
action is just the reverse of the compound already
described. The preparations are liquid, and are
soluble in water, and their cleansing power upon cloth
of an unmistakably greasy and dirty character was
almost magical. For delicate carvings and fabrics
of all kinds, these solutions are admirably adapted ;
and, it is probable, their use by restorers, decorators,
and others, will be highly esteemed. The modifica-
tion of the solution for cleaning cloth is well adapted
for restoring the linings of railway carriages and stuff
seats of all descriptions. No scraping or erasing is
necessary." There is nothing injurious, it is said, in
the preparation which can attack or injure metals or
cloths. They all produce a minimum action on
brushes, which is a consideration, and, what is very
mportant, colour is not taken out by the use of these
solutions. The price is less than that of other prepa-
rations. The "Paint Remover" can be easily applied
by being spread over the surface of the paint to be
removed. It is sold in 5 lb. tins, at 2s. 6d. each.
For the benefit of those who wish to know some
method of softening putty without having recourse to
the " Electric Paint Remover," the following is taken
from Spon's " Workshop Receipts " — " 1 lb. of Ameri-
can pearl-ash, 3 lbs. of quick stone lime ; slack the
lime in water, then add the pearl-ash, and make the
whole about the consistence of paint. Apply it to
both sides of the glass, and let it remain for twelve
hours, when the putty will be so softened that the
glass may be taken out of the frame with the greatest
facility."
Messrs. C. Churchill and Co., Importers of Ame-
rican. Tools and Machinery, 28, Wilson Street, Fins-
hery, £.C, send me the following letter, which, in
justice to these gentlemen, I reproduce here. They
say : —
I Referring to your notice of Starrett's Combination
Square, in Amateur Work, Illustrated, page 48,
we'beg to inform you that we are the sole agents of
the maker, and we are the introducers from America ;
and our advertisement of this tool appears on the back
page of Part I. of Amateur Work, Illustrated.
This information we give you, as in your Notes it is
given to another firm."
The same firm also send the description of a new
Drill Brace, which they will have on sale very shortly,
and which, if I mistake not, is the novelty from
America, mentioned in my last " Notes." This is
accompanied by their new Amateur Catalogue, about
which I will take the opportunity of saying a few
words before entering on a description of the new
brace. The catalogue which, to follow the American
plan of giving the sizes of books, is a small quarto
measuring 5J in. by \\ in., is a handy vade
mecum that may well find a place in the pocket of
every amateur artisan, to whom without doubt, Messrs.
Churchill's larger catalogue is well known. This large
quarto catalogue is too large to be carried about, and
would be liable to injury if thrust into the pocket ;
the small one, on the contrary, is in every way fitted
for carrying on the person, and will serve to while
away many a half-hour passed under compulsion in
comparative idleness, when travelling or otherwise.
It is a reproduction of the greater part of the large
catalogue, by photo-lithography, and the beauty of the
wood-engravings thus reproduced, and the clearness
of the descriptive matter and prices speak volumes for
the utility of this process. This catalogue is sent to
any applicant who may wish to become possessed of
it, on receipt of six penny stamps.
The Drill Brace, of which an illustration is given
in Fig. 7, is a 10 in. sweep brace, with a gear-wheel
speeded about three to one, to be used not only in
drilling metal, but also for boring holes in wood — ■
working in places where there is not room to turn the
brace-sweep, or, in other words, the bowed part of the
stock that is grasped with the hand, and turned in order
to cause the bit to revolve. By an ingenious device,
the large gear-wheel can be put on at three different
angles with the brace-sweep, thus rendering the brace
well adapted for use in narrow or cramped places.
The gear-wheel does not form an essential and in-
separable part of the brace, but can be removed in a
second when it is not needed, leaving the tool to
all appearance an ordinary plain brace. When
wanted to be used as a drill, the brace can be fitted
with the gear-wheel with equal quickness.
The sweep of the Brace is made of steel, covered
with a solid plating of nickel-silver ; it is fitted with a
rosewood handle, and has a head or rose of lignum-
vita?. The jaws are of forged steel and will centre
and hold firmly round twist drills irom §■ in. to /, of
an in. in diameter. They are also capable of hold-
ing square shank-bits and drills of all sizes, and square
c.6
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
and flat screw-driver bits. In fact, such are the
capability and power of the jaws that they will hold
with perfect tenacity of grasp tool shanks of any size
and shape. The manufacturer asserts that there is no
other chuck in existence which will do this. The
price of this Drill Brace is i6s., and this is by no
means dear when the make
and materials of the instrument
and its capability are taken into
consideration.
Returning to the catalogue of
Messrs. Churchill & Co., there
are two specialties to which,
although they
may not be abso-
lutely novelties,
I think it de-
sirable to call
the attention of
amateurs. The
first of these
are the " Patent
Diamond Gimlets," and the Nail Gimlets. Both
of these new kinds of gimlets are distinguished from
the ordinary gimlets in common use by the flattened
metallic head, which is fan better suited for manipula-
tion by the finger and thumb only than the old barrel-
shaped, or round wooden handle. Both are twisted, but
in the Diamond Gimlet
— which, were it not
for the turn in it, would
bear a marked resem-
blance to the old-fa-
shioned shell gimlet,
now little used — there
is but half a twist, or
very little more, while
the Nail Gimlet, as it
is called, is exactly like
the common twisted
gimlet in every respect,
except its head or
handle. The Diamond
Gimlets are made of
fine cast - steel and
are of four sizes, num-
~*<$jEii0p^
FIG. 7.— NEW AMERICAN DRILL BRACE.
FIG. 8. — AMATEUR TOOL CASE. (TWENTY-FOUR TOOLS.)
bered 1, 2, 3, 4. They
are sold, assorted in quarter-gross boxes at the rate of
40s. per gross, which is at little more than 3d. each.
The Nail Gimlets are supplied in half-gross boxes,
assorted in Nos. 1, 2, 3, at 21s. per gross ; in Nos.
2, 3, 4 at 22s. per gross ; and in Ncs. 3, 4 at 25s. per
gross. This makes the average price of each gimlet
to be about 2d. Amateur artisans as a rule do not
require tools by the quarter-gross and half-gross, and
I am of opinion that it would be doing essent'al service
not only to persons who come within this category, but
themselves also, if they prepared and sent out a
catalogue, expressly for amateurs, in which each tool
was separately priced, or priced in assorted sets, in
which one of each size was comprised.
The Amateur Tool Case, of
which a representation is given in
Fig. 8, is a very handy thing for
non-professional wood workers,as
it contains, in a compact form, a
number of tools that are constantly
required. It is far better than the
old pad, because
the tools are
not so restricted
in number and
in kind, for in
this it was nat
possible to fur-
nish more than
a few bradawls
with a gimlet or two, a small screw-driver, and a
counter-sinker, while in the Tool Case now under
consideration a far greater variety of tools is included.
The pieces that are contained in this handy little
case are twenty-four in number, all made of the
best cast-steel, hardened and suitably tempered,
and well calculated, in
every respect to do
good service to any-
one who may be dis-
posed to make a set
his own. They consist
of four chisels, two
screw - drivers, one
counter - sinker, one
saw, of the description
known as a keyhole
saw, four gimlets, three
gouges, two knife-
blades that may be
utilised for pruning
and garden work, one
tack-puller, five brad-
awls, one six-inch rule,
and a handle con-
trived to grasp and hold with the necessary firmness
all the tools that have been enumerated, the ruler
excepted, which can, as a matter of course, be used by
itself. The twenty-four pieces and handle are put up
in a nicely-made case or box of walnut wood, the
price, complete, being 20s. The portability of tjiis
tool-case and the variety of tools that it contains, *en<Jf rs
it well adapted for odd jobs about the house.
■■■V? '■' — T" — " •'. • -■'■ '
PRESENTED WITH PART III. OF
AMASSSI Will, lilBSfMJIS
DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.— i. Reading Chair and Escritoire foliiL 1
8. End Elevation of Hanging Shelve., etc. 9. Shield «iih Mono,,™,,, ,M li'y,™ f"*' ~ E"d EI°™ion of Escritoire. 3 and 4 Arm-chair. In, SI..I '
Hall Table, Front Elevation. ,6. Hall Table, etc, End Elevation. ,, s„"nH-El '"' Cl™B >« «'°«4 «tc. ,0. Small ||a„ ,„.. Cu„ „ , ,? S"°°"' " »<*«»»,. 3. Side-Table, adaoled to f„™ r. , n , ,.
I P**»"i »' Sil-Table, Front Elevation ,8 I d F , ™ r «' , ) e°',t "' E"d E,™>™ W Hanging C, 2 , T C™'""7 '» »■« 6. End Elevation ol Side-Table. 7- Hanging Shelve, and Glared
^^,^^^^__^^^^^_J^^_ ■«- tS- End Elevatton of Small S,de-Tablc, etc. ,, EM n TrdfniS ,, W n- kT" 'J**'" '3' &d Elera,i°" °' E"«!"- '4- Couch in Imitation of Austrian Bent
■f UES GNS FOR SIMPLE AND A aTT<=T-,r. " Stde-Table, ,n Japanese Style, „i,h Mir,,,. ==-,6. Monogram, fT.l-P.-A.P.L-E.G.H.-C. B.C.-
-AND ARTISTIC HOME.MADE FURNITIJRE ANQ GARNITIJRE.
"
Cupboard for China and Brie- a- Brae.
■Wood Furniture. 15. Aquarium or
-M.G.)
I
I
'i I
ELEZTRO-PLATiNG AT HOME.
97
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
By GEORGE EVWTNSON.
III.— Batteries, Vessels, Wires, Connectors, Distilling
Apparatus, etc.
ATTERY.— I frequently get such questions
as these sent to me by amateurs : " I
have not a Daniell battery, but I have a
battery that has been used to ring electric
bells, it has got a zinc rod sticking up out
of some whitish liquid, and a white pot coatee3 with pitch
must now dismiss the subject, but hope to take it up
again when I treat of it under the head of Electric
Bells. Another says, " I have some cells of Fuller's
constant battery, can I use them to electro-plate some
spoons?" Now Fuller's bichromate battery, Ander-
son's bichromate battery, and Dale's constant bichro-
mate battery are all electric bell or telephone batteries,
but, unlike the Le'clanche', their construction may be
modified to suit the wants of the electro-plater. Mr.
Dale's battery is one easily altered and made suitable
to deposit metal on fairly large surfaces. When made
up with strips of zinc in the porous cell instead of a
cast zinc rod, and an increase of the carbon surface
FIG. 14.
FIG. 17.
FIG. 18.
FIG. 16.
amateur's PLANT FOR ELECTRO-PLATING.
Fig. 12.— Socket to receive Swell of Bell-Glass. Fig. 13.— Foot of Bell-Glass. Fig. 14.— Cathode Hoop for Bound Vats. Fig. 15.— BeTI-
Glasa, fitted up as Vat, showing arrangement of Anode and Spoons. Fig. 16.— Slinging Wire, partly covered with Gutta Percha.
Figs. 17, 18.— Wire Clips, substitutes for Binding Screws. Figs. 19, 20.— Wire Connectors. Fig. 31.— Apparatus for Distilling Water.
out of which sticks a strip of carbon. Can I use this
battery instead of the Daniell ? " The answer to this
must be a decided negative. Silver may be deposited
by the current from such a battery, just as a boy may
move a heavy bale of goods from one room to another,
but if you wish to have the bale moved carefully across
the street or to the top of the building, it will be best to
employ a strong man to do it for you. The boy ca7i move
the bale, and the Le'clanche", or manganese battery, can
' deposit silver, but by employing either the boy or this
io"™ of battery, you unnaturally test their strength and
j,^.',w»s of endurance, and must not be surprised to find
them fail just when failure is most disastrous, and thus
spoil the work. With this reference to a useful battery I
this battery wi' ">osit silver and copper in very good
condition. ? may yet be done with batteries in
which a solution of bienromate of potash is used,
mixed with other suitable solutions of acids and salts.
Some progress in this direction has been made by
myself in the invention of a combination superior to
any I have met with elsewhere, but I am not at present
at liberty to make the results public. Others ask me
whether or not they may use a Grove or a Bunsen cell,
or, failing this, convert either of those into a Daniell ?
Both the above forms have been used in the electro-
deposition of silver, and, when the nitric acid in the
Bunsen has been replaced by strong sulphuric acid it is
even now largely used in France and Germany by
E
93
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
electro-platers. But I do not wish my readers to run
any more risks than absolutely necessary, of either
ruining their own healths and property, or annoying
their neighbours, so I will tell them how to convert
their Bunsen's or Grove's into Daniell cells.
Well wash the porous cells, or, better still, get new
ones, and into these put the elements and material, of
the Daniell battery given in my last. Whatever bat-
tery is selected, vr~ must look forward to the class of
work to be done with it, and bear in mind this axiom .: —
Let the battery plates exceed in superficial area that of
the anode plate, and of the goods to be covered with
metal.
Vats. — The next part of the amateur's electro-
plating plant requiring consideration is that of the
vessels employed by him to contain the solutions.
The size of the vessel for the plating solution must
depend upon the intended magnitude of his operations.
If he only wishes to do a few earrings, brooches, pins,
studs, buttons, lockets, and such small articles only
requiring a small space, he may perform the operations
in a basin or dish holding two or three pints of liquid
only. But if he wishes to extend his operations to
chains, bracelets, watch-cases, spoons, forks, cruets,
mugs, jugs, and even tea-pots— he will require a vessel
that will hold from two to three gallons of solution.
Electro-platers in a large way of business use vats
capable of containing 50, 100, or even 200, and 300
gallons of solution. These are made of wood, dove-
tailed and bolted together, and lined with cement, but
it will not pay the amateur to imitate his professional
brethren in the size of his vats, nor the material of
which they are composed. The solution we are about
to use is one that will attack and dissolve any metal,
except perhaps platinum, and will penetrate most
substances and destroy them. The best material to
withstand its action is either glass, or the glass-like
enamel which serves as a coating to earthenware
vessels ; but this coating must be free from flaws, or
the solution will enter and throw the enamel off. In
most text books of the art, illustrations are given of
operations being carried on in square or rectangular
glass vessels. This form is theoretically perfect, but
it is also practically unobtainable by us on account of
its scarcity and cost. Vessels large enough for our
purpose may be c ained in porcelain or enamelled
earthenware, of dealers in photographer's materials ;
but it is not necessary to have such a vessel when one
suitable for our purpose may be got at the nearest
china shop.
For small goods, a confectioner's show-glass
will be amply sufficient, and all operations within the
province of the amateur, up to plating a tea-pot, may
be conducted in a glass vessel now to be described.
Procure a large bell-glass— used by gardeners to pro-
tect I'-' tender plants, and sometimes as a ^rlobc to
hr d gold fish — and fit it with a foot or stand as iollows :
Ti handy at turning wood in a lathe, turn a wooden
socket (Fig. 12) to fit the swell of the glass, just above
the knob, and bore a hole in the centre of the wooden
socket to admit the knob ; then take a piece of wood
about five or six in. square (Fig. 13), gouge out a cavity
in the centre to fit the projecting knob of the bell-glass,
and fit it to the wooden socket, attaching it with three
or four screws from beneath. It will not do to glue
the pieces together, because the plating solution may
at some time wet them and cause them to come apart.
The glass will now fit loosely in the wood, so it must
be made firm by bedding it in the wooden socket with
cream of plaster of Paris, and allowing the plaster to
set hard. A glass vessel, such as I have described,
will give great satisfaction to the amateur plater, be-
cause he can watch the operation of plating going on
in it, but it is by no means necessary to have a glass
vessel. An earthenware pan, well glazed inside, or a
stoneware cell of a battery will do equally well, pro-
viding they are large enough and are impervious to
the solution.
Fittings. — In using a square, or rectangular vat,
little difficulty is experienced in fitting the necessary
rods from which the goods must be suspended in the
solution. We have only to place two rods of copper
or brass across the vat, and attach the wires leading
from the battery to them, and they are ready. The
same method may be adopted with a round vessel,
when only a few small articles are to be plated ; but
when the job is a dozen or so of spoons, or forks, a
mug, a cruet, or a tea-pot, the space must be utilised
to the best advantage, and this may be done by the
arrangement shown in the annexed sketch.
Take a piece of £ in. copper or brass rod, and bend
it (Fig. 14) to form a hoop, 2 in. less in diameter than
the top of the bell-glass, or other circular vessel used ;
bind the two ends together with wire, and then solder
them. Now attach four projecting pieces of the
copper or brass rod to four opposite points of the
hoop in the same manner, these are to rest on the
rim (Fig. 1 5) of the vat, as shown in sketch. With such
an arrangement, half-a-dozen or more spoons may be
plated at once by hanging them from the hoop, and
arranging the anodes to hang from a wire resting on
the lath in the centre.
It may be well to explain here that the rod, hoop,
or wire from which the article to be plated is sus-
pended in the solution, has received the name of
cathode rod or wire (the article itself being the
cathode), a term compounded from two Greek words
— " cata," " down," and " Iwdos," " a way," signifying
that the current of electricity leaves the solution by
this way down to the battery. This "way" must
ELECTRO-PLATING AT' HOME.
99
always be connected by wire to the positive or dis-
solving plate of the batter)'. The opposite part of the
vat fittings has received the name of anode rod or
wire (the plate of metal being the anode), and this
term is also compounded from two Greek words —
"ana," "up," and " hodos" "a way," signifying that
the current flows up from the battery and enters the
solution by this " way," which must be connected to
the negative or non-dissolving plate of the battery by
a wire of equal dimensions to that leading from the
cathode.
Wires. — The wires to be used for the purpose of
connecting the cathode and anode with the battery
should be of best copper, of the size known as No. 16
B.YV.G. (Birmingham wire gauge), and covered with
gutta-percha. When thus covered, the wires are what
is termed " insulated," that is, protected from leakage
by accidental contact with each other, or with a con-
ductor spanning the circuit. Thinner wires may be
used as " slinging wires " to suspend the goods in the
solution ; they may be of No. iS or No. 20 B.W.G.,
and need not be covered with gutta-percha. When
coated with this insulating material they effect a saving
in silver, but must be prepared by stripping some of
the gutta-percha from each end, well cleaning the ends
with emery cloth, and, when used for spoons and
forks, they should be bent into the form shown in the
annexed figure (Fig. 16). The ends of wires must be well
cleaned with emery cloth before they are attached to
the vat or the battery, because all dirt offers a resist-
ance to the passage of the current, and a little neglect
on this point may cause a failure.
CONNECTORS. — These are sold under the name of
" binding-screws," at about sixpence each. They are
made of brass, and the most usual forms are those
shown in my last, on page 81. Binding-screws must
"oe well cleaned before they are attached to any part
)f the circuit ; the slots with a strip of emery-cloth
folded to the size, and the holes for the wires with the
tang of a file. Always see that the screw takes a firm
grip on the plate, rod, or wire, but nothing is gained by
screwing up too tight. If a binding-screw sets hard,
moisten it with a little warm water or very dilute acid
before attempting to move it with the pliers. It is
also advisable to occasionally dry the screw, oil it,
work it in and out a few times, and then wipe off all
the oil again ; this will ensure its working free, and
maintaining a firm grip.
Ingenious artisans may like to make their own
clamps and binding-screws, although they may know
that it will be cheaper to buy them. Those who may
have lathes, and an aptitude for turning brass, may
easily turn up a binding-screw of the pattern shown in
page 81 (Fig. 3), out ofa ij in. length of £ in. brass
rod. Turn up the body to shape first, then cut the
slot to hold the zinc plate, bore a hole ior the wire
through the head, then bore holes to receive the screws.
The screws may be turned out of f- in. brass rod ; it
will not be necessary to " mill " the heads, indeed, the
milled form of head is a mistake, a " thumb screw "
being much the handier form. A fine thread shoul:?
be cut on them, and the holes to receive them tapped
to correspond. Clamps may be bent to the form shown
(Figs. 17, iS) if good malleable brass can be obtained,
or they may be cast from a pattern cut out of wood.
If the former, select a strip of brass 3 in. long, A in.
wide, and \ in. thick ; heat it to a dull red, and bend it
over a " former " of hot iron to shape. The piece to
receive the wire and the centre screw, must be cut off
as a separate piece and hard soldered on, then trimmed
up to form.
Many persons dispense with such handy contriv-
ances altogether. They solder a wire to the zinc ele-
ment or the battery, and another to the copper element,
and unite these wires to the line wire by twisting the
ends of the wires together. At the vat they simply
twist the wires around the ends of the anode or cathode
rod, and commence work. After a few hours' work,
the current fails, and they find a loose connection or a
dirty contact to be the cause of failure. In discon-
necting the wires a piece breaks off, and they are then
annoyed to find that the wire is too short. It is well
to solder a connecting-wire to the copper element, but
it cannot be easily soldered to amalgamated zinc, and
still less easily to a carbon plate. Such makeshifts are
excusable when adopted by very poor persons, or those
who are isolated from the means of obtaining a better.
To meet the wants of such, I herewith give illustra-
tions of two " connectors," which may be made up by
any person out of a few bits of wire. To make the
first, take two 3 in. lengths of ~ in. copper or brass
rod, and bend them into the form shown (Fig. 19),
either with the aid of a vice and a pair of pliers, or
with two pairs of pliers, hold the wire firmly in one,
whilst bending it with the other. If made out of hard
drawn copper or brass, they will grip each other (or a
thin plate) like a pair of springs. The ends of the
wires may be soldered to the loops, or twisted tightly
around them. The second form (Fig. 20) is made by
twisting a loop of copper wire around a mandrel, and
bending another piece of wire to fit in the centre of
the spiral thus formed, after the manner of the clasps
used for necklets and chains. In using all these im-
provised connectors, see that they grip firmly, and
always maintain a clean metallic connection.
WATER. — Pure, sparkling water, as it gushes from
the spring, and leaps from rock to rock down the hill-
side, till it finds a resting-place in the clear mirror-like
fountain or lake below ! How pleasant to the eye,
how cooling to our heated and weary brows and limbs,
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
how refreshing as a drink in the hot summer days !
Yes, all this, and much more, may be truthfully said of
pure spring water ; but all the praises ever uttered by
poets in the past or in the future have not, nor will not,
render this water sufficiently pure for our purpose.
What ! dare you hint that our water is impure ? Why,
we — I quite understand all you would say in its praise,
but all the evidence you can bring will not make it
sufficiently pure to meet the requirements of the pure
virgin I am now about to introduce. The least im-
purity in the water will sully her beauty, and — pardon
me — there is much that is impure in the best spring-
water. Carbonic, nitric, sulphuric, and other acids,
exist in some one or other of our spring-waters, com-
bined with some mineral or earthy base held in solu-
tion by the acids. Even rain-water, as it descends
from the clouds, carries with it traces of ammonia and
sulphur. There is only one method of obtaining pure
water suitable for our purpose, and that is by distilla-
tion. Distilled water can be purchased of nearly all
druggists and chemists, or it may be easily prepared
at home without the use of a costly " still." Of course,
where a proper " still," with a worm of pure tin, can
be procured, it should be used in preference to any
other contrivance. No licence is required to use a
" still " for this purpose ; and if used for any distilla-
tion of herbs or spirits, it will be rendered almost
useless for distilling water.
Distilled Water.— Sailors cast on a desert
island where fresh water cannot be procured, have
improvised an apparatus for distilling sea-water, and
thus probably invented the " still." The rude appara-
tus used by them consists frequently of a kettle, to the
spout of which is attached a gun-barrel. The water in
the kettle is made to boil until steam issues from the
end of the barrel, wet cloths are then hung on the elon-
gated spout and kept wet with cold water, this cools
the barrel and condenses the steam in it, the condensed
steam is distilled fresh water free from salt. But this
water will be sure to contain traces of iron washed off
from the interior of the gun-barrel, and this iron would
combine with the cyanide of potassium to form a
foreign iron salt, therefore an iron condensing pipe is
not suitable. But a pipe made out of the best block
tin seamed and soldered (with the seam in the upper
side of the pipe) will do very well, and last for a long
time, or until the tin has been worn away to expose the
iron plate. An ingenious tinker or a worker in tin-plate
may easily improvise a still out of an ordinary half-gallon
tin saucepan (Fig. 21, a) and a preserved meat tin
(Fig. 21, B). Secure the lid of the saucepan by solder-
ing it closely, cut a hole in the lid on one side to
receive the end of a tin tube 2 in. in diameter, and
on the other side a hole to receive a short tin tube
just large enough to be stopped closely with a bottle
cork. Solder both tubes in their respective holes ;
to the large one attach a closely fitting tube of block
tin made to taper down through a length of 2 feet
from 2 in. to i in. (Fig. 21, c). Cut two holes in
the preserved meat tin, one near the top, and the
other near the bottom, the lower one just large
enough to receive the tip of the taper tin tube
above mentioned, which must now be soldered into
the holes in an oblique position running through the
meat tin. This tube must be connected to the larger
tin tube in the lid of the saucepan by an elbow piece
of tin tubing made steam tight. It will be best to
make the taper tube in two sections, to solder one
section into the meat tin and use the other to connect
this with the elbow piece, as suggested in the annexed
sketch. All joints in the tube must be made steam
tight by wrapping some tinfoil around the joint and
luting it with white lead. Fill both the saucepan and
the meat tin with clean water, place the saucepan on
the fire and the meat tin on a stand in the chimney
comer ; when the water boils in the saucepan, stop the
smaller tube with a cork, and the steam will be driven
into the taper tin tube, where it will condense and run
out as distilled water at the 5 in. opening on the
outside of the meat tin. This water must be caught in
a clean jug or clean bottle for use in making up silver
solutions. Whilst the water in the meat tin is kept
cool, all the steam will condense in the tube running
through it, but if steam is made faster than it will con-
dense, it will issue with the water at the small end of
the tube. In such a case as this, hang wet cloths on
the part of the tube outside the upper part of the meat
tin to assist in condensing the steam there. Some few
years since, Mr. Griffin, of Garrick Street, W., made
and advertised some cheap stills from 2s. upwards,
very suitable for an amateur, but I have not seen his
advertisements recently, so cannot say whether he
makes them now or not.
(To be continued.)
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD H. ALLEN.
II.
As it Was, and Is (Italian School).
S I said before in the first chapter, the
differences in the models, styles, etc., of
the greatest makers, are so considerable,
that my work would, to say the least of
it, be incomplete were I to enter upon the
practical part of it without sketching, as briefly as
possible, these " peculiarities of great men," for the
guidance and instruction of the would-be amateur
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
fiddle-maker. To impart to the following notes any
matter of a biographical description would be ob-
viously outside the object of these chapters, so I shall
confine myself purely and shortly to the mechanical
characteristics
of the "great
few " whose
names are
householdwords
alike to the
amateur and the
professional. I
say the few, for
though the
names of the
fiddle-makers is
legion, they
mostly fol-
lowed the prin-
ciples of their
chiefs, it is only
necessary to no-
tice these great
originals. For
classification of
names and bio-
graphical details
I must refer our
readers to Mr.
Hart's most val-
uable and inte-
resting work,
"The Violin: its
Famous Makers
and Imitators."
That the tech-
nical terms used
in the following
remarks may be
fully understood,
I have given in
Fig. 1 6, on a
tolerably large
scale, diagrams
of the front and
back of the vio-
lin, showing its
different parts
and the names
that are applied to them. These diagrams will suffici-
ently explain their purpose without further description.
The violin, as we have before seen, assumed its pre-
sent form rather suddenly in the sixteenth century, and
certain old " Luthiers " have been cited and fully
discussed in Chapter I. ; these were Joan Kerlino
FIG.
FRONT ®" BACK
16. — DIAGRAMS OF THE FRONT AND BACK OF VIOLIN, SHOWING ITS
DIFFERENT PARTS.
A. Scroll. E. Finger-board. I. Beak. N. /Holes. R. Lower Bouts
B. Cheeks of Scroll. P. Neck. £ PurflinS- O. Bridge. S. Nut.
C. Peg-box. G. Button. £.' Corner^ ' p- Tail-piece. T. Shoulder.
D. Pegs. H. Belly. M. Inner Bouts. Q. Tail-pin. U. Eye of Sci oil
(Brescia), 1449; Pietro Dardelli (Mantua), 1500;
Gaspard Duiffoprugcar (Bologna), 15 10 ; Ventura Lina-
rolli (Venice), 1520 ; Peregrina Zanetto (Brescia),
1540 ; Morglato Morella (Mantua.\ 1550. Which last
date brings us
to the Brescian
School, founded
in 1555, or there-
abouts. I shall
notice the ma-
kers of this and
other schools
in chronological
order, as nearly
as possible.
Gaspard da
Salo (Brescia),
1555—1610. So
called from
having been
K born at Salo in
Lombard y.
Seems to have
been originally
a maker of viols
but set to mak-
ing violins and
tenors. It seems
probable that
the tenor was
invented before
the violin ; at
any rate Gas-
pard da Salo's
tenors are much
commoner than
his violins. His
model is excel-
lent in every
respect, varying
a little, but
generally high.
The centre
bouts often short
and primitive.
The/holes very
long and point-
ed, but not out
of proportion to
the instrument, the scroll particularly marks the
primitive state of the instrument. He made many
instruments of pear wood as well as of sycamore,
especially basses. His varnish is principally a
light brown amber, very rich and deep, the grain of
his bellies generally very straight and even. The
'02
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
most perfect specimen I ever saw is a tenor in the
possession of Mr. Edward Withers, a grand old primi-
tive instrument, from which the f hole (Fig. 17), is
traced. His ticket is " Gasparo di Salo in Brescia."
John Paul Maggini (Brescia), 1 590 — 1640. Was pro-
bably a pupil of Gaspard da Salo ; his pattern is large,
and broad in outline, the arching sloping away to the
purfling and flattish, the sides rather shallow. The f
holes long and pointed, the scroll primitive, but not so
much so as that of his master. He made the bellies of
his instruments very strong, the back in proportion to
the belly, rather thin, and generally ornamented by
elegant curls of the purfling, which is generally inlaid
in a double line. Varnish, light yellowish, or deep
brown, and very rich. The tone of his instruments is
grand and melancholy, the wood cut " on the layers."
His instruments are often confused with tlose of
Gaspard da Salo. The great violinist, De Beriot, used
one of his instruments. Ticket, "Gio Paolo Maggini
in Brescia."
Others makers of the Brescian school inferior to
these were Mariani, Buddiani, and Bente, all from
1570 — 1620.
The Cremona school was founded by Andrew
Amati (Cremona), born (about) 1520, died about 1580;
the first of his illustrious family. Possibly a pupil at
Brescia before he started at Cremona. Most of his
instruments are small or medium, model high towards
the centre, bellies fairly strong. Backs often made of
pear wood cut on the layers. Varnish, excellent light
brown, or deep golden, work not unlike Gaspard da Salo,
but that the_/"holes (Fig. 18) are rather broad and in-
elegant. Ticket, "Andreas Amati Cremona, fecit 15 — ."
Anthony and Jerome Amati (Cremona), 1570 —
1635, sons of Andrew. They worked together for
some time and then separated. Their wood was well
chosen and cut on the layers for the backs and sides,
the bellies of fine i . en grain, their earlier instruments
high built in the centre, but sloping gently to the edges,
the /holes (Fig. 19) like Andrew's, but the wood scooped
out a little round them. Their early varnish was
deeper in tint than the later, and both were excellent ;
their united label was "Antonius and Hieronymus
Fr. Amati Cremona Andrea, fil 15 — ." Their backs
are cut variously in the whole or slab, or half form,
their scrolls differ a good deal, and the purfling is
perfect. In the instruments bearing this joint label
the styles of the two brothers are quite distinct.
Anthony made most of his instruments of Andrew's
small pattern, flatter in the model though still high,
and shallower in the sides than Andrew's. Their tone
is sweet and pure, but not very intense, hisyholes are
decidedly Brescian. He died about 1635 at about the
age of eighty-five. Jerome, his brother, who died in
1630, is by some counted inferior to his brother ; he
made some very large violins, suggestive of his son's
chcf-d'ccuvre the Grand Amati, his model was original
and graceful, the f holes foreshadowing those of his
son, who seems in some measure to have copied
them. The edges of his instruments do not, as a
rule, overlap the sides much, but are round and obtuse.
His backs were generally whole, the purfling. broad,
and the varnish gold yellow, or light brown.
Nicholas Amati (Cremona), born 1596, died 1684.
Son of Jerome, the best of this family of makers. At
first he seems to have copied the small instruments of
Anthony and Jerome ; he worked out the ideas of
Jerome, his fiddles being more brilliant in tone than
any other of the Amati's. His most celebrated fiddles
are those known as Grand Amati's, which were large
instruments with long corners ; he seems to have
made but few of them, they are rather high in the
centre, sloping rather sharply, so as to form a sinking
in round the edges. He improved Jerome's f holes,
his later scrolls are better cut and bolder than his
earlier ones, which were a trifle stiff. In all his
design and detail he was perfect, his varnish superb,
his backs are beautifully figured, his bellies have a
fine even grain, some of them being most beautifully
mottled. Ticket, " Nicholas Amatus Cremona Hiero-
nyma Fil ac Antonij Nepos, fecit 16 — ." His son
Jerome, the last of the Amati, was inferior to the rest
of his family. The best known makers of the Amati
school are Joseph Guarnerius, Francesco Ruggieri,
Jean Baptiste Grancino, Francisco Grancino, Peter
Guarnerius, and Sanctus Seraphino.
(Peter) Andrew Guarnerius (Cremona) 1630 — 1695
(little known as Pietro) the first of the Guarneri.
Pupil with Stradivari of Nicholas Amati, whom he
copied ; his work was good but inferior to that of his
great master. Later on he struck out somewhat of a
new model, making his instruments flatter and altering
the form of his scroll and f holes. His varnish varied,
but was generally a light orange. Ticket, " Andreas
Guarnerius sub titulo Sanctas Teresiae, 16 — "
Jacob Stainer (Absom), birth probably about 1620
and death uncertain. More properly a German maker,
of whom he was the greatest. Was probably for
some time a pupil of Nicholas Amati. His model was
highly original ; at his best his instruments were small
in the pattern, the f holes rather narrow and very
round at the top and bottom (Fig. 20). His edges
net very strong, the purfling set rather near them,
the scroll shorter than Amati's but broader in front.
The grain of his wood wide, and the varnish deep rose
colour like Nicholas Amati's. His instruments are
very high built, especially between the upper bouts,
and often almost "tubby," the scroll often finished
with a carved lion's or other animal's head ; when of
the ordinary shape, he made his scrolls broad and
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
103
rather short. He has by some been preferred to the
highest Cremonese masters (!) His most celebrated
instruments were the " Elector Stainers," which were
sixteen fiddles made by him, it is said, in a monastery
at the end of his life, and sent by him, one to each of
the Electors, and the remaining four to the Emperor of
Germany. The wood is very handsome, and the
varnish a lovely rose colour ; they are decidedly
Cremonese, or at least un-German in style. Ticket,
"Jacobus Stainer in Absom, prope CEnipontum
16 — " No maker has been more copiously, closely, or
vilely copied. His chief and best pupils and imitators
being Matthias Albani (1654), the Klotz family (1670 —
1700), and in more modern times, Statelman, Withalm,
eta
Francis Ruggieri (Cremona), 166S — 1720, surnamed
"II per" from his ticket, which runs "Francisco
Ruggieri detto il per Cremona 16 — " A follower of
the Amati school. His outline is original and grace-
ful, his purfling broad, his arching perfect, his material
fine and used thick ; his scroll is equal to the rest of
the instrument ; the varnish, which is generally deep
brown and very first-rate, is very well and evenly laid
on. His/ hole (Fig. 21) has been cited as a blending
of that of Stradivari and Nicholas Amati.
Anthony Stradivari (Cremona), born 1644, died
!737> the. greatest fiddle maker that ever lived.
He was a pupil of Nicholas Amati, with whom he
worked till 1670, before which time he used not lo
sign his works. Between 1670 and 1690 he worked
on Amati's " grand " model, but modified the extension
of the comers ; these are known as " Amatese Stradi-
variuses." The arching is not so high as Amati, but
his/holes and scroll are something similar. The wood
often cut across the grain ; though acoustically good
is often not so handsome as later on. After 1690 his
individuality began to assert itself, his model became
more graceful and flatter, the / holes elegant and
reclining, the centre bouts gracefully drawn out, as also
the corners ; the scroll is bold and striking, and the
purfling rather narrow, the varnish beautiful golden or
light red. It was at the end of this period that he
made the fiddles known as " Long Strads," so called
from their narrowness between the / holes, giving
them a ' inky appearance, the actual size varying, the
vi iish amber or light red. The year 1700 brings us
to his best period, the model flattish, the wood cut on
the quarter, and thickest in the centre under the
bridge, the curves gentle and harmonious, the wood
of the blocks very light, often formed of willow, the
scroll perfect in its symmetry. The graceful / holes
(Fig. 22), the transcendently glorious amber or ruby
varnish, are all characteristics of this greatest maker's
greatest talent Some of his best instruments have
the purfling pointed across the corner instead of fol-
lowing it round, and it is not uncommon to find it run-
ning completely through the corner. His ticket runs,
"Antonius Stradiuarius Cremonensis faciebat Anno
17 — " Between 1725 and 1730 the master began to
show signs of approaching age {Eheu! fugaces
labuntur anm"), the swell became more rounded. The
fiddles made after 1730 show a decided falling off,
many being made in part or wholly by his sons and
pupils Omobono and Francis Stradivari and Charles
Bergonzi, and signed " — sub disciplina Stradiuarii."
In common with all old Italian instruments, the sound
bar is too weak to support the modern high tension of
the strings, and nearly all have to be rebarred.
(Ofteratio maxime deflendd) Stradivari made but few
Tenors, what he did make being grand and glorious
instruments.
Joseph Guarnerius (Cremona), 1690 — 1730, eldest
son of Andrew, than whom he was a better workman.
At first copied Stradivarius and then his cousin
Joseph del Jesu. The waists of his instruments are
narrow, the lower and upper bouts wide in proportion,
the curves so very graceful as to have served (as some
suppose) as models to the great Joseph del Jesu him-
self. The f holes (Fig. 23) a mixture of Andrew
Guarnerius and the Amati and very like Gasparo da
Salo's, whose idea he seems to have worked, and
improved upon. They are rather lower in the belly
and nearer the edge than is usual. Varnish very
good, rather thickly laid on.
Peter Guarnerius, 1690 — -1725, second son of
Andrew. Very broad model, arching rather too high,
f holes very round at the ends and vertical. Inner
bouts rather weak, scroll very original, the eye pro-
minent. Purfling very neat, the corners much drawn
out, varnish perfect, golden or pale red and very trans-
parent. The bellies are generally cut from an even
wide-grained wood.
Laurence Guadagnini (Cremona), 1695 — J735-
This maker's model, which was flattish, was broad and
very bold in its conception, his /holes varied in form,
being sometimes like those of Guarnerius del Jesu ;
his scroll very good and original. His fiddles have a
beautiful mellow tone. Ticket, "Lorenzo Guadagnini,
Cremona, Alumnus Stradiuarius. Fecit Anno Domini
17—."
Jean Baptiste Guadagnini (Placentia), 1710— 1750,
probably was a brother of Lorenzo, and with him
pupil of Stradivarius, whom he copied persistently,
particularly in the form of his scroll. His backs are
very handsome, and generally joined, his bellies
acoustically good, his varnish bright and highly trans-
parent. Ticket, "Joannes Baptista Guadagnini, Pla-
centinus, fecit Mediolani, 17 — ."
Domenicus Montagnana (Cremona and Venice),
1700 — 1740, pupil of Stradivari. A very excellent
104
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
maker, indeed one of the best, but many of his fiddles
are labelled "Joseph del Jesu" (whom he resembled in
his / holes), which has tended to eclipse his talent
somewhat. His model is large, and all his curves are
rather gentler than those of his master, the inner ones
being particularly drawn out. The figure of his wood
is usually large, and his scroll is larger and more
powerful than that of Stradivari. His varnish is
superb, and deservedly ranked among the best.
Ticket, " Domenicus Montagnana, Sub-Signum Cre-
mona;, Venetii, 17 — ."
Sanctus Seraphino (Venice),
1710 — 1748, to my mind the
neatest and most careful maker
of the Italians. It is a pity he
did not strike out and apply
his care to a model of his own,
instead of following a rather
ugly German one, a mixture
between Stainer and Amati. His
/ holes (Fig. 24) and scroll well
cut, but of a poor model ; brilli-
ant red varnish of a perfect
quality, which, being sometimes
too thick, gives his instruments
an opaque appearance. His
instruments are unmistakably
like one another in style,
though his model varied, the
wood always showing the grain
;n clear even stripes. He
branded his instruments with
his initials, S. S., in various
places, particularly under the
tail-piece. He used a very
large, well-engraved, highly-
ornamented label, worded,
" Sanctus Seraphin, Utinensis,
Fecit Venetiis, Ann. 17 — ."
Charles Bergonzi (Cremona),
1718 — 1755, the best pupil of
Anthony Stradivari. At first
copied his great master closely and well, and sub-
sequently started a model of his own of fine size and
good thickness of wood, flat and even, the wood
handsome and the work excellent. The lower bouts
being rather broad, the inner bouts set rather at an
angle, the upper bouts larger than those of Stradivari,
the scroll cut rather flat, but very bold, though not
so well proportioned and finished as that of Stradivari ;
the eye of the scroll being rather prominent and with a
considerable individuality. His f holes (Fig. 25) are
set lower in the belly than those of his master ; in
form they are between those of Stradivari and
Guarnerius, and are set rather near the edge of the
17. — GASPARD DA SALO
(E. Withers.)
fiddle. His varnish varies from amber, through
pale, to deep red, put on sometimes thickly, sometimes
thinly. His fiddles are sometimes confused with
those of Guarnerius, but are more Stradiuarian. His
ticket is, "Anno 17—. Carlo Bergonzi fecit in Cre-
mona." His son and pupil, Michael Angelo Bergonzi,
1750 — 1780, was inferior to his father as a workman.
Franciscus and Omobono Stradivari, 1720 — 1743,
were pupils and sons of the great Stradivari, and
worked together after the death of their father. As
workmen inferior to their
father, they worked up much
of his refuse and unfinished
material after his death. Francis
was better than his brother, and
his work, which shows his high
tuition, is not without merit and
originality, differing much from
his father in his / hole. His
tone is very intense and good.
Joseph Anthony Guarnerius
(Cremona), born 1683, worked
1725— 1745. The best of the
family of Guarneri ; surnamed
"del Jesu," from the device
4. he was in the habit of
I H S placing on his labels.
His work may be divided into
four periods. In the first, his
model varied, but he chiefly
copied Joseph (son of Andrew) ;
the scroll rather mean, the wood
cut out at the shoulder, the
f holes long and marked.
Second period. — Cut his backs
chiefly on the quarter ; the
pattern rather small, not too
highly arched, gently sloping
to the sides ; the varnish very
good ; the wood left rather
thick, especially in his backs ;
the pattern on the whole not
unlike Stradivari in the rather drawn out centre
bout and the narrow waist. The f holes were
considerably curved, the scroll very bold and well
cut, the purfling often running through both pegs, and
the varnish of a rich golden brown. Third period.
— The pattern rather large and very original ; the
wood cut on the quarter ; the thicknesses perfectly
proportioned, though sometimes a trifle excessive in
the centre of the back. His varnish during this period
was his best, and has been considered equal to Stradi-
vari's. The fiddles of this period are broader in the
waist, the inner bout long but very elegant, the/holes
long and perpendicular (Fig. 20), the scroll perfect,
1610.
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
105
FIG. 22.— STRADIUARIUS, 1714.
(E. Withers.)
FIG. 20. — STAINER, 1650.
(E. Withers.)
FIG. 21.— RUGGIERI, 1720.
(E. Withers.)
fig. 23.-
•J. GUARNERIUS, 1730.
(E. Withers.)
and the varnish of a lovely orange shade. His_/"holes
at this time may be described as the perfection of
Gasparo di Salo's model. In his fourth period, Joseph
Guamerius del Jesu seems to have cast away his high
ideal and worked carelessly to satisfy present wants,
so roughly and imperfectly finished are his later
instruments. It is said that many (known as " Prison
fiddles," " Drunken Josephs," etc.) were made in
prison, with tools, wood, and varnish brought him by
the gaoler's daughter. They are high built, the scroll
stiff, and the f holes too long and clumsy, the wood
and varnish alike inferior. In his better days it has
been said that he made a great many of his bellies
from one piece of wood, from a corresponding stain
down each side of the finger-board in all of them. I
have seen many " Josephs," but never such an one.
He seems to have in a great measure varied his thick-
nesses according to the acoustic qualities of his wood.
Paganini's celebrated violin was a Joseph Guarnerius
(1743). His ticket runs : —
"Joseph Guarnerius fecit, 4-
Cremona;, Anno 17 — ." I H S
FIG. 19. — A. & H. AMATI
(G. Chanot. 1
FIG. 25.— CARLO EERCONZT,
'733- (G. Chanot).
FIG. 18.- ANDREAS AMATI,
1580. (G. Withers).
FIG. 24.— 6ANCTUS SERAPH1N0,
1740. (G. Withers.)
£ 2
io6
HINTS ON FLOOR-STAINING.
Vincenzo Panormo (Palermo), born 1740, died 18 13.
Very perfect copyist of Stradivari, for whose fiddles
his are often mistaken. His work is very neat and
well executed, the scroll and/ holes being particularly
well cut.
Charles Ferdinand Landolfi (Milan), 1750. Model
decidedly original, with a stiff inner bout not unlike
Joseph del Jesu, his edges often deeply grooved, his f
holes not in keeping with the rest of his instrument ;
his scroll rather mean, the varnish at times excellent.
He left a great many instruments unpurfled, and
otherwise in an unfinished state. His wood was
handsome, and his varnish very transparent ; he was
the last maker who used the glorious old Cremona
varnish. His ticket runs, " Carolus Ferdinandus Lan-
dulphus fecit Mediolani in via S. Margarita anno 17 — ."
Lawrence Storioni (Cremona), 1780 — 1798. The
last of the old Italian makers, a clever but inelegant
workman, was as original and variable as Joseph del
Jesu, whom he copied, the outline being often un-
symmetrical, and the position of his/holes constantly
changing. The varnish a dark red Neapolitan, the
purfling narrow and roughly inlaid, the scroll stiff
and incomplete, the wood acoustically good, but not
handsome.
This brings us to the end of our space for Italian
makers ; it remains, therefore, to glance at the best
known French, English, and German makers, who,
however, were, and are at best, but mere copyists.
{To be continued).
HINTS ON FLOOR-STAINING.
From " The American Cabinet Maker."
HUNDRED years ago our ancestors re-
velled in the healthful cleanliness of
stained and polished boards, with mats
strewed here and there ; at the present
time everyone vies with the other to
have the thickest velvet pile carpet their income will
permit. The revival of the Queen Anne style of
building houses has been very much admired by some
people, and very absurdly condemned by others ; but
certainly, if there is one point on which it merits ap-
proval, it is undoubtedly its superior cleanliness ; for
all the floors, staircases and passages, without excep-
tion, have their boards stained and polished. To prove
how easy and simple this staining and polishing is, we
give a detailed account of the means which are employed.
As a general rule, one quart of the staining liquid
will be found sufficient to cover about sixteen square
yards of flooring, but different kinds of woods absorb
in different proportions, soft woods requiring more for
the same space than hard woods. The colours of the
stains are various, so that one may either choose
ebony, walnut, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, oak,
medium oak, or maple, according to the paleness or
depth of colour desired. Besides this, 4lbs. of size and
a quart and a half-a-pint of the best varnish are re-
quired to finish the sixteen yards above mentioned.
The necessary purchases are completed by a good-
sized painters' brush and a smaller one. The work
can then be commenced. If the wood is uneven it
must be planed, and rubbed down to a smooth surface ;
whilst the cracks and spaces between the boards, if
very wide, may be disposed of by a process called
"slipping," by which pieces of wood are fitted in.
The floor must next be carefully washed, and
allowed to dry thoroughly. The actual staining may
now be proceeded with. The liquid is poured out into
a basin, and spread all over the floor with the aid ot
the large brush, the small one being used to do the
corners and along the wainscoting, so that it may not
be smeared.
It is always best to begin staining at the farthest
corner from the doorway, and so work round so that
one's exit may not be impeded. It is also a good plan
to work with the window open, if there is no danger of
much dust flying in, as the staining dries so much
quicker. After the floor is quite covered, the stainer
may rest for about an hour whilst the drying is going
on, during which there is only one thing relative to
the work in hand which need be attended to. This
is the size, which should be put in a large basin with
half-a-pint of cold water to each pound, and then
stood in a warm place to dissolve. Before re-com-
mencing work also the brushes must be washed,
and this is no great trouble , as a little lukewarm
water will take out all trace of the stain and clean
them quite sufficiently. The sizing is then laid on
in exactly the same manner as the staining, always
being careful to pass the brush lengthwise down
the boards. If the size froths or sticks unpleasantly,
it must be a little more diluted with warm water, and
sometimes, if the sediment from it is very thick, it is
all the better for being strained through a coarse
muslin. The sizing takes rather longer than the var-
nish to dry, two or more hours being necessary, even
on a warm, dry day. Not until it is quite dry, how-
ever, can the last finish be put to the work with the
varnish. For this it is always safest to get the very
best, and to lay it on rather liberally, though very
evenly, and over every single inch, as the staining will
soon rub off when not protected by it. The best way
to ascertain whether it is varnished all over is to kneel
down and look at the floor sideways, with one's eyes
almost on a level with it. Thus much for staining
and varnishing.
Some people, however, prefer the old-fashioned
MODELLING IN CLAY.
107
polish of beeswax and turpentine instead of varnish.
The staining is done in the same way as for the
other process, and whilst it is drying the polish to
finish it may be made in the following manner :
iilb. of beeswax is mixed with 5 ounces of resin and
1 pint of turpentine in a basin, and then stood in the
oven for a few minutes until it is melted to about the
consistency of thick cream. When it is cool and the
staining perfectly dry, it is rubbed rapidly on the floor
with a cloth, and if it is too thick to allow of this it
should be diluted with a iittle more turpentine ; then
it is brushed with some force with a brush, which may
be bought for the purpose, and finally finished off with
a fine piece of baize. It will be seen from these
directions that a great deal more time and labour have
to be bestowed on this wax-polishing than on the
varnishing process. Apart from this it is not so
durable, and requires polishing at least once or twice
a week to keep it looking bright, whereas the varnish
need only be washed over with a cloth wrung out of
clean warm water to make it look perfectly clean.
People are often found who object to stained floors,
because they imagine they soon wear shabby with
constant traffic ; but even if they do, this is no great
trouble to remedy. Some linseed oil rubbed over all
the worn places, or even over the whole, will be found
to renovate it wonderfully, whilst even if the floor
becomes much damaged it can very easily be stained,
sized, and varnished in that particular spot without
going over the whole. From a long experience of
stained floors I can safely say that there is no floor
decoration so economical, cleanly and pleasing to the
eye as boards treated as I have described, and par-
tially covered with a few Turkey or Persian rugs, or
India, Chinese, Japanese, or Manilla mattings of soft
yellow, green, and dull red patterns.
MODELLING IN CLAY.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ART OF CARVING
IN WOOD.
III.— Blocking out, Building up, and Cutting clown.
HE beginner must go on with his work of
blocking out and building up stems,
branches, and leaves, until each portion
has reached about the level which it is
expected to have when finished. This
general level of the surrounding border or framing of
the pattern, and the design which is enclosed by it,
represents the level or surface of the piece of wood
from which the carving is to be made. With regard
to the square edges which appear in every part of the
design when it has been blocked out and built up, if
the learner attempt to make them clean and sharp, an
annoying difficulty will be met with in the "burr"
which arises when the tool is moved along the edge of
a stem or leaf. If this is removed by carrying the tool
along the side, the burr makes its appearance at the
top.
This results from making the strokes in a direction
parallel to, or outward from, the edge of the clay. By
making the strokes as shown in Fig. 14, this tendency
to form a burr is entirely overcome ; and as the tool
cuts against a mass of clay, and inwards away from
the edge, the cut is smooth, and the edge is left clean
and sharp. That no one may fail to understand what
has been said, it may be as well to point out once
again that if the tool be carried along the top of the
clay in one continued stroke from end to end, there will
be a burr along the edge at the side ; and, on the con-
trary, if the tool be carried continuously along the side
of the clay from end to :nd, the burr will appear along
the edge at the top. Any attempt to get rid of the
burr by bringing the tool over and along the side or
top, as the case may be, will not result in the desired
end, but only bring about a transference of the burr
from side to top or from top to side, as it may happen.
The only way in which a clear, sharp edge can be
obtained is to move the tool diagonally along side or
top in the direction shown by the arrows in a series of
strokes.
The readers of these papers will be interested to
know that the pattern which has been brought under
their notice in this and the preceding paper was the
first one given to a novice in the art ; and as his work
progressed, time was taken at each step to make the
drawings directly from the model. When a difficulty
was met with, a note was made, and a sketch also
when necessary, to show how it could be avoided. It
was for the purpose of making the process of building
up, as well as taking down, perfectly familiar, that this
particular mode of producing the pattern was selected.
It will be seen, on an examination of Fig. 15, that it
would have been as easy to have taken a sheet of clay,
and pressed
slab, and
then,bylay-
' . FIG. 14. — DIAGRAM SHOWING DIRECTION OF
ing pieces strokes to avoid burr on edge of clay.
of wood of
the proper thickness upon or along each side, to have
brought the whole mass to the required thickness by
sweeping a straightedge across the space, reducing
the surface to one level throughout. On a sheet thus
obtained the pattern might be traced with a point,
and relief obtained by carving away the clay to the
proper depth. For the beginner this only gives half
io8
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
of the lesson, omitting a very
important part for the wood-
worker, who gets ample practice
in the cutting away part of the
art, but very little indeed in the
building up.
The pattern is now in a state not
very unlike that in which it would have
been left by a scroll-saw working on a piece
of wood. Eveiy part is roughly finished to a
rectangular section. Before this stage has been
completed, the workman will be struck with the fact
that the pattern as it fills up appears far more elaborate
and richer in the solid than it looks on paper. Even the
rough square lines begin to be highly decorative, and the
pattern, which seemed simple and even plain on the slate, is
pleasing in the clay to an extent that is little expected or anticipated.
The drawing, although it was carefully made from the model, when
it is in this condition conveys very little of this idea, which, except
with the most elaborate engraving, can hardly be reproduced upon paper.
The deepest black used in printing, and the white of the paper itself, even
if it be of the purest, come very far from being as dark as the dark shadows,
or as bright as the high lights, found on all irregular objects in diffuse daylight.
Any object in relief shows a greater amount of graduation than can be given
in a representation of the same object in an engraving. In carved work of any
kind we can get a wider range of contrasts and a greater amount of modulation
and detail than can be given by any system of flat decoration. The simplest carved
or incised design has a richness apparently out of all proportion to its elaboration.
It is to this fact that carving owes its superior beauty and richness as a means of
decoration. A very little of it, properly bestowed, is sufficient to make a whole
article very beautiful. A narrow band across the front of a cabinet gives a richness of
effect which it is not possible to obtain by any other means of decoration.
When the clay model has reached the stage shown in Fig. 1 5, it is perhaps in the
most interesting condition. Then the wood-worker finds himself face to face with the
difficulty which he met with when beginning to carve. How shall the surface be formed ?
What parts shall be in relief, and what sunken ? Here it is that the plastic clay invites
the workman to do just as fancy or whim may dictate, without prejudice to any work that may follow. If, for
the sake of seeing how it will look, he wishes to roll a corner of a leaf back, or to place a wrinkle across it, the
leaf can be rolled or the wrinkle made, and the model restored to its original state by a very little work. The
surface can be built up, taken down, curved this way and that at pleasure. For the building up, clay is added ;
in cutting down, the tools with cutting edges are usually most convenient.
Returning to the model in the state shown in Fig. 1 5, and taking the largest leaf, we find upon examination
that each of the three lobes into which it is divided is resting upon the branch from which the stem or leaf-stalk
grows. Each of the lobes, therefore, will naturally be elevated higher at these points than at any others.
Here, then, is a starting-point. Taking this as a basis, the beginner will find that he can profitably spend a
long time over this one leaf, modelling its surface either in convex or hollow forms, and at the same time
keeping those portions elevated under which the stems pass. As it is easy to make experiments of all kinds,
he may also try the effect of raising the centre of the leaf and depressing the portions which are shown
as elevations in the cut. The edges of division or separation between the parts of this leaf are shown
as raised, or slightly curled outwards, in Fig. 16, which should be compared carefully in all its parts and
details with the same parts as figured in Fig. 1 5. This slight curl outwards, or raising of the edge, makes
the edge of the leaf thicker than the centre. To find out why this is done, let the beginner build up the
centre of the leaf until it is higher than any other portion, and then make it curve away downward to the
edges. Taking the long narrow leaf in the lower corner, he will find that it commences low, and then rises
into a wave which extends diagonally across the leaf. This is followed by depression, which is also diagonal.
FIG. 15. — THE CLAY
MODEL BLOCKED OUT.
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
109
Let him try the experiment of
making these waves go squarely
across the leaf.
The student will find, after
he has changed his model in
the ways suggested, that a leaf
built up in the centre with low margins
has a very heavy, solid look. It catches
a great mass of light, and has the effect rather
of a solid ball than of a leaf. With the waves
going squarely across the long leaf, it will be found
that the effect is that of a ribbon ; and, turning to nature,
to see how her leaf-surfaces are waved, it will be found
that they are rarely or never straight across the leaf, as in
the clay. It is necessary to observe that in thus working with
the clay to get the best form, no finish must be attempted. The
most that can be allowed is a line drawn with the blade of a tool, to
locate the position of the midrib of the leaf.
In nature the stems of leaves and the branches of plants have the
greatest variety of section, and by studying them we may find very beautiful
models. In the example given the most that it has been attempted to do is
to indicate rudely an approach to a circle. In the larger stem some slight
roughness of bark may be given, but on no account should any attempt be made
to copy the stem or bark of a shrub closely or exactly. At first the stems may be
roughly rounded at top and left in this condition. For a good effect the stems in
blocking out should be made of a height at least three-fourths of their width. A
better proportion would be to have the stem as high as it is wide. This, of course,
applies to the stems and branches where they are supposed to be flat against the
ground. When they are represented as going over or under another stem these propor-
tions may be very much varied.
Nothing has been said about the method of finishing the two half-leaves, because the
student working by himself will doubtless find his hands full in modelling the forms of the
leaves, and when he comes to finish these he will feel as the student did from whose work
the sketch was taken — that there was but one way in which they could be put in to look
well. This one way, it may be said, is suggested plainly enough by the shading of these
leaves in Fig. 15, in which every part of the detail is carefully and sufficiently worked out,
and thereby rendered amply suggestive to the amateur. And to refer once more to the character of the
material in which he is working, the plastic nature of the clay is such as to enable him to try any method of
fashioning the leaves that may occur to him, and to alter them again and again until he is satisfied with what
he has accomplished.
The beginner may be content to go on for some little time without attempting to put on a finish. If his
work is rough, no matter. Remember that the chief and great object of all that has been already advanced
is to teach form, and enable the imagination to comprehend ornamental form in relief. When this has
been done the main purpose for which the learner has taken up modelling in clay will be accomplished ; there
is another reason which should be kept in mind. Without a teacher to explain all the little artifices by
which a smooth surface or perfect detail is obtained, no little practice is necessary. The variations in the
condition of the clay can be learned from experience, but they are not easily explained on paper. If the
beginner will content himself with working for a time in the rough, he will soon find himself sufficiently
master of the materials to attempt smoothing up and giving a sufficient finish to make it worth while to take
a cast, and so keep a permanent record of what he has done.
From the preparation of a suitable modelling stand and turn-table, and the necessary tools and appliances
for the prosecution of the work, the beginner has been led on, first to the tracing of the pattern on the slab,
then to blocking out the design in outline ; thirdly, to building it up to the proper level ; and lastly, to modelling
the design in the rough by further building up and cutting down where necessary to the form it should
assume as an example for carving in wood. Instruction in finish is needless, inasmuch as the learner will
FIG. 16. — THE
SKETCH IN" CLAY.
ua
SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
soon find out how to accomplish this without any sys-
tematic teaching. And here, as far as the beginner is
concerned, these papers might be brought to a conclu-
sion, but they have been written for those who know
how to use wood-carving tools as well as for those who
stand as neophytes on the very threshold of the art,
and for the special benefit of the former some further
remarks are necessary, which must be reserved for the
next paper.
{To be continued.)
SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE, FROM A
CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW.
From the "Scientific American."
OME practical study of the subject of soap
by its numerous consumers, either those
who use it simply for family use, or con-
sume it for other purposes on a more
extended scale, will well repay the time
and attention devoted to this purpose. We propose to
give some practical information on the subject, together
with a few facts for the consideration of our readers,
believing that it will prove of general interest.
Many people fancy that there is really but little
practical difference between the various qualities of
soap sold to the public, and they consequently pur-
chase the cheapest article they can get. Nothing
could be a greater mistake. This is an age of adultera-
tion in almost every article offered to the public. It
has been forced on by their almost insatiable demand
for cheap things ; and perhaps in the whole range of
manufactured articles sold in this country, no one
article has been more extensively adulterated than
soap. Both manufacturers and dealers have found the
adulterated article more profitable to produce and
handle than a genuine soap, as they have taken care
that in satisfying the demand from the public for a
cheap soap, at the same time to secure an extra profit
for themselves by cheapening it further than was
necessary ! The result of this is that all kinds of sub-
stances are put wholesale into soap simply to effect
this object. China clay, silex, starch, resin, silicate of
soda (this latter a mixture of sand and soda, forming a
kind of soluble glass, which hardens the soap and yet
allows of an enormous amount of water being added),
are all largely used for the adulteration of soap.
Now a pure soap is simply and solely a combination
of tallow, grease, and oil, with either pure caustic soda
or caustic potash, with a proper proportion of water
necessary to effect saponification. In the case of a
pure soap, it should contain about sixty per cent, of
tallow or oil, ten per cent, of pure caustic soda, and
thirty per cent, of water. It is an undoubted fact,
however, that with all the soaps sold in this country to
the public, not a single one of them fulfils these con-
ditions. They are all, without exception, more or less
adulterated.
Consumers are not generally aware that the most
expensive article to the soap-boilers is the oil, grease,
or tallow used in the production of his soap. This is,
however, four-fifths of the cost of every pure soap, the
caustic soda only amounting to one-fifth of its value.
The whole aim of the soap-boiler, who makes a soap to
sell, is to cut down the tallow in the soap, either by the
substitution of water combined with starch, silicate of
soda, or sal soda, which are, so to speak, the carriers
of water in the soap, or such cheap articles as resin,
china clay, and silex, which simply make weight, are
added. It must be confessed that the process of using
and at the same time hiding these adulterants from the
eye of the general consumer, has been carried to great
perfection, and it is only to be regretted that the skill
and ingenuity that has been developed in this line has
not been employed in a worthier cause. Very few soaps
that are sold contain forty per cent, of tallow or oil ;
twenty per cent, of tallow really is a fair average, as
many soaps do not even contain this, that is to say, on
an average they contain full sixty per cent, of adultera-
tion.
Now the effect of these impurities causes either one
or all of these three things.
First : Double or treble the quantity of soap, as
compared with a pure soap, has to be used.
Secondly : The articles washed with these impure
soaps are injured, either by the injurious action of these
impurities, or by the extra rubbing or working in the
washing machine, necessarily requisite to make the im-
pure soap do its work.
Thirdly : The washing day — and to many poor
women this is the most important item — is dreaded, as
the various impurities act terribly on the skin, and the
result is either bleeding hands, or at any rate an
injured skin.
There is another point that shall just be touched
upon as little as possible, as the subject is very un-
pleasant. In some of the London newspapers, pub-
lished not very long ago, there was quite a discussion
as to the origin of various skin diseases and blood
poisoning. Some of the most eminent London
surgeons, who have made the subject of skin dis-
eases their special study, did not hesitate to affirm
that their origin was often owing to the highly impure
and often putrid fat or grease used by the soap-boilers,
and obtained from slaughter-houses ; or the melting
down of dead diseased animals for the grease they
A CHEAP BAP-FRAME HIVE.
contain, and which were really utterly unfit for any
other purpose than a manure. It certainly is main-
tained by many chemists that all germs of disease in
these impure and putrid greases are destroyed by the
strong alkali used by the soap-boiler, and we hope
that this is the case. The unsavoury and often putrid
smell, however, always hovering round the neighbour-
hood of a soap-boiler's factory, is by no means a
pleasant idea to reflect upon, after reading the dis-
cussion on the origin of skin diseases and blood-
poisoning above-mentioned ! The recent study, also,
of germs of disease, by several eminent French
chemists, and their wonderful vitality in certain cases,
after being subjected to all kinds of powerful acids
and alkalies, renders the question of the destruction
in the soap-boiling very doubtful.
Our readers will sav, however, Why go into all
these matters, unless you have some remedy to pro-
pose? This is exactly what we now wish to do.
There is an old prejudice in the minds of most
people in favour of home-made articles, and that
many things which are now purchased, instead of
being made at home, as in the days of our forefathers,
are inferior to what they used to be, and that, notwith-
standing the enormous advance made in every science
and all mechanics ; as good an instance of this as any-
thing is the old homespun linens or woollens that
formerly used to last generations of wear, while the
modem article will hardly stand as many years as the
homespun would generations. The answer to all this
is very simple — a home-made article is produced for
use, not for sale, therefore unadulterated ; and this is
just the difference.
Now, what we would propose is, that consumers,
large and small, should make their own soap. In
olden days our ancestors used to go through a tedious
process of making soap by long boiling with wood
ashes specially prepared for the purpose. The soap
was excellent when it was made ; but in these modern
days, when both time and labour must be economized,
such a procedure is impracticable.
The art of making a pure soap-making alkali has,
however, quite recently been brought to great perfec-
tion. It is now possible to procure a pure powdered
98 per cent caustic soda, or pure caustic potash, put
up in almost any sized package, even down to a can
containing only three-quarters of a pound of powdered
98 per cent, caustic soda, which we see has actually
been done by a firm of lye packers, the George T.
Lewis and Menzies Co., of Philadelphia. With these
articles a perfect soap can be made, in large or small
quantities, by simply mixing them with melted tallow
and a little water, forming a soap in a few minutes,
and dispensing with all boiling or special apparatus.
The soap so produced is highly emollient, owing to its
containing all the glycerine in the oil or tallow used
for its production, all which valuable article is lost
in a boiled soap. The tallow and caustic alkali are
also so perfectly combined, that the soap will not hurt
the most delicate skin or destroy colours.
In another paper we propose to continue this subject,
and give the most suitable proportions of tallow or
oil, pure caustic potash, or powdered 98 per cent,
caustic soda, and water for producing the various
classes of soap most suitable for the different purposes
for which they are required. We will also consider
the various classes of soap, such as toilet soap, laundry
soap, and special soap for washing flannels without
shrinkage. Some explanation as to the beneficial
effects of the glycerine contained in all soaps made
by this simple mixing process, will also doubtless be
of interest.
A CHEAP BAR-FRAME HIVE.
By ALFRED WATKINS.
T is now generally acknowledged by the
vast majority of skilled bee-keepers,
not only in England but in Germany
and the United States, that a hive in
which the combs are built in moveable
frames is much the best for profitable bee-keeping.
The chief obstacle to the general use of bar-frame
hives is their increased cost over straw hives, and the
fact that they are not usually to be bought in country
towns.
I have often, when urging a labouring man to
adopt the modern system of bee-keeping, found a
difficulty in advising him how to obtain a bar-frame
hive. To spend eight or ten shillings in buying a new
one would be beyond his means, while to buy new
boards and make one from a pattern would also be
costly and difficult.
My object in this article is to show how athoroughly
efficient bar-frame hive can be made from a tea-chest
or other packing case, with the simplest tools, and at
a cost of two shillings, or at most two shillings and six-
pence, by anyone who could knock up a rough rabbit-
hutch or hen-coop. The hive will not be a mere
makeshift one, but will be well adapted for profitable
use, having plenty of room above and behind the
frames for placing the small boxes called " sectional
supers," now so generally used for obtaining the sur-
plus honey. The frames are the standard size known
as the "Woodbury." It was from a similar hive that
I last year (1881) obtained 751b. of honey in the
comb, which realised over £4 in rash.
113
A CHEAP BAR-FRAME HIVE.
These instructions are written to suit those who
have a limited knowledge of carpentry, and possess but
few tools ; but of course the skilled amateur, when he
thoroughly understands what is to be done, can do it
in his own way. For instance, I have recommended
the strips to be cut with a cutting gauge, but anyone
who is a thorough master of the hand saw will perhaps
prefer to saw them, or if he has a circular saw, will,
of course, use it. Again, I have not advised the use
of the plane, as it is by no means necessary (or even
an improvement for the frames), but a skilled carpen-
ter would perhaps not care to turn out rough work,
but. would carefully plane and joint the boards for the
roof, as then it
could be painted
instead of pitched.
Tools required.
— A saw, hammer,
and measuring rule
or tape ; these are,
no doubt, at hand
or can be borrowed,
but a cutting gauge
(not marking
gauge) will have to
be bought, and will
cost iod. or is. ; it
is wanted to cut
the narrow strips
for the frames, as it
requires a skilled
hand to saw them
accurately.
Materials. — A
full-sized Indian
tea-chest is best for
the body of the
hive, as it is
strongly made, but
a China tea-chest
or other packing case will
measures at least 16 inches
13 inches deep, but a
not matter.
do, if it is sound and
each way inside, and
few inches over this does
Although in the diagram the body of
the hive and roof is necessarily drawn to scale, their
dimensions will, in practice, depend on the size of the
box used. Another box will be required to knock
down for the boards in it. Pick one out as long or
longer than the tea-chest, made of wide 4-inch boards.
The two boxes will cost at a grocer's is. to is. 6d.
Mind and have the lids with them. The new wood
required will be for the frames, as they must be of
best pine, free from knots. At a saw mill get a 2ft.
length of inch pine, 10 or 11 inches wide, cut off; have
it cut with the circular into two equal boards.
This will give you two 10 or n inch boards, 2ft.
long and about 1-inch thick ; cost 6d. Mind you are
not put off with deal instead of pine. Perhaps if you
make friends with the sawyer he will cut the boards up
into strips J-inch wide for you. If you can get this
done it will save the expense of buying the cutting
gauge. You will also want a bit of i-inch board to
cut up into strips for the bottom of the super case, 17
inches long and 6 inches wide will do.
The only other materials required will be half a
pound i^-inch wire nails, 2d. ; lib. pitch, 3d. ; and
id. worth of the deepest round flat-headed shoe nails,
to be had from the currier. Fig. 1 is a section of the
complete hive, with
frames, and a case
of sectional supers
in its place. Fig. 2
is a section through
the end, with
frames, but without
super case ; the
construction of the
roof is shown more
plainly in this
figure.
The first thing
to be made is a
block (Fig. 3) for
holding the frames
while nailing (it is
not necessary but a
great convenience).
A piece of board,
thickness not im-
portant, is prepared
17 inches long and
9 inches wide, two
strips, AA, I inch
square and 8| in.
long are nailed
and with a space
of the strips are
la. HON OS COMPLETE HIVE, WITH FRAME AND SECTIONAL SUPERS.
Scale, ij inch to the foot.
across the ends exactly square,
of 13! inches between, the ends
level with one edge of the board. Another i-inch strip,
B, 13J inches long, with the ends rounded off, is
pivoted in the centre by a screw or wire nail, this
holds the sides of the frame tightly while being
nailed. Two nails are driven almost in at the spot
indicated by an x in the diagram, they form a guide
to keep the top bar in its place, and are 15J inches
apart. It will be best before commencing the interior
of the hive to make the stand and flight board.
Two pieces of board (a, Figs. 1 and 2), 4 inches
wide, and at least 1 inch thick, are cut, with one end
slanting, the shorter side the same length as the out-
side width of the box, the longer 6 inches more ;
A CHEAP BAR-FRAME HIVE.
"3
these are nailed edgeways underneath the box, as
shown in the diagrams, and the flight board (b), a
piece of i-inch board y\ inches wide and the same
length as the box, nailed on the sloping ends.
The Frames. — Of the frames (Fig. 4) ten are re-
quired. Each is made of four strips of pine |-inch by
f -inch nailed together. The top bar is longer than the
bottom one, and its
ends project f-inch
each way. To cut these
strips from the 2ft pine
boards (unless you
have already had them
sawn), set your cutting
gauge with the knife
|-inch from the mov-
able block (the knife
must project f-inch or
a little more). Now
make a cut along the
edge of the board,
keeping the block
tightly pressed against
it ; cut lightly at first,
and then to the full
depth of the knife. Do
the same on the other
side of the board, when
the strip will easily
break off; in this way
both pine boards must
be cut up into strips
|-inch wide. The strips
must now be cut to
exact length.
You will want
1 1 for top bars
15^ inches
(bare) long, 10
for bottom
bars 13 J inches
long, and 20
side bars
8 j inches long.
Be sure and
cut them off exactly square.
The frames must now be
nailed together, two nails to each corner. The nail-
ing block (Fig. 3) will hold the strips firm and square
while being nailed. The outside dimensions of each
frame must be 13J inches from side to side, and 9
inches from top to bottom. The bottom bar is nailed
on to — not between — the ends of the side pieces.
Flat-headed shoe-nails should be driven into each side
of the top bar (four to each frame) \\ inch from
each end ; the heads should not be driven quite home,
but the distance between the heads of the nails should
be 1 -j^ inches, so that the frames will be that distance
apart from centre to centre when hung in the hive.
The division board (D, Fig. 2) which hangs in the
hive in the same manner as the frames is next to be
made. A piece of half-inch board is cut exactly
14J inches long and 9 inches wide, and the spare top
bar is nailed on to one
edge, the ends project-
ing half-inch each way.
The board is kept from
warping by two cross
strips nailed to it near
the ends.
The frames and
division board being
made, the next thing
is to prepare the in-
terior of the box to
receive them. Two
half-inch boards (d,
Fig. 1) exactly nine
inches wide are cut in
length to the interior
width of the box ; the
top edge of each is
brought to a thin edge
by cutting away one
side with a pocket-
knife ; a strip of wood
(e, Fig. 1), about two
inches wide and the
same length as the
board, is nailed to the
3 side cut away,
and standfag
|-inch above
the top edge ;
then a stout
strip is nailed
on the same
side to each
end of the
boards. The
two boards
nailed across the
-SECTION THROUGH END WITH FRAMES, BUT WITHOUT SUPER CASE.
Scale, 1 \ inch to the foot.
3. — BLOCK FOB HOLDING FRAMES. FIG. 4. — FRAME, VIEWED FROM SIDE
Scale, 1 J inch to the foot.
thus prepared have now to be
box, exactly 145 inches apart, but before doing so
it will be well to clearly understand their use. They
form the support for the frames, the projecting
ends of which hang on the thin upper edges. It
will be seen that the frames do not touch in any
other part, but that there is a f-inch space between
them and the sides and bottom. This space is im-
portant ; therefore the outside size of the frames and
the inside size of that part of the hive which contains
ii4
A CHEAP BAR-FRAME HIVE.
them should always be exact, while other dimensions
are not so important. In nailing the two boards
across the box (the bottom edges touching the bottom),
the division board will form a capital guide to keep
them the requisite 14$ inches apart ; and as it
is difficult to nail from the outside into the ends, it
will be well to nail from the inside through the strips
at the ends of the boards. The entrance slit, 4 inches
long and '-inch high (shown by dotted lines in Fig. 1),
can now be cut with a pocket-knife at the bottom of
the box.
Sectional Supers. — These are now used by all
advanced beekeepers in preference to bell glasses
or heavy box supers, which cannot be separated for
selling ; they are a number of small boxes (F, Fig. i),
having top, bottom, and ends, but no sides, and are
placed together so as to form one chamber ; the top
and bottom are narrower than the ends, and the bees
find entrance through the slits thus formed.
It does not pay to make supers at home, as the
American all-in-one-piece sections are much better,
and cost as little as it does to buy the wood ; they may
be had from any dealer in bee requisites. The most
useful and most used size is i,\ inches square, and
holds about lib. of honey. As the reader may, how-
ever, wish to make his own, I give instructions for
supers 4 ' inches square.
Some deal or pine board, barely j-inch thick, is
cut up into 2-inch and ij-inch strips ; these are cut
into lengths with a fine saw, the side pieces 4^ by
2 inches, and the top and bottom pieces 3] full by I^
inches. The supers are nailed together with 1 -inch
wire nails, two to each corner.
A block made on the same principle as the frame
nailing block, is useful to hold them while nailing.
Super Case. — A bottomless box (c, Fig. 1) is made of
half-inch board, 4' inches deep, and 165 by 15I inches
outside measurement. Four strips (h, Fig. 1) are cut
15; X I; X iinch, and nailed across the bottom of the
box, being let in flush, two of them are at the outside,
the other two at equal distances, forming three equal
spaces between ; four strips (1, Fig. 1), 14J inches long
by I inch square, are nailed on the top of the wide
strips, the two outer ones against the sides of the box,
the others on the centre of the strips ; there must be
i. space of a little over 4^ inches between these strips,
as they serve to keep the sections the right distance
apart. Twenty-one sections, seven in each row, are
placed in the case, they do not quite fill it, but a thin
board, I5iby i,\ inches, with notches cut out of the
lower edge to fit over the strips, serves to wedge them
up together.
Tin " separators," 1 5 J inches long by 3J inches wide,
are placed between the sections, they are shown by
dotted lines in Fig. I, and are necessary to keep the
combs from bulging into each other ; if they were not
used, the sections could only be packed in the order
in which they came out of the hive.
The interior of the hive is now finished, and only
the roof remains to be made. It is well to mention
that when the hive is in use, the empty spaces outside
the side boards can be filled with chaff or cut straw,
as it greatly adds to the warmth ; the tops of the
frames must also be covered with a piece of bed tick-
ing or other material, and that again with a couple
of thicknesses of warm carpet, or a few inches of
chaff ; also that before putting bees in the hive, a thin
line of melted wax must be run along the centre of the
underside of each top bar, as a guide for the bees to
build their combs. The hive, having a separate roof,
stands without any other protection, raised a few
inches from the ground on a few bricks, or a couple
of pieces of scantling. The roof is a flat sloping one ;
its sides are made sloping like a desk or garden
frame, and the frame is made large enough to slip
easily over the hive like a lid ; the front of the roof
(J, Fig. 2) may be seven inches deep, and the back
(K, Fig. 2) two inches deep, so that they can both be
cut out of one length, and the sloping sides cut out of
another length of 9-inch board. The flat top is nailed
on the top of the frame ; the original lid of the tea-
chest or box will help to make it, but a couple more
boards will be required to help out ; the top should
project 1 \ inch all round. It does not matter how
many joints are in it, so that they are not too open.
A block of wood (L, Fig. 2) is now nailed inside the
front, two inches from the bottom edge, to keep the
roof from slipping down the hive, and six or eight
ventilation holes (not large enough for a bee to pass
through), bored in the back and sides of the roof.
The roof has now to be made water-tight. Melt
the pitch in an iron pot or ladle, and add a little
tallow to make it pliable ; great care must be taken
to prevent it boiling over. It should be laid on
thickly with a brush. Do not put any on the sides
of the roof or hive, but it will be well to pitch the
bottom (outside) in order to keep the damp out. It
will make a better job if a piece of newspaper is laid
on the roof and ironed down with a hot iron. The
pitch will melt and soak through the paper, which will
bind all together.
The hive cannot be stocked by a beginner with
bees until swarming time in May or June ; but it is
much the best plan to get hives made during the
winter months, when there is plenty of spare time for
amateur carpentry of all kinds. The hive being all
ready, the maker may abide in patience until the wel-
come sound of the swarm in the air, as if in earnest
debate where to settle, tells him that the time is come
for him to begin bee-keeping in earnest.
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
"5
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
III.— The Wind-Chest and Sound-Board.
HE amateur organ-builder is about to
enter now upon the most arduous, but
at the same time the most interesting
and agreeable, part of his undertaking
— namely, the making of the wind-chest
with its belongings.
Let us first gain a general idea of the wind-chest
and sound-board. We are about to make a close
oblong box, divided internally by fifty-three transverse
partitions into fifty-four transverse grooves or channels,
perfecdy air-tight, and perfectly separated from each
other. On the upper side of this box holes will be
bored down into each channel, and upon every such
hole (or near it) a pipe will be planted ; on the under
side of the box each channel will be closed in by a
valve called a pallet, which will be kept shut by a
spring, but which can be easily opened by a leverage
connecting it with its key or note on the finger-board.
These pallets will be inclosed in an air-tight box
underlying the first box, and supplied with wind from
the belluws through the wind-trunk.
An examination of the three woodcuts, Nos. 12,
13, and 14, together with the sketch of the completed
organ, Fig. 20, which will accompany the next and con-
cluding paper, will greatly facilitate the explanations
which are to follow, and the whole structure may be
comprehended by a careful study of the details here
indicated. In Fig. 8 A A is the sound-board, contain-
ing the channels ; B B is the wind-chest — the board
which shuts in its front being removed — containing
the pallets ; one of which is shown at C as pulled
open in order that the wind may rush into its channel,
and through the hole at the top into the pipe D.
Fig. 13 represents a cross section of Fig. 12 : a, as
before, is the sound-board ; B, the wind-chest ; C, the
pull-dou~n ; the pallet is marked E ; the spring F ; G,
is the plate through which the pull-downs work air-
rightly. Fig. 14 is a side view of the " action," in
which C is the pull-down of the pallet, attached to the
end of a lever called a back-fall, which works freely on
a pivot or pin at M ; K is one of the keys in the finger-
board ; L is a wooden rod called a sticker, having a
wire at each end, which passes loosely through holes
in the key and back-fall. It is evident that the
pressure of a finger on K, as indicated by the arrow,
will throw up the end N of the back-fall, and depress
C with its pallet
And now to construct all this simple but neat
mechanism.
First, the sound-board. I advise you to make this
out of a piece of solid plank, and not to attempt to
frame it together with inserted divisions. Take a
piece of plank (fir will do — a hard wood is preferable)
3 feet in length, I foot in width, and from 2 to i\ inches
thick. Plane one side of this, and proceed to form
the channels by making a series of transverse saw-
cuts, I inch in depth, and by taking out with a chisel
the wood intervening between every two such cuts
If afterwards two strips of wood, 3 feet long, are glued
to the edges of the 2-inch plank, it is clear that a box
will be obtained divided just as required (see Fig. 14).
But the channels so made must by no means be of
unifoiiu size, and the planning out and true measure-
ment of the channels and partitions requires great
care, and is of great importance. Attention is there-
fore particularly requested to the following direc-
tions : —
The piece of plank is 3 feet in length. Mark off
first a clear inch at each end ; a space of 34 inches
then remains to be divided into 54 unequal channels.
Let the first three channels at each end be each £ of an
inch in width, with divisions of % : thus 6 inches will be
disposed of. Let the next three at each end be |-inch
channels with j-inch divisions : thus 4J inches of
space will be occupied; or 10J inches in all, and 12
pipes of the 54 — viz., from CC to B — will be accom-
modated.
The organ-builder must now abandon the alternate
arrangement of the channels, and proceed on the left
or bass side only, by marking 6 more of the A-inch
channels with j-inch divisions, and 6 channels of
j-inch width with similar divisions : 18 inches of the
total space is thus taken up, and 2 octaves of pipes
(viz., 24) supplied. There are now 16 inches of space
remaining, which must be made to contain 29 divisions
and 30 channels. All the divisions must be j-inch :
this will consume 7\ inches of space. Of the channels
the first 6 may be ?,-inch, and the remaining 24 J-inch
each. This will account for Z\ inches ; and the whole
board has now been divided and meted out, with £ an
inch to spare — not too much allowance for unavoidable
inaccuracy in marking and sawing.
The amateur will do well to mark all these mea-
surements with the greatest care on a ruler or " straight-
edge" of wood, and then transfer them with a square
and a pointed awl to the piece of plank, the edges of
which you have previously dressed up perfectly true.
No time should be considered as being lost which is
expended on bringing the measurements to the highest
degree of accuracy. Then, with a sharp tenon saw,
cut down on each line which you marked to the depth
of a clear inch at least, as scored with your gauge on
the edges of the plank. Take out the wood in the
channels with a small sharp chisel and a mallet, and
beware of cutting out divisions by mistake — a blunder
n6
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
If
FIG. 13. — SECTION
OF WIND-CHEST
SHOWING PALLET
AND SPRING.
immwmmmmmm
which may easily occur. If it does occur, you must
carefully insert a division, fitting it neatly in with glue ;
and you must mend any division which you acci-
dentally injure. Do not attempt to pass the plane
along the edges of the plank after the sawing, as the
divisions would not bear it, but take off the rough
saw-kerfs with any sharp cutting tool ; then, with
plenty of glue, put on two sides of inch stuff, three
feet long each, and as wide as the plank is thick. Rub
each backwards and forwards on the glued surfaces
until they adhere perfectly in every part. At a sub-
sequent period you must coat the interior of every
channel, and the sides of
every division, with an
abundance of hot glue,
using a brush of con-
venient shape, and
allowing the glue to run
into all corners and
angles. This is of vital
importance. When all
is dry, dress the glued-
on sides with a fine
plane, so that the whole
under side (on which the
pallets are to go) may be
perfectly level.
The pipe-holes (see
Fig. 16) may now be
bored. This will re-
quire nearly as much
consideration as the
planning of the channels.
It must first be clearly
understood that the
pipes of the two lowei
octaves, 24 in number,
are not to stand directly
upon, or over, their
holes, but are to be
placed according to the arrangement shown
the illustration of the completed organ (Fig.
and are to receive the wind through grooves
conductors leading from the holes to the pipe-feet.
Now, these 24 pipes are, or ought to be, already
made. It will be easy to lay them in a row, and
to pile them one upon the other on a table or on
the floor, so as to obtain a rough idea of the points
at which the holes for them may be most conveniently
bored. Thus the pipes CC, DD, and EE are shown
as standing across the sound-board at the bass end ;
and CCs, DDs, and FF, across the treble end. It is
evident that the holes for these may be so bored as to
shorten the conducting grooves as much as possible,
and the same may be said of the larger pipes standing
.TV
EST .*
14.— KEY WITH STICKER
AND BACK-FALL.
4. 44 + 4.4.+ +*-.+, 4...4-I +* + 4 +l*4:i + 4-4-J- + + + +++4-+
FIG. 12. — FRONT OF WIND-CHEST, SHOWING PALLETS,
FIG. IS.-
contiguously to these. The amateur must consider
the matter over well, with the pipes and board before
him, and exercise his ingenuity in packing the whole
cleverly in. It is by no means necessary that these
24 lower holes should be circular ; on the contrar)',
while the actual hole on which the pipe stands should
be so, the hole which descends into the channel may be
cut oblong, so as to supply the larger pipes with as
much wind as possible ; and the grooves between the
two (which may wind in various curves as may be
found convenient) may be as deep and wide as the
organ-builder chooses. Make these grooves by cutting
■ boldly down on the
* lines marked, to a depth
of £ an inch, with a
strong pocket-knife, and
by taking out the inter-
vening wood with a
chisel. When the ama-
teur approaches the
hole upon which the
pipe is to stand, and
which may be } of an
inch in depth, he should
not cut the groove at
once into it, but stop
short i an inch from
it, and mine under the
little bridge thus left
with his chisel, so as
to conduct the wind
into the pipe-hole with-
out disturbing its cir-
cular form. Then cover
over the groove (or
several at a time) with
stout paper glued on and
rubbed down smooth.
Each groove will then
be an air-tight con-
ductor. It is well to use a red-hot iron to scorch
slightly the interior of such grooves as these, and to
render all holes perfectly clear of splinters ; and all
pipe-holes maybe "counter-sunk" to receive the pipe-
foot by burning them with red-hot heaters, such as
those which are used by the laundress.
It must be well understood that, as it is impossible
to cut all the necessary grooves in the top of the
sound-board itself, since some of them would interfere
with those leading from the holes near them, it will be
necessary to use an additional board expressly for the
conducting grooves so excluded. This conducting-
board is shown in Fig. 17. It is simply a piece of inch
stuff, 3 feet long, and as many inches wide as may be
requisite. Let us suppose that from all the holes in
UNDER-SIDE OF SOUND BOARD, SHOWING CHANNELS
AND PARTITIONS.
in
20),
or
BOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
117
the line of A and B, Fig. 16, grooves have been cut in
the sound-board itself, and have been papered over.
Then the conducting-board being laid upon these
finished grooves, and fastened down temporarily with
a screw or two, cut the other holes (in the line of c
and d) through it
from beneath ; and
from these holes cut
grooves in this new
board, and paper them
over as before. Of
course, all the pipe-
holes, on which the
pipes actually stand,
must be pierced in
the new board ; and
a clever workman will
-UPPER SIDE OF SOUND-BOARD. SHOWING PIPE HOLES
AND CONDUCTORS.
not find it difficult to
r
/L
FIG. 18. — MODE OF MAKING SPRINGS.
con-
trive the grooves on the under side (rather than
the upper) of this board, so that when this under side
is entirely covered with a sheet of leather glued on
(the holes being cut out), and when it is fastened down
on the sound-board with numerous screws, no paper
may appear, but merely a neat surface of planed wood,
with the counter-sunk holes
for the pipe-feet. Any
reader may comprehend
the conducting-board with
ease if he will take the
trouble of making copies,
on separate bits of paper, of
Figs. 1 6 and 17. Cutting out
these copies with scissors, and
placing 17 upon 16, so that
the lines between C and D shall coincide, the arrange-
ment of the upper and under grooves will be obvious.
We shall now suppose that all the grooving has
been well considered and cleverly executed, and that
all the holes have been bored for the 30 upper pipes,
as shown in Fig. 16. These 30 holes may decrease
gradually in size from h an inch diameter at Middle C
to 5 of an inch or
less at the top ; and
they should be
scorched through with
red-hot irons, and e
counter - sunk. We
may now go on to
the pallets.
Turning the sound-board with the channels upper-
most, cover the whole of the channels with stout
sheets of paper (old music-sheets answer well), glued
on, and well rubbed down. When these are dry, cut
with a sharp penknife a pallet-hole, 4 inches long,
in the paper covering of each channel. As the
channels are 12 inches long, it follows that 8 inches of
FIG. 17. — BOARD WlTH CONDUCTORS.
each channel will remain roofed-in with paper, while
4 inches will be open. The row of pallet-holes must
be along that margin of the board which is to be in
front when the organ is finished. Prepare the pallets
from slips of any wood planed truly ; they be 4J inches
in length, and will
vary in width according
to the size of the grooves
which they are to
cover. Their usual
form may be seen in
Figs. 12 and 13. Let
the amateur choose a
strip of his smoothest
and best white leather,
5j inches in width ;
to its dressed side glue the broader face of his pallets,
a dozen or so at the time, and cut them apart with
a sharp knife. Pin down a sheet of fine sand-paper
on a bit of board, and strew on it a little common
whiting. Rub the leathered face of each pallet on
this whitened sand-paper until the roughened leather
is full of the white dust. The pallets are then to
be placed over the holes to
which they are adapted,
each being glued down
upon the paper covering
by the bit of leather, an
inch long, which serves as
a hinge, and between every
two pallets insert a stout
pin in the wood of the
partition (see Figs. 12 and
13). As each pallet is glued down, give it two or three
smart taps with a light hammer that it may bed itself
well on the pallet-hole, and see that every pallet works
freely, but truly, between its pins. A consideration ot
Figs. 12 and 13 will show how these pallets are kept
shut by springs, and opened by pull-downs. In both
figures b B is the wind-chest, a box of inch stuff", about
3 in. deep and 6 in.
wide. It is usual to fix
the back and the two
ends of this with glue
d- and screws to the
sound-board, then to
glue strips of leather
to the edges of these,
and to screw down the bottom board upon them
without any glue, that it may be removed in case
of repairs being necessary. The front will ultimately
be closed in by a board furnished with strips of
leather, and secured by screws put in with tallow.
The chest, when thus completed, will be air-tight.
The springs are made of brass wire, not annealed :
n8
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
in buying it ask for No. 17. Their form will be seen
in Figs. 13 and 19 ; the amateur may easily make them
himself by fixing in a piece of board a stout peg, x
(Fig. 18), and two pins, Y and z, and by bringing the
wire twice round X and once round Y and Z, as shown
in the figure, afterwards perfecting each spring with
pliers (Fig. 19).
The upper ends of these little springs fit into small
holes in the pallets ; their lower ends are fitted into
similar holes in a slip of f-inch wood, 34 inches
long and 2 inches wide ; and they are kept in a
position parallel to each other beneath their respective
pallets by working in a rack or comb fixed to this slip,
and made by cutting saw-cuts in a thin ruler of wood.
The organ-builder will do well to fasten the slip of
wood with the rack, to the end of the wind-chest, and.
to adjust all the springs, quite independently of the
bottom-board. See that every pallet opens pleasantly
with a gape of J an inch, or thereabouts, and that it
shuts instantly, when released, with a smart snap.
Into each pallet, near its front end, fix a little wire
hook or staple, for the pull-down. Then screw on the
bottom-board of the wind-chest.
It is now evident that some contrivance must be
resorted* to in order to obtain an air-tight connection
between the pallets and the levers outside the chest.
Mark carefully on the fore-edge of the bottom-board
of the chest the central point beneath each pallet-
hook. Take a strip of sheet brass, 3 feet in length,
about vs °f an mcn in thickness, and 2 inches wide :
it may be obtained cheaply at the ironmonger's. Drill
holes for screws, a few inches apart, along its edges.
Secure it temporarily beneath the bottom-board, so
that the row of pallet-hooks may be exactly over its
middle line. Then, immediately under every pallet-
hook, drill a hole through the brass of such a size that
a piece of the brass spring-wire may glide pleasantly
through it. Remove the brass plate, and bore the
holes marked by the drill on the bottom-board through
with a bradawl, burning them clear with a red-hot
wire ; then glue a strip of leather, 2 inches wide, over
the row of holes, and on the leather screw down
firmly, with many screws, the brass plate. Prepare
54 pull-downs of the brass wire ; these are about 3
inches long, having a screw-thread tapped for J an
inch or so at one end. Thrust the untapped end
through the hole in the brass plate belonging to it and
through the leather above, and form this end with
pliers into a hook. Connect this hook with the pallet-
hook by a little S hook made of any wire, and see that
all works smoothly (See Figs. 8 and 9). Before
drilling the holes, take the precaution of trying the
drill on a spare bit of brass, and, if necessary, alter it
a little by means of a whetstone.
{To be continued!)
PHOTOGRAPHY :
ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
By THOMAS DUNMAN.
Ill— The Dark Room.
HEREVER it is at all possible to build a
room specially adapted for the various
processes of photography, it is decidedly
advisable to do so. So many defects are
produced through working in a room
which is not perfectly " light-tight," that it is impos-
sible to produce a satisfactory picture under such
unfavourable conditions. With the object of assisting
my readers to construct for themselves, at a small
cost, this necessary part of the photographer's plant,
I give with the present part of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, the necessary working drawings.
A preliminary consideration, which I would im-
press upon my readers, is that it is not sufficient to
have the Dark Room merely dark, but it should also
be of sufficient size to contain a fair quantity of air for
the use of the operator, and that it should be well
ventilated. A large amount of ill-health of a very
serious character arises from the use of small and ill-
ventilated dark rooms ; and as health is of the first
importance, I would strongly advise my readers not
to neglect this important point. The best dimensions
for a dark room, which is only required for the use
of one person at a time, are as follows : — Length, 6
feet ; width, 4 feet ; height, 8 feet. The position
of the amateur photographer's dark room must in
nearly all cases be determined by circumstrnc?s ;
but the professional will do well to have his conrweted
with the studio in which his pictures are ta :en.
Wherever the dark room be constructed it should,
however, be as close as possible to the spot where
the plates are exposed in the camera, or much time
will be wasted in the constant flitting from camera to
dark room, which is inseparable from the practice of
photography.
The wood which is employed should be sound and
well-seasoned, or great annoyance will result from
shrinkage, and the consequent cracks. The door and
window must fit closely, and it is wise to have over
the doorway (on the inside), a curtain made of black
silesia, and hung by rings on an iron rod, so that it
may be drawn over the doorway, when the operator
has shut himself in. A sloping roof is most easily
constructed, and it should be covered with sheet zinc,
to render it impervious to wet. Roofing-felt also
answers fairly well for this purpose, but it is much less
durable than zinc, and is therefore in the end quite as
expensive.
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
119
The window should be made double, the opening
being in the first instance glazed with plain glass, and
then a tight-fitting frame should be hinged on inside,
either at the top or bottom, so that it may be folded
back out of the way at pleasure. This frame must be
filled with either yellow or ruby-coloured glass, or it
may be glazed plain, and then coloured paper carefully
pasted over the plain glass. Ruby-coloured glass, or
paper, is the most useful, as it answers for both wet
and dry plates, whereas orange light is only admis-
sible for the wet process. Those who can afford to
be luxurious, may, of course, have two folding frames,
one glazed red, and the other yellow ; but the ruby-
tinted glass, or paper, will answer the purpose equally
welL The advantage of the double window is that
either white or non-actinic light may be used at the
option of the operator, and thus all his work may be
done in the same apartment.
A necessity for the dark room is an abundant
supply of water, and where at all possible this should
be laid on. A pipe, led from an adjacent cistern at a
higher level will answer the purpose very well, and is
easily laid. The tap need not be a large one. Under
the tap a small sink should be fitted — wood, lined
with zinc, being good materials to use for this pur-
pose. A small pipe led from the sink to the outside
of the dark house, near a drain, will suffice to carry off
the waste water. A board connected with the sink,
and provided with grooves, is useful for draining plates
when finished. After each operation abundant wash-
ing is necessary, and much time will be saved if a
small tripod stand be made out of twisted wire, and
placed under the tap ; it should be of such a height
that its top is about three inches below the tap. Upon
this plates can be placed, and by turning the tap the
washing can proceed without the operator's attention.
If this precaution be not observed, the plate must be
held under the tap until the washing is completed.
The sink should be fixed near the window, if possible
just below it, and should be near the worktable or
bench. This latter should be as long as the apart-
ment will allow, and should be about 2 feet 6 inches
in width. There is nothing like having plenty of
room.
Above the bench one or two shelves should be
fixed, and on these the various solutions should be
kept, those most frequently required being kept on the
lower shelf. On the back of the bench, the various
trays, baths, and other tools should be kept, while in
the drawers of the bench, dusters and other odds and
ends can be stowed. With all these things the golden
rule should be, "A place for everything, and every-
thing in its place." If this be not observed, confusion,
with its attendant train of blunders and accidents, will
infallibly result. A great source of annoyance in the
dark room is dust, and before using it this should be
carefully removed. A good practice is to sprinkle the
floor well, and carefully sweep it every time before
using, and care should also be taken to prevent cob-
webs. If the floor be covered at all, it should be with
oil-cloth or kamptulicon, and not with matting or
carpet, which harbour dust and dirt.
Any imperfection in the exclusion of white light
from the dark room results in what is known as " fog-
ging." By this term is expressed the dim, hazy, or
veiled appearance which the amateur's photographs so
frequently exhibit. It results either from the imper-
fection of the camera, the dark slide, or the dark room,
and it is sometimes difficult to discover in which of
the three the fault exists. The best way to test the
perfection of the dark room is to sensitize a plate in
the ordinary way, and then to carefully close the door
and place the tinted frame over the window. Being
quite sure that this is perfectly done, lay your plate
on the bench and leave it there for a few moments, so
that any chance ray of white light may have the
opportunity of affecting it. Now develop it as you
would do if it had been exposed in the camera. If
" fog " then appear, it is obviously through a defect in
the dark room ; if it do not, the dark room is perfectly
light-tight.
In addition to a dark room, a dark tent is an
extremely useful piece of apparatus, and one which
may even be used in the place of a dark room. When
photography by the wet process is practised far from
home, a dark tent is an indispensable requisite, as wet
plates must be developed directly after exposure in the
camera. But even if dry plates be employed, some
kind of tent is very necessary in which to change the
plates which have been exposed for fresh ones, as a
large number of dark slides are not only cumbersome,
but costly. I therefore give an illustration of such
a tent (Fig. 11), which will serve to show the general
principles upon which this useful piece of apparatus is
constructed. I am indebted to Messrs. Newton &
Co., of Fleet Street, London, for the engraving, and
I am informed that they supply a perfectly efficient
tent, completely fitted and supplied with all the appa-
ratus necessary for both wet and dry plate work for £7
or ^8. '
Many of our readers may, however, be desirous of
making a travelling tent for themselves, and they will
find it by no means a difficult task to construct one
which, although less elegant than a purchased one,
may be quite as effective. Any portable tripod camera
stand will do for the support of the tent when in use,
and a good, strong, light-tight box answers very well
for the body. One side must, of course, let down
when open, and this will serve for a bench on which to
work. Perhaps the best plan is to have this side of
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
the box made in two parts, one
opening upwards and the other
downwards, both being hinged
to the box in such a manner
that when fully open they may
be continuous respectively with
the top and bottom sides. In
the back, a small window, filled
with non-actinic glass or paper,
must be fitted. A small shelf cr
shelves to hold bottles will also
be found useful. The curtains
can be made of black silesia,
lined with yellow. The curtail s
may be made so as to slide on
an iron rod, or may be simply
tacked on to the box, care being
taken that they effectually shut
out white light. On the inside
of each curtain a piece of tape
should be fastened, so that the
two tapes may be tied round the
operator's waist when at work,
in order to prevent the curtains
from flying open. It is hardly
necessary to say that a special
receptacle must be provided for
each bottle and each piece of
apparatus, in order to guard
against an upset. An ebonite
sink should fit into the part of
the box which is used for a
working bench, and from the
bottom of the sink a tube can
easily be fitted so as to carry
off the waste water. The best
way to supply the water is to
have a receptacle of some kind
filled with this useful fluid on
the top of the tent, and to lead
from this, through a hole in the
roof, a tube by which the sink
may be supplied. Good india-
rubber tubing answers very well
for this purpose, and an ordinary
letter-clip, which costs a penny,
will serve for a tap. As a general
rule, no water need be carried,
as it may usually be obtained
from a stream in the vicinity,
or from the friendly inhabitants
of the district in which the tour
is being made. The reservoir
for water on the top of the tent
may be either an indiarubbe?
g, DARK ROOM— LONGITUDINAL SECTION AT A A IN PLAN. (B Bearer.
FF Folding Frames hung with Non-Actiaic Mate'ial.)
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AXD PRACTICE.
bottle or a wooden tank lined with zinc. It is
obvious that such an elaborate and bulky contrivance
as a dark tent is only necessary when the photo-
grapher desires to employ the wet process at a
distance from home, and that when using dry plates a
large part of it may be dispensed with. In point of
fact, when the latter process is adopted, the only
indispensable requisites, even upon a prolonged tour,
are boxes in which to store the exposed plates, and
some means of replacing them by fresh ones, as these
plates may be kept for months before being deve-
loped, so that they are not exposed to actinic light. It
is best to buy the boxes for storing plates, as they are
not very expensive, and are difficult to make thoroughly
and permanently light-tight.
One of the simplest means of changing the plates
is to have a large black linen bag, provided with two
holes for the hands. These holes should be fitted
with sleeves sufficiently long to reach above the elbow,
and supplied at their outer ends with a strong elastic
band, which, closing round the arm, prevents light
from entering the bag. The dark slides, the store-box,
and a supply of unused plates being placed in the bag,
-DARK ROOM — TRANSVERSE SECTION AT D B IN
PLAN. (DB Draining Board).
I'lG; II. — THE DARK TENT.
the hands are then introduced and the plates are
changed in the bag, which must, of course, be imper-
vious to light. A very little practice is sufficient to
enable the operator to effect this exchange of slides
with ease and rapidity.
Another good plan is to carry a lantern fitted with
ruby glass, and to change your plates after dark,
which can easily be done in an ordinary bed-room.
For those who wish to have a dark tent at a small
cost, and have not the time to make one for them-
selves, the most economical one to be obtained is that
known from the name of its inventor as "The
Howard." It is made of india-rubber cloth, and is
fitted with eye-holes and arm-holes. It fits on to any
ordinary camera-stand, and has a small window fitted
with non-actinic glass. Its cost, without stand, is
£\, and the sole makers are Messrs. Lee Brothers,
27, Wading Street, London.
For the benefit of those who, having constructed
a dark tent for themselves, may wish to fit it up, I
give the average cost of the principal requisites. A
flexible and portable sink costs from 3s. to 6s., ac-
cording to size, the price including the necessary brass
fittings for attaching the tubing for the waste pipe.
A flexible water-tight bag costs, with handle, screw,
and stopcock, from half-a-guinea to 17s. 6d. The
boxes for storing plates vary from 2s. 6d. to 12s. or
13s., according to size.
Having now completed the description of all
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME-MADE FURNITURE.
the apparatus necessary for the practice of ordinary-
photography, I shall, in my next article, proceed to
give a precise and accurate description of the manner
in which this beautiful art may be successfully
practised.
{To be continued!)
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME-MADE
FURNITURE.
{For Illustrations, see the Supplement to this Part.)
HE mind or intellectual faculty in man has
been defined by Sir William Hamilton as
"simply that which perceives, thinks,
feels, wills, and desires," or, at all events,
if definition be too strong and marked a
term to use, it is what men mean when they use the
word mind. Now, these operations of the mind are
common to all, although of different degrees of quick-
ness in different persons, by which I mean that some
can arrive at conclusions, decide on a course of action,
and are moved to the exhibition of any passion or
emotion, more speedily than others. There is, how-
ever, another faculty of the mind to which the term
" mind vision " or " mental vision " may be fairly
applied, which is possessed by very few, and this is the
power of calling up before the "mind's eye," as Shake-
spere phrases it, piece by piece and portion by portion,
as if by gradual growth, any article which the thinker
wishes it to make, until it seems to stand before him
perfect and complete in all its parts and details. It is
a power which is necessary to the inventor, the artist,
and the architect especially, and will be found without
a doubt in all who excel in wood-carving, sculpture,
and constructive work, generally speaking. It is pos-
sible that it may exist in many in a dormant state who
have not the slightest idea that they are possessed of
any faculty so desirable, and that, like other mental
powers, it requires culture. That it exists and can be
nurtured the writer can testify, and he earnestly recom-
mends all wood-workers to endeavour to ascertain for
themselves if they possess this power of inward vision,
and if they do, even in the faintest degree, to encou-
rage it to the utmost.
Now, it is possible that many will ask — What has
all this to do with the subject under consideration,
namely, Suggestions for Home-made Furniture? Much
every way. In the first place, if all wood-working
amateurs were possessed of the power of which I have
been speaking, and were accustomed to exercise it,
there would be little need for any suggestions of the
kind, inasmuch as each one of us, having regard to
space, position, and surroundings, would at any time,
by mental conception, bring before his mind's eye the
article he required in such a form as would be best
suited to his requirements. Secondly, the mention of
this gives me an opportunity of showing that the
Supplement which accompanies this part of the maga-
zine has been given for the purpose of helping those
who may be good workmen, but bad thinkers and
originators, in the hope that out of the many designs
that are given, each may find something that he may
wish to make as a piece of decorative furniture for
home use.
In Fig. i a reading-chair of somewhat quaint and
unusual form is shown, standing before an escritoire or
side-table, surmounted with shelves that might be
turned to good account for the library or study, or as
an occasional table in the living-room or even in the
hall or lobby. The chair is a comfortable one, as the
occupant may dispose himself in a variety of positions
that are unattainable in a chair of ordinary shape.
The chief difficulty is in making the curved legs, ter-
minating in ball and claw, but in this the maker must
consult his fancy or his capabilities. As a modifica-
tion of form, it may be said that a circular seat is
equally comfortable and of good appearance, and that
in this case only one upright at the back need be used
to support the rail against which the occupant leans,
which should also form the arc of a circle. The
absence of supports at the side will enable any one
who is sitting in the chair to lean against one side of
the arc and rest his paper or his book on the opposite
part. The table or escritoire is so plainly figured in
perspective view in Fig. i, and in side or end elevation
in Fig. 2, that any amateur may make a working draw-
ing for himself, having regard to his own requirements
as to size, etc. If used as a hall-table, the back may
be modified by substituting rails for the reception of
hats on the brackets that support the shelf on which
the books are placed, and making the back behind the
hat-rails and upwards of upright pieces and transverse
rails so disposed as to receive hooks for the support
of walking-sticks and umbrellas. The drawer in front
will be found as useful for gloves, if used as a hall-
table, as it is for writing materials, if used as an
escritoire.
In Figs. 3 and 4, two arm-chairs are shown of
tolerably imposing and comfortable appearance, suit
able for sitting-room or bed-room, according to the
style of upholstery that is adopted, and such as may
be made without much trouble by even an unskilled
amateur. In each a stout and strong square frame is
required, supported on four legs, which may be plain
or turned, according to the will or the skill of the
maker ; or, as is usual in chairs of this description,
the front legs may be turned and the hind legs some-
what curved. At the back of this frame another piece
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME-MADE FURNITURE.
123
of framing must be raised, in order to form the back
of the chair, and to the sides of the back thus formed,
and the seat, scrolled or scalloped pieces of wood are
attached, of the depth to which it is intended to carry
the stuffing. The arms in Fig. 3 are formed in a
similar manner, by pieces of wood, cut so as to regu-
late the form of the stuffing ; the ends of the arms
being circular, or nearly so, and suitably connected.
In Fig. 4 the foundations for the arms are flat pieces
of wood, attached to the back behind, and supported
in front on uprights, which are hidden from view by
the heavy fringe with which the chair is finished. The
frame-work being made, the seat should be formed of
strong webbing interlaced, and the framing of the
back should be filled in with a few rails, covered with
canvas, as a support to the stuffing. The exterior of
the chair being covered with canvas, the stuffing may
be proceeded with. A good material for this purpose
is a kind of dried grass, imported and largely used in
the commoner kinds of upholstered goods by furniture
makers, and on this a facing of cotton flock may be
laid. In stuffing a chair it should be made as full as
possible, otherwise disappointment will arise by the
settlement and consolidation of the material under the
weight and pressure of the body. When the front
and seat have been canvassed over, the outer covering
of cretonne or damask should be put on, and a finish
given to the whole by nailing on a piece of furniture
braid or gimp, as shown in the illustrations, and
making the depressions that appear, at regular inter-
vals in the back and seat, by passing strings attached
to suitable buttons through the stuffing, and securing
them to the seat and framing of the back. For this
reason the covering of the back should be put on last,
and the final attachment of the gimp and bullion fringe
had better be deferred until the covering is completed.
In Fig. 5 is shown a side-table and a Canterbury,
or receptacle for music, combined, and in Fig. 6 the
end elevation of this side-table. The top may be
devoted to any purpose for which it may be found
useful or necessary. The front, which is appropriately
carved, or which might be formed of fretwork, lined
with silk of the same colour as that in front of the
piano, is attached to the under-rail of the compart-
ment which it encloses by hinges, so that when opened
it may drop downwards and outwards. It should be
supported by stays or straps, so that it may drop only
to the level of the back of the cabinet, and so be uti-
lised for the support of any pieces of music which
may be taken from the shelves within, while looking
for any particular piece or song. There need not be
too much space between the shelves, as it is an object
to fit up the interior of the cabinet with as many as
possible, for the better classification of the music.
Unbound music only should be kept in the cabinet :
the bottom shelf, divided into sections by sloping rails
projecting from the framing of the back, and attached
to the shelf itself, furnishes a suitable depository for
bound volumes.
In Fig. 7 a pretty design is given for a set of hang-
ing shelves, combined with a glazed cupboard for
china and bric-a-brac. The amateur will derive assist-
ance in making his working drawings for this piece
of furniture, from an inspection of the end elevation,
shown in Fig. 8. The construction and intention of
the shelves and cabinet are so clearly shown in the
illustrations, that few remarks need be made about it.
The glazed doors of the cabinet will try the construc-
tive skill of the amateur if he makes them in a proper
and workmanlike manner, with rebates for the recep-
tion of the glass. He may, however, get over this
part of the difficulty by making a framework of slight
depth, or cutting out a light piece of fret-work, behind
which a single pane of glass may be placed. For the
open-work of turned spindles at the top and bottom, a
piece of carved work or fret-work may be substituted
by those who cannot turn, or who do not possess a
turning-lathe. No amateur, however, who wishes to
do good work, should be without one a moment longer
than he can help.
In Fig. 9 is shown a shield with monogram for
carving in wood. There are many places in which
this ornament can be effectively introduced, as in over-
doors, and in panels at the back of a hall-table, side-
board, etc. Armorial bearings may be introduced in-
stead of the monogram, if the maker of the piece of
furniture or its ultimate possessor be entitled to them,
and choose to pay the Government-tax for using them,
an imposition on poor gentlemen who come of a good
stock, and happen to know from whom they have
sprung. In Figs. 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, other mono-
grams have been given in other parts of the Supple-
ments, which may be substituted for that in the shield
or furnish hints to wood-carvers for the treatment of
their own initials.
In Figs. 10 and 11 are shown the perspective view
and end elevation of a small hanging cupboard, which,
from its construction, is well worth the attention of
fret-workers. There is nothing difficult in it. Such a
cabinet as this might be easily adapted for the re-
ception of a clock, and so be converted into an object
of use as well as ornament for a hall or staircase. In
Figs. 12 and 13 the perspective view and end elevation
of a small e'tagere of two shelves are given, which, like
the other pieces of furniture already noticed, is so
clearly depicted as to render its manufacture easy to
most wood-working amateurs.
In Fig. 14 a representation is given of a cane-
backed and cane-s;ated couch, made after a style
which is generally described as Austrian Bent-wood
[24
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME-MADE FURNITURE.
Furniture. For this kind of furniture great strength
and durability are claimed, coupled with lightness
both of weight and in appearance, and this is justified
on inspecting the figure now under consideration.
The framework and the supports are made of long,
round pieces of wood, from £ in. to ij in. in dia-
meter, which are first rendered soft and supple by
steaming them, and are then bent into the desired
forms, in which they remain when the wood has re-
assumed its former rigidity. The strength of this kind
of work lies in the continuance of the fibre of the
wood in an unbroken line from end to end of the
piece through every curve and alteration of direction.
Now I have no intention of asserting that the amateur
can make furniture in this manner. He could, with-
out doubt, if he possessed the means and apparatus
necessary for steaming and bending his wood ; but as
he has not got them, the next best thing to be done is
to see how far he can go in imitating the style, which
consists of long sweeping lines disposed in graceful
curves and bends. It will be noticed that the seat and
back are in two distinct parts connected with hinges,
and that the back may be raised or lowered at plea-
sure, by means of a rack attached to the back, and
resting on an iron bar passing from side to side. Each
side of the seat, including the frame, and each side of
the back, may be cut out of single boards, after t'he
fashion of fretwork on a large scale, the want of con-
tinuance of the fibre as in the bent wood, being com-
pensated by making the parts of greater width, and
connecting them with other curves, leaves, etc. If the
graving tools are resorted to, additional ornamentation
and richness of appearance may be imparted to the
piece of furniture. The sides thus made, may be con-
nected by short pieces of wood, about 2 ft., or 2 ft.
3 in. long, so as to complete the frame of seat and
back on the one hand, and to give additional strength
to the structure on the other. The frames of both seat
and back may be finished with cane work, or with
webbing interlaced, as the amateur may desire. He
will, in all probability, find the latter method easier
and more quickly carried out, and over all cushions
may be laid, which will hide the webbing. If it
appears that this mode of constructing furniture finds
favour with many amateurs, a working drawing and
design of a couch of this kind, drawn to scale, will be
given to meet their wishes.
A design for an aquarium consisting of a tank and
its support in turned wood is given in Fig. 16. If it is
wished to make a square aquarium the drawing will
serve as the elevation of each and every side, as all
the four sides will be alike in every respect. If the
aquarium is to be rectangular, but not square, there
will only be a difference of width in ends and sides,
which the amateur must regulate for himself, and
which will not interfere with the utility of the pattern.
As the design suggests the front elevation of a small
hall-table, having a back composed of a mirror, set in
a frame and painted, as is sometimes seen, surmounted
by a shallow canopy enriched with carving above and
supported on pillars, set immediately before each side
of the frame which contains the looking-glass, a view
of the end elevation of the table when thus adapted is
given in Fig. 16.
In Figs. 17 and 18 are exhibited the front elevation
and side elevation of a small sideboard or side-table,
consisting of a shelf or table, behind which rises a
panelled back, surmounted by a slip of ornamentation
in carved work or painting. Below the board that
forms the table there is a recess also panelled at the
back, under which might be placed a deep drawer or
a well, or another shallower recess as may suit the
table and requirements of the maker. A drawer,
however, appears to be the most suitable mode of
finishing the bottom although this is not shown in the
illustration in which the recess extends the entire
distance between the table shelf and the shelf at the
bottom, the transverse piece between the two in Fig.
18 merely indicating a rail connecting back and front,
which does not and cannot appear in the front eleva-
tion, although its presence is indicated in Fig 17, by
the shadow near the bottom to the left. This piece of
furniture would present a better appearance if the
space now occupied by bulging turned work, sur-
mounted by small columns or quasi columns, consisted
of a plain piece of wood similar to the upper and lower
members of the posts in front, stop-chamfered at the
angles and fluted to impart lightness to them. The
width of the sides of the framing that contains the
panelling that forms the back, should be considerably
reduced, as these fronts are rendered in far too mas-
sive a manner for the size and style of such a piece of
furniture. Its adaptability as a corner table for a hall
will be easily seen, but in this case there must be two
posts of the height of the sideboard from top to
bottom in front, and a third post of the same height in
the angle. This last, however, may be dispensed with
if the table be made a fixture.
The easel shown in Fig. 19 is simple in its con-
struction though handsome in appearance, and will
serve equally well as a painting easel, or for the
exhibition of prints and pictures. Nor is there any
difficulty in the jardiniere represented Fig. 20, ex-
cept it be in the outward curvature at the bottom
of the legs, the method of managing which may
easily be learnt by anyone who can spend an hour
or two in the shop of any chairmaker of High
Wycombe or the neighbouring villages. The same
peculiarity is observable in the side-table in the
Japanese style, exhibited in Fig. 21, in which a wonder-
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM. 125
ful number of drawers, cupboards, shelves, recesses,
and brackets are brought together in a wonderfully
limited space, and with an arrangement which, para-
doxical as it may seem, possesses a sort of symmetry
of its own, although it is by no means symmetrical
in the strict acceptation of the word. The mirror is
altogether independent, and forms no part of the table
itself. It is merely intended to show that such a stand
may be used in the bed-room, in any odd corner of it,
as a dressing-table or as a substitute for it, as well as
for any of the multifarious purposes to which it would
be devoted in a sitting-room or boudoir.
One great merit of the illustrations gathered to-
gether in this Supplement is that there is no carved
work, strictiy so called, which need in any way perplex
or puzzle the amateur. If there be any at all it is to I e
found in the bowed ends of the legs of the Jardinic.e
and Japanese Side-table. It is one that a little con-
sideration will in all probability overcome ; but if ,'t
prove insurmountable to any one, I shall be happy (o
clear it up for him in any future number if called upen
to do so.
■&»===>§• •"■
BOOTS AND SHOES:
HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
By ABEL EABNSSAW.
III.— Riveted Boots and Pegged Boots.
Clumps — Inside Clumps — Outside Clumps— Fastening Clumps
— Pegged Work — Management of the Awl — Test of Solidity
— Putting on Sole — Heels.
Y last chapter dealt with the construction
of what is generally known outside the
trade as a double-soled boot — in the trade
as a welt or square-edged boot. From
this to the clump boot, which so many
people prefer, the difference is slight, so far as the
construction is concerned. There are two ways of
making them, and they are distinguished as inside
and outside clumps. The former consists of an addi-
tional middle sole placed between the first middle
and outer sole, or, in hand-sewn boots, between the
welt and outer sole. To make an inside clump boot,
it will be necessary to put on the middle soles both
together, and rivet them down all round J in. from the
edge, making sure that the rivets are securely clenched
on the bottom of the last. The two middle soles must
be skived or bevelled off below the joints, leaving the
leather at the outside joint about \ in. lower than on
the inside.
The true position of this will be seen by referring
to the diagram of the sole on page 84, where it is
given by the line A A.
The sole needs to be very carefully "bedded" by
hammering and sleeking at these joints ; and if it be
not somewhat newish, it will be found next to impos-
sible to get it down thoroughly. When once down, it
must be secured, where the middle soles join the waist,
by rivets which are capable of going through to the
last. These should be slightly longer than those used
in the waist proper. The fore part of the sole may
then be fastened down to the middle soles, forming
the inside clump. The row of rivets which holds the
middle soles is sufficient to sustain the sole as well ;
consequently, it is only necessary to fasten the sole to
the clump with a row of £ in. rivets. These are long
enough to keep it in its place while it is in wear, but
will not go through to the inner sole.
The outside clump is, for the beginner, easier to
make than the other kind, and has, besides, other
qualifications sufficient to cause a preference to be
given it. It consists in an extra sole of the best kind
of leather simply nailed to the fore part of the ordi-
nary or through sole. As explained above, with
reference to the inside clump, it terminates at the
joints, and so the same line may be followed in regard
to its length. It is, however, well, in case of the out-
side clump, to have it rather too long than too short :
many people, indeed — probably owing to a flatness of
the foot — seem to walk upon a portion of the waist
and in this case to have the outside clump short would
cause pain in wear. A safe guide in this matter for
the amateur who is making himself a pair of clumped
boots, is to mark the length of the outside clump by his
old boots ; he will thus easily ascertain the exact length
he needs ; and if he cuts off the clumps just at the
point where his wear usually ceases, he will then have
to carry no superfluous weight of leather. When
the sole clumps are to be attached, and the boots are
got ready exactly to the point mentioned in the pre-
vious chapter, where the lasts would ordinarily be
withdrawn, the outside clumps having been wetted
and allowed to become "mellow," are rounded or
shaped by the sole pattern at the edges, and cut off
squarely at the joints. Sometimes, for the sake of
appearance, this end cut is made fancifully as when it
is scalloped across, or when a peak is left in the
centre ; but these are simply modes of ornamentation
for shop window purposes, and may be dispensed with
by the amateur, who may be supposed to be working
only to a practical end. The clump sole may be very
slightly skived at the end, but the substance of the
leather should be reduced but little ; the only reason
for skiving it at all being to diminish the somewhat
remote probability of the sole catching while the
wearer is walking.
The clump should be fastened with a row of 4 in.
rivets or brads, and the wear may be increased by
126
BOOTS AND SHOES: HO W TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
placing a second row from the outside corner of the
toe across, and down on the inside edge beneath the
great toe, and on the opposite side from the joint (i.e.,
of the sole) about half-way up towards the end of the
small toe. Occasionally, the two rows of rivets are
replaced by carpenter's small screws about half an
inch apart. If these are used, the holes for them
should first be made, and the screws driven in with a
hammer, one or two turns being afterwards given with
the screw-driver to secure them. One great advantage
of the outside clump is that it can be removed when
worn, and renewed as often as desired, while the upper
remains in a good condition, or the boots so made
may be worn with the clumps during the winter
months and without them when summer arrives. The
under-soles will be found very little the worse for the
punctures made by the rivets used in the temporary
attachment of the clumps.
Having given the amateur the promised insight
into the construction of riveted boots, I now come to
the making of pegged work.
The difference between a riveted and a pegged
boot is mainly in the way the fastening operates. In
the riveted boot, we have seen that it is held together
by the points of the rivets, which, having met with the
resistance of the iron last the boot is made upon, turn
suddenly and clinch in the inner sole. Of course, the
wooden peg, though it also pierces the inner sole, can-
not be clinched, nor can it be driven home on an iron
last if it is in the least longer than the leather is thick ;
the head simply breaks if the attempt is made.
In making pegged boots, the tendency of wood to
expand under the influence of moisture, and to con-
tract when dry, is made use of. The wooden peg is
in the first place thoroughly dry. After it is driven
into the leather it absorbs a. certain amount of mois-
ture from it, and this causes the wood to swell and
bind tightly each of the substances it passes through.
It will thus be seen that in the wear the more moisture
the pegged boot meets with, the more firmly do its
parts hold together, and it is only dry heat which can
cause them to become detached.
This kind of boot is made upon wooden lasts, the
workman occupying a sitting position. The process
is very nearly the same as that described in making
riveted work, but pegs are used all the way through in
place of metal rivets and tingles or tacks. It is very
essential that good and firm inner soles are made use
of in pegged boots. These having been secured to
the lasts by a few short pegs driven into the wood
itself, are first of all rounded as explained for riveted
work. The upper, with stiffening in its place, is then
drawn over by the pincers, a hole made with the peg-
awl, and a peg driven in, and this course is adopted
until the lasting is complete. The instructions pre-
viously given as to placing the upper, lasting the toes,
etc., of riveted boots, now apply equally to pegged
ones. When the boots are lasted, the middle soles
should be firmly secured by placing a row of pegs
round the edge. They must be just long enough to
go through to the last fairly : if they are longer than
they need to be, they will penetrate too deeply into the
wood, and make it almost impossible to remove the
last when the boot is complete. If they do not come
through the leather, the boot will not be held together.
It is necessary, at this point, to show the amateur
how the awl is to be held, and how the pegs are to be
driven in. He will find that the peg-awl has a small
four-sided blade, never more than $ in. long, and that
it is fixed in a thick, short, wooden handle, flat at the
end. The worker on pegged boots needs to have a
number of these awls of different lengths, as the awl,
in making the way through the leather for the peg, must
be driven home. In pegging, the workman grasps the
awl-handle firmly in his left hand, and with the boot
resting across his knees, and held there by a stirrup,
or strap, passing over it and beneath the foot, holds
the hammer in his right hand, and placing the awl on
the leather, where the peg is to be driven, he gives the
end of the haft a smart blow (still retaining his hold
with the left hand). This drives the awl home, and it
has to be withdrawn by grasping the haft still more
tightly in the hand, so that the muscles acting on the
flat surface of the leather at once cause the hand to
rise slightly, and with it, of course, the awl. The
reader will see what is meant if he places his closed
hand upon a table, with the fleshy part and little
finger resting on the wood, and suddenly clenches the
fist tightly. When the awl is withdrawn, a peg is
taken up with the forefinger and thumb of the right
hand, its point inserted in the hole made for it, and it
is then driven home with a smart stroke. The peg
should be a size longer and thicker than the awl used
to make the hole. If the peg-awl sticks, as it is very
apt to do, it may be slightly soaped : this will make it
easy to withdraw, but soaping the awl tends to make
the work less firm, and the practice should not be
repeated too often.
When the middle sole has been pegged round, it
will be advisable the amateur should try the solidity of
his work before proceeding further. This he may
easily do by ascertaining whether the middle sole can
be forced away from the upper by pressing it at the
edge with the thumb. A still surer test is to run a
piece of bone, tapered to a broad blunt point, like that
of a paper knife, but thicker, round the fore-part, be-
tween the upper and middle sole. If, when this is
done, the leather can be made to rise, more pegs must
be put in. All inequalities are now to be pared away.
The shank is next added ; this, it may be remarked,
A THREE-LEGGED OCCASIONAL TABLE.
For Description and WorMtog Drawings to Scale,
See Page 127.
A THREE-LEGGED OCCASIONAL TABLE.
127
must come a little way over the end of the middle sole,
and must be tapered off at both ends and sides.
The sole, which, in pegged work even more par-
ticularly than in riveted, must be in a " mellow " con-
dition, has now to be put on. The usual practice of
the pegman, as the shoemaker who makes up boots
and shoes by this system is termed, is to round, or
shape, the soles after he has temporarily attached
them with three or four pegs, but to the amateur this
will be a dangerous practice, likely to result in the
destruction of the uppers. He will therefore find it
best to round them by the inner sole, shaped in the
manner shown and explained previously. Having
first attached them by three or four stout pegs, and
ascertained that the position is correct, the soles must
be thoroughly " bedded " down to the uppers before
any more pegs are driven. This is done by giving
them a careful hammering all over, and afterwards
rubbing with the sleeking-stick until the soles give to
the required degree. A line is now to be drawn round
the sole, a quarter of an inch from the edge, and on
this line the position of the pegs may be marked with
any instrument which may be at hand, suited to the
purpose ; the marks being about a sixth of an inch
apart. Inside the first row a second is to be drawn,
and the positions of the marks for pegging so regu-
lated that the pegs in the second row do not appear
opposite to those in the first, but opposite the spaces
between them. One row of pegs will be sufficient
at that part of the sole which is afterwards covered
by the heel, but they must be driven in very straight,
and should be somewhat thicker than those used in
he other parts.
In pegging the fore parts and waists the awl should
be held in such a position that the holes are made to
appear diamond-shaped, and the pegs should be put
in the same way. A very little practice will enable
the amateur to do this without much difficulty, but he
must not be disheartened if he breaks a few awls at
the commencement. A certain amount of knack is
necessary in this as in most other matters, and it is
probable that the first piece of pegging done will by
no means please the worker. However, the principal
thing to be looked to is the firmness of the work ;
when this is as it should be, all other small irregu-
larities may be passed over. In deciding what length
of pegs are to be used, the instructions as to rivets
may be referred to, and -^ of an in. added to the
lengths there specified.
If the middle sole is first made fast as described,
it will not be necessary that the pegs in the fore part
should go through, but in the waist and at the point
where the sole and middle sole join it is very
necessary that each one should tell.
The heels of pegged boots are built exactly in the
same way as those of riveted ones, and as the con-
struction of these has been shown, it is needless to
make further reference to the matter here. It is only
essential that every layer of leather, or lift, should be
made thoroughly fast before the next one is added.
The top pieces may be nailed on with rivets,
and " bills," or screws put on at the back or sides,
wherever the heaviest wear is expected.
(To be continued.)
A THREE-LEGGED OCCASIONAL TABLE.
AVING in his mind the ill-made and
intensely ugly three-legged deal table
that has sometimes met his view in a
roadside inn when on a walking tour, or
when seeking refreshments in a country
ramble, the amateur will be apt to declare to himself,
when he catches sight of the above heading, that there
can be nothing graceful or ornamental in the form of
a table with three legs, and that as a necessary conse-
quence it will be a waste of time to trouble himself
any further about the matter. It is, however, in the
manner in which any article of furniture is treated, and
not in the piece of furniture itself, that its ugliness lies,
as may be seen by a hasty glance even at the frontis-
piece to this part of Amateur Work, Illustrated,
in which the component parts of a simple three-legged
table are fashioned in such a manner as to render its
appearance, as a whole, not only satisfactory to the
eye, but even attractive in its lightness, elegance, and
well-adjusted proportions.
What was it, then, that rendered the little round
table of the village pot-house so objectionable in every
way, considering that, after all, it had a top and three
legs, which were connected with rails at top if not at
bottom, much after the manner of the table in the
illustration ? Let us compare the points in each
seriatim, and see if there be any possibility of arriving,
through such comparison and inspection, at the con-
clusion to which the eye of the beholder has come at
once and without any difficulty whatever.
To begin with the top, this portion of the village
table was thin and unsubstantial, ill-joined, and tra-
versed by one, if not two, black channels formed by
the shrinkage of the badly-seasoned timber on each
side of the joint. The boards of which it was com-
posed were, moreover, warped by long use, occasional
scrubbings, and the heat of the fire through the winter
days ; and in addition to this it was stained by beer
and disfigured by the rings of the many pewter and
earthen pots that it had sustained, the hot pipes that
had been laid upon it and the ashes that had been
128
A THREE-LEGGED OCCASIONAL TABLE.
carelessly knocked out upon its
surface. Poor table ! Not even
local option could throw a
glamour over its appearance
and lend renewal to it, whatever
benefit it may tend to shed upon
the tables of the future in the
houses of call to which the
wayfarer will resort for refresh-
ment. Our table, on the con-
trary, has a top possessed of
substantiality ; its edge is square,
and grooved with deeply-incised
lines, presenting a marked con-
trast to the edge of the other,
whose thinness is rendered even
more conspicuous by being
rounded off above and below in
the form of a semicircle. And
the surface of our table-top is
polished — polished to such an
extent that it reflects any object
that is placed upon it almost as
clearly as a mirror, and, if
ebonised, it may be said, without
fear of contradiction, to be
"black but beautiful," if Messrs.
S. and H. Harris will permit
me to borrow the legend that
encircles the trade-mark of
their blacking, of which I dare say no more, lest I
be accused, as heretofore, of ulterior purposes and an
alleged greed of gain, to which I need only say, "Honi
soil qui vial y pense."
So much for the top : let us turn now to the legs.
These members in the poor pot-house table are
straight up and down, perpendicular to the floor and
the under-surface of the table,
and not always placed, as they
should be, in the relative posi-
tion held by the three corners
of an equilateral triangle.
And, in order to cover as
ample a base as possible,
because they are perpendi-
cular, it has been found
necessary to attach them to
the table as near the edge as
may be ; and in order to save
as much trouble as possible
in notching in the rails that
connect them at the top,
slight indentations have been
made in the top of each leg
on either side of the angle
FIG. I. — HALF ELEVATION OF TABLE
Scale, ij inch to the foot.
that is turned outwards, taking
out pieces of a wedge-like shape,
and into these the rails have been
dropped and nailed without the
slightest regard to appearance.
And if to give stability to the
structure additional rails have
been run from leg to leg at the
bottom, they have been attached
in the same clumsy, perfunctory
manner. From this maltreat-
ment of material, excellent in
itself, like all God's creatures,
but marred by man's want of art
and constructive skill, let us turn
again to our own table. In this,
the legs are disposed in the form
of the frustrum of a symmetrical
three-sided solid rising from an
equilateral triangle at its base,
that is to say, the bottom of each
leg stands on the angle of an
equilateral triangle, and this
position is preserved in decreas-
ing proportion upwards until the
tops of the legs meet the under-
surface of the top of the table at
a slight bevel or inclination.
Each leg is made out of a piece
of timber planed up four-square,
and then worked in the lathe until it presents the form
depicted in the illustration. The legs are so placed
that each presents a flat face outwards and a flat face
inwards of those parts which have not been touched in
the lathe, and which are utilised for the insertion of
the rails which connect them. The turned work is
simple but highly ornamental, and every bit of the
grooving necessary for the
junction of the several parts
may all be done in the lathe ;
but this is a subject on which
even many good turners may
require instruction, and mea-
sures are being taken to
insure its being given in
future parts of this magazine.
The angle at which the
legs incline to the floor and
the under part of the table-top
is shown in Fig. r, in which is
given half the elevation of the
table on a scale of i^ in. to the
foot, and from which, with the
other illustrations, any one
wishing to make a table of
2. — PLAN OF LOWER RAIL AND SECTION OF LEGS.
Scale, i J inch to the loot.
A THREE-LEGGED OCCASIONAL TABLE.
129
this description can furnish himself with full-sized
working drawings. The angle to which reference has
iust been made may be, and must be, accurately deter-
mined from this figure, and preserved throughout the
work of preparing the pieces by means of a bevel,
otherwise the amateur will fail to cut the shoulders of
the tenons of the upper and lower rails at the right
inclination, which must be the same for all, though
reversed in the case of the upper rails, and perpendi-
cular to either edge at the inner ends of the lower
rails. The top, it may be as well to say here, is
rails of which it is composed is shown in Fig. 3, from
which it will be seen, on measurement, that they are
3$ in. deep and 1 in. in thickness, the top of the table
being 2 feet 6 in. in diameter. The manner in which
the rails are let into the tops of the legs is shown in
Fig. 4, which represents the plan of the under side of
the top of the table, showing the top of the frame work
on which it rests, and its position in relation to the
superincumbent disc. This plan, it should be said, in
common with all the other drawings which are not of
full size, are on a scale of li in. to the foot, that is to
L*-iK-.
-
V
v_,
s
S
■■.
L
■"
:
■
■ : ' ■
FIG. 5. — GROOVING FOUND
EDGE OF TABLE. Full size.
FIG. 4. — PLAN OF UNDEK-SIDE OF TABLE AND FRAME.
Scale, i| inch to the foot.
TIG. 3. — SECTION OF
FRAME. Full size.
intended to be about ij-in. in thickness, therefore, ij-in.
or if in. stuff will be suitable for it, which will be
reduced to the necessary thickness by planing the sur-
faces at top and bottom. The boards of which it is
composed should be connected by means of a dovetail
joint, if the amateur can manage it ; but at all events
they must be dowelled and glued up under pressure of
clamps until the glue is perfectly dry and set. The
grooving round the edge shown in full-size in Fig. 5,
may be effected by a grooving plane.
To return to the connection of the legs and rails.
The frame upon which the top of the table rests is a
triangle in shape, as it has been said, the triangle
being equilateral. A full-sized section, through the
say, each line in a full-sized working drawing will be
eight times as long as its corresponding line in the
diagrams given. The outer side of each rail at the
top of the frame, on which the disc of the table stands,
is deeply grooved, as shown in Fig. 3, in correspond-
ence with the edge of the top.
The most noteworthy feature in connection with
the lower rails of the support of the table is that in-
stead of running from leg to leg, as in the framework
of rails at the top, they are each turned inwards,
being inserted in the legs at right angles, and are all
mortised into a cylindrical spindle, turned in the
lathe, and terminating in a larger ball above and a
smaller one below. Each rail is shown in full size in
F 2
13°
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
section in Fig. 6, and a plan of the rails, showing their
connection with the legs, and the short central post,
or spindle, is given in Fig. 2, on a scale of \\ in. to
the foot. It is almost needless to say that on account
of the inclination of the legs, great care and good
workmanship is required in cutting out the various
parts, and fitting them together. The upper edges of
the rails, as shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 6, are stop-
chamfered, and the lower ones scalloped. The sides
of the lower rails are also grooved to match the
grooving in the upper rails and the ed^e of the table-
top. When every part has been accurately fitted to-
gether, the tenons, etc., of the rails should be secured
in their respective mortises and notches by wooden
pins, after having been glued up. The holes and pins
may be got ready before the glue is applied.
The question with some amateurs will doubtless
now be how to connect the framework of the legs and
the table-top. Naturally an inclination will arise to
bore holes through the disc into the rails below, and
screw the top on, counter-sinking the holes to receive
the tops of the screws, and filling up the deficit with
putty, or some kind of filling. But this would be
wretched carpentry, and disfigure the top of the table
past redemption. How then is it to be managed?
Easily enough ; for all that the amateur has to do is
to cut some notches, of the shape of thumb-notches
in the sliding lids of boxes, in the inside surface of the
top rails, the round part downwards, or pointing to-
wards the bottom of the rails, and the flat part up-
wards. He must then lay the table-top on the ground,
underside upwards, turn the framework topsy-turvy
upon it, carefully adjust it to the proper position, which
may have been previously marked out in pencil, and
then screw the frame-work to the underside of the
table-top, by screws inserted in the notches, and
passing upwards through the rails and into the table-
top in a slightly slanting direction. This connects the
top and frame rigidly and immovably, and entirely
obviates the ricketiness that seems inseparable from
round tables, whose tops are movable to a certain
extent, turning on thumbscrews, passing into a square
block at the top of the pedestal, and held down by a
catch which always seems to get out of order after a
few months' wear.
This table makes a specially appropriate piece of
occasional furniture for a room with a polished floor,
or one whose sides are polished all round in front of
the skirting. It will look equally well if made in
mahogany, walnut, or oak, or in good pine, ebonised
or stained and varnished. A little gilding might be
introduced here and there in the depressions and pro-
jections of the turned work, to relieve the blackness of
the table when ebonised, but if this kind of ornamen-
ation be used at all it should be used sparingly. The
bjauty of the table any way will chiefly depend on the
m inner in which it is finished, and to this part of his
work the amateur should pay the utmost attention.
I have dwelt much on the merits of this occasional
tible, but I trust I may be forgiven if I again urge on
the amateur wood-worker that these consist in the
simplicity, and therefore beauty, of its design ; the
s ability afforded by its ample base ; and the immova-
b lity of its top. What better could be found for that
imposition on the stomach, known in the present day
a? "five o'clock tea," so often a point d'appui for pull-
ing one's friends and neighbours to pieces. The ugly
1 ttle gipsy table, so-called, which consists of six spikes
s icking out of a ball— three in one direction, to form
a pedestal, and three in the opposite direction to sup-
port the fringed table-top, covered with cloth or velvet,
cannot be compared with it. But whether uncovered,
in the tone imparted to it by its finish, or draped with
a cover, temporary or otherwise, of damasked linen,
white or brown, or of a silk or woollen fabric, of a
colour that will blend and harmonise with it, this table
cannot fail to recommend itself to all whose eyes may
light on it.
=-$•=
FILTERS :
THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
By ALFRED W. SOWARD.
I.— Introduction— Simple Filters.
HE scope of the paper in which these
articles appear does not permit me to
offer any remarks upon the theory of
filtration ; it must therefore be sufficient
for me to merely indicate that the ends
desired to be attained in causing water to pass through
a filtering medium are three, namely : —
1. The removal of solid matter held in mechanical
suspension, as fine clay.
2. The destruction of injurious organic matter.
3. The removal of substances held in solution,
various salts, etc.
The first and second of these can be effected with
a fair approach to perfection with the simplest arrange-
ment of filtering materials, provided only that due care
be taken to preserve the apparatus in working order ;
whilst the third can be reached but imperfectly even
with the best.
In a general way for domestic purposes this last
point is of no consequence ; but as occasion may
sometimes arise — when using the family medicine
chest or in the performance of photographic experi-
ments for instance — when the presence of dissolved
matter, ordinarily innocuous, would be objectionable
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTIOA AND MAINTENANCE.
13*
directions will be given later on for the preparation of
pure water.
In these papers it is intended : —
I. To describe the construction of various forms of
simple filtering apparatus, with hints as to their main-
tenance in working order.
II. To give some account of a few of
the more complex patented arrangements
with directions for making and maintaining
them.
III. To furnish working instructions for
the home preparation of pure water for
special purposes.
Having thus introduced the subject, and
the manner in which I propose to deal with
it. I will now proceed immediately to de-
scribe the construction of some of the most
simple kinds of filters.
I. Filter fer Kitchen Use.— The simplest
filter of any value which it is possible to make
maybe constructed thus : — Take an ordinaryred garden
flower-pot of a size convenient for the amount of water
to be filtered ; taking care to select one with slightly con-
vex bottom so that the hole therein may be at the lowest
point of the pot, an ill-shaped one that will not stand
up straight, but " wobbles " from side to side. Let it
also be as clean as possible. Leave it to soak in hot
water for some time and scrub it quite clean. Allow it
to dry. Cover the hole with a piece of broken flower-pot
also quite clean. Fill to the depth of about i|in. with
small stones (say about half an inch in diameter), which
have been previously boiled and afterwards well washed
so as to remove all soluble matter, which if allowed to
remain would contaminate the water passed through
the filter. Add 1 in. of coarse sand, also boiled and
washed for the reason mentioned. Then
add 1 in. of animal charcoal (it may be pur-
chased at Griffin and Sons, 22, Garrick
Street, London, W.C., at the price of 6d.
per lb.), which before use should be made
red hot in an earthenware crucible. A suit-
able one for the purpose (Fig. i)maybe bought
at Griffin's or at Orme & Co.'s, 65, Barbican,
E.C., for 5d. A 6-inch London clay crucible
should be asked for. An appropriate lid
costs 3d. On the top of the charcoal place
another layer 1 in. thick of sand boiled and
washed, and if the flower-pot will allow it a
second layer of charcoal and a third layer of sand. The
pot when thus treated should be filled to about two-thirds
of its height (Fig. 3). It will be ready for use, but will need
a support of some kind. A three-legged stool may be
used, having a round hole cut in the top of a size such
as to allow the body of the pot to slip through but not
the rim (Fig.4). The legs must be long enough to permit a
FIG. I. — CRUCIBLE
AND COVER.
^
FIG. 2. — DEFLA-
GRATING JAR.
jug or water bottle to stand beneath the filter. Water
poured into the vacant third of the pot will gradually
percolate through the filtering medium and drop into
the receptacle below. The object of selecting a pot
with convex bottom will now be evident. If one with
a concave bottom had been chosen, the water
instead of falling straight from the hole into
the jug, would have soaked to the edge of the
pot and thence have dropped from perhaps a
dozen different spots.
This filter is very efficient. By it the
muddiest water will be made clear ; and
water bright and sparkling, and seemingly
pure, but really contaminated with injurious
organic matter will be rendered fit for use.
2. Orna?nental Filter. — The filter above
described, although a very excellent one, and
quite good enough for kitchen use, is far
from elegant in appearance. As some may
desire to construct one for use in a position
where ugliness is an objection, a more ornamental
form (Fig. 5) will now be described.
For the common flower-pot used in the making of
the kitchen filter, substitute an article known as a
glass deflagrating jar(Fig. 2). This is apiece of chemical
apparatus, and resembles nothing so much as a short-
necked, round-bodied bottle with the bottom removed,
and a flange run round the opening thus produced.
When inverted such a jar somewhat resembles a
flower-pot in appearance, save that instead of having
a hole roughly knocked through the bottom, it is pro-
vided with a neatly formed neck. These jars may be
purchased at Griffin's, at prices ranging from is. for one
5 by 3 in., to 4s. for one 11 by 6 in. (See their Cata-
logue, Nos. 2101 — 4.)
Having provided the jar, before proceed-
ing to pack it with filtering materials it will
be necessary to furnish the neck with a well-
fitting cork, through a hole in the centre of
which a piece of glass tubing must be passed.
In performing this part of the operation, a
cork free from flaws, and rather too large to
enter the neck of the glass should be selected.
Having been wrapped in paper to preserve it
from being soiled, it should be placed upon
the ground, and gently but firmly rolled
beneath the foot, which will soften it and
render it able to enter the neck of the jar,
producing a much tighter joint than if an unsoftened
cork had been used. The hole in the cork for the
reception of the glass tube above referred to, may be
bored either with a rat-tail file or with a proper
" cork-borer ' (Fig. 7). This latter instrument is
simply a piece of brass tube about 4 in. long, and of
a diameter suited to the hole required. One end is
132
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
FIG. 3. — KITCHEN FILTER, VERTICAL
SECTION.
A, Pebbles; B, Sand; C, Charcoal; D. Three-
legged Stool or Stand; E, Cross-rail of Stand; The price
F, Broken Crock.
filed on the outside to a cutting edge, forming a
kind of continuous gouge, such as would be obtained
by putting two ordinary gouges with their concave
sides together. Through the other end of the tube a
hole is bored transversely, to receive a piece of steel
wire, which
'D being held at
right angles to
the tube, serves
as a handle
with which to
turn the instru-
ment. Cork
borers, pro-
perly finished,
may be bought
at either of the
apparatus
dealers whose
addresses have
been given,
of
a set of four
is is. Having selected a borer of the size re-
quired (say three-eighths of an inch in diameter) in-
sert the steel handle, and take in the right hand.
Take the cork in the left hand, and place the small
end against a wall, or the edge of a bench. Press the
borer against the centre of the large end, and work
somewhat as if boring a piece of wood with a gimlet,
but taking care
after each
quarter turn of
the borer to
the right to
give the cork
a quarter turn
to the left. In
this way it will
be possible
after a little
practice and
with the use of
a sharp tool, to
bore a cleanly-
cut hole accu-
rately center-
ed. As stated
FIG. 4. — KITCHEN FILTER COMPLETE.
above, this operation may be performed with a rat-tail
file, but its use is not recommended. Having bored
the hole, it is next necessary to fit it with a piece of
glass tube. (This may be obtained of the dealers
mentioned for about is. per pound, or a small piece
would probably be given to the purchaser of other
articles.) Having selected a length of the right sized tube
(about three-eighth in. outside diameter) a piece about
3 in. long should be cut off by making a slight cut (a
single stroke is sufficient) at the desired place with the
sharp edge of a file, and then after placing one hand
at each side of the nick thus produced, bending the
tube, at the same time pulling the hands apart.
The edges of the piece of tube thus obtained should
be quite square with the sides, and should have their
roughness removed by being made red hot in a flame.
Care should be taken to apply the heat gradually,
otherwise fracture might ensue. If possible, a spirit
lamp or air gas flame (Bunsen burners) should be
used, as with an ordinary gas-jet soot is deposited,
and the progress of the heating cannot be so well
observed. The tube, when cold, should be inserted
in the hole in
the cork, and
the cork gently
pressed into
the neck of the
jar, which may
then be invert-
ed and filled
with filtering
materials, as
directed for the
Kitchen Filter.
It would be
well, however,
to substitute a
piece of cotton
wool for the
fragment of
broken flower-
pot with which
to cover the
hole in bottom.
The water
may be received
under Kitchen
FIG. 5. — ORNAMENTAL FILTER, VERTICAL
SECTION.
A, Pebbles; B, Sand; C, Charcoal; D, Top of
Stool or Stand ; E, Strengthening Rail ;
F, Cotton Wool; G, Cork; I, Glass Tube;
J, Aspirator ; K, Glass Stop-cock.
in a water-bottle, as described
Filter, or preferably in what is
technically known as an " aspirator." This is an
ordinary glass bottle, provided with a second neck
placed in the side near the bottom. If this second neck
be provided with a glass stop-cock, the water may be
allowed to collect in the aspirator, and be drawn off
as required without disturbing the apparatus, and
without risk of the water escaping about the room
whenever the bottle is removed for the water to be
used. Aspirators may be purchased at Griffin's, for
sums ranging from iod. for half-pint size upwards.
Glass stop-cocks cost about 2s. each.
The filter, when complete, may be supported on a
stand similar in r~rinciple to the one before described,
but ornamented to suit the taste of the maker and the
position which the filter is to occupy. It may be
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
*33
covered in with fret-work, and
placed in a comer of a room, on
a carved wood bracket (Fig. 6) ;
but many suitable arrangements
will doubtless present them-
selves to the amateur skilled in
the use of wood- working tools.
3. Coynpoiatd Filter for large
quantities of Water. — Filters I
and 2, although large enough for
the filtration of water required
in small quantities for drinking
purposes, are obviously but ill
adapted for the preparation of
filtered water in large quantities.
For the benefit of those, there-
fore, who may be forced to pro-
cure this water from doubtful
sources, and who may desire to
subject to the process of filtration
not only their dnnking-water,
but also that used for cooking
and other purposes, the con-
struction will next be described
of a large compound filter
adapted to their wants. In this
the filtering materials, instead of
being placed one upon another
in the same vessel, are placed
each in a separate vessel. Three
large flower-pots are taken and
well cleaned, as described under
Filter No. 1. The holes are
covered with broken crock. No. 1
is then about a third filled with
boiled and washed pebbles. Into
No. 2 is placed about 1 in. or
1 5 in. of pebbles, and then
boiled and washed sand, until
the pot is about one-third full.
Into No. 3 is placed first 1 in. of
pebbles, then I in. of sand, and
finally ignited animal charcoal,
until this pot also is about one-
third full. The pots should
then be supported one above
another, on a modification of the
tripod stand described above,
6. — ORNAMENTAL FILTER, SHOWING PLAN OF S0 t"5' Water placed in No. I
fixing it in corner of any kitchen may drop into No. 2, from thaf
OR ROOM, WITH REMOVABLE
FRONT IN FRET WORK.
<&
PIG. 8.— COMPOUND FILTER FOR LARGE
QUANTITIES, VERTICAL SECTION.
e
FIG. 7. — INSTRUMENT FOR BORING
CORK, FOR INSERTION OF
TUBE, ETC.
A, Tube of Borer; B, Sharpened
End of Borer; C, Steel Eod
across Tube ; D, Brass Flange to
strengthen Tube.
REFERENCES TO LETTERS IK FIG. 8.
A, Pebbles; B, Sand; C, Charcoal;
B, Wooden Tripod or Stand;
E, Cross-rail to strengthen Tri-
pod; F, Stoneware Jar.
FIG. 9.— COMPOUND FILTER FOR LARGE
QUANTITIES, COMPLETE VIEW.
134
HINTS FOR PAINTERS ON CHINA.
into No. 3, and thence into an earthen jar or other
vessel placed to receive it. The bottom of No. 3 must
be covered, as before recommended, or else the hole
in it must be fitted with a cork and glass tube. A
representation of the Compound Filter when complete
is shown in Fig. 9.
Such a contrivance not only enables more water to
be filtered in a given time, but it presents greater
facilities for cleaning, as will appear later on.
In the next paper will be described a Ball Filter,
for use with taps, a Tub Filter for ponds, and a Pocket
Filter for tourists.
( To be continued!)
HINTS FOR PAINTERS ON CHINA.
ATNTING on China is an art that is
rapidly growing into favour on both sides
of the Atlantic, and both in England
and America there are many artists that
excel in this pleasing decorative work.
Among American experts, one of the most experienced,
to judge from his beautiful designs in the Art Amateur,
is Mr. Camille Piton, of New York, who is a constant
contributor to the pages of the magazine that has just
been named. " It is always advantageous," says a writer
in the Art Amateur, " to know the colours used by a
ceramic expert. The average painter who has achieved
fame is very loth to tell the world how he sets his
palette. Not so the ceramic artist. So far from mak-
ing a mystery of such a matter, he is always willing to
give his experience for the benefit of those less skilful
than himself. The reason, no doubt, lies in some
measure in the fact that excellence in china painting de-
pends even in a greater degree upon the manipulative
skill of the artist than does oil painting. An expert
like Mr. Camille Piton might safely impart all of his
technical knowledge to a pupil without fear of thereby
equipping a rival. In oil painting, taking two persons
of equal ability, the one who had mastered certain
secrets of the palette would have a decided advantage
•>ver the other."
The writer then proceeds, for the benefit of all who
desire to produce creditable work in painting on china,
to give in a condensed form Mr. Piton's directions for
mixing and applying colours in flower painting and
figure painting as set forth in his able and exhaustive
work, " China Painting in America." These directions
are reproduced here because they will prove a valu-
able introduction to a series of articles on this interest-
ing subject, which will shortly be commenced in these
pages.
" Foliage. — In painting foliage begin with the stem.
Paint each half starting from the central vein, and
turning the brush in such a manner as to form the
secondary veins without the necessity of previously
drawing them. For tulips, gladioli, reeds and grasses,
it is necessary to begin at the roots and paint them
with long strokes of the brush without blending the
strokes, but showing, on the contrary, the fibres of
the leaf. The leaves of- the nasturtium and water-lily
are painted with a flat tint converging towards the
centre, which is lighter, with a very light blue-green
shaded with grey. Greens must be made by mixing-
yellows and blues ; of course all the ready made
greens of the palette can be used. They may be
mixed together and with most of the other colours :
they work well with the mixing-yellow and jonquil-
yellow for greater brilliancy. If blues and yellows are
mixed for greens, since the blues contain no iron, it is
preferable to employ the yellow for mixing and jonquil
yellow, which also contain none. Great care must be
taken to apply the lighter tints first ; for were the
darker tints painted in first, they would destroy the
lighter ones. Grey-greens are made with sky-blue,
yellow for mixing, and blue-green. All of the greens
may be darkened by the browns, purples, and car-
mines.
" When foliage is to be baked twice, it is better
to reserve the purple and blue for the second baking,
otherwise they will disappear. The tips of green
leaves, when reddish, are painted with red next the
green, but not putting it over. The indentation and
the outlines of the leaves can be done with brown and
a little purple. A good glaze will be produced by a
mixture of deep chrome-green, blue-green and ochre
all over the leaves when dry enough. If the greens
be too crude, they may be corrected at the second
baking with a little grey No. I, which harmonizes the
too brilliant tones and increases the glazing. Green
for pansy leaves may be obtained by mixing dark-blue
with jonquil-yellow, a little grey No. 2, and a very
small quantity of purple. Green No. 5 (grass-green)
may be also employed by mixing it with yellow or
blue. First put on a flat tint for all the foliage, and
then make the half tones by adding a little blue, either
ultramarine or Victoria. Mr. Piton gives the following
palette for green leaves and stems :
" Blue-green, chrome-green, emerald-green, ivory-
yellow, sky-blue, silver-yellow, ochre, brown No.
108, etc.
" Red Flowers. — For the lights use carnation and
iron- violet, with warm grey for the darker shades to be
retouched with red. The red brown, when too thin,
does not hold fast ; do not mix it with the yellows ;
warm grey added to the purple gives brilliancy. For
the field poppy mix equal parts of capucine-red and
red-brown. It is necessary to bake at least three
HINTS FOR PAINTERS ON CHINA.
i3S
times, each time applying the mixture, which loses at
each baking. For the geranium mix capucine-red
with carnation No. I. For madder take capucine-red,
a little purple, and carmine No. 3. His palette for red
flowers is :
. ."Red-brown, capucine-red, carnation, iron-violet
ivory-yellow, warm grey, etc.
" Yellow Flowers are painted with silver-yellow,
jonquil-yellow, or mixing yellow in the light. They
are shaded with brown-green and a little iron-violet.
The yellow-greens glaze very well when used as a
second shade to the yellows. When the centre of a
flower is yellow, that colour may be made with mixing
yellow and the shading with brown-green and some
touch of sepia. For lemon- yellow take yellow 47 of
Sevres, with a little silver-yellow. For the buttercup use
golden-yellow, half silver, half jonquil-yellow. A good
Indian-yellow is got by using half jonquil-yellow
and • half ochre. For maize use half ivory and half
orange-yellow. Saffron is produced by two-thirds
ivory-yellow, one-third carnation No. 2, and a little
capucine-red. The palette for yellow flowers is :
" Ivory-yellow, silver-yellow, jonquil-yellow, mixing-
yellow, brown, green, ochre, orange-yellow, sepia, etc.
" Blue Flowers are painted with the different blues
in very thin coatings, and are darkened with greys in
the last firing. A fine blue is two-thirds of ultra-
marine-blue, one-third deep blue-green. A strong
blue is common blue and deep blue with purple.
Prussian-blue can be obtained by mixing one-third
dark blue, one-third Victoria-blue, one-third ultra-
marine, a touch of grey No. 2, a very little purple.
Indigo will be dark-blue with a little raven-black.
Mr. Piton's palette for blue flowers is :
"Victoria-blue, sky-blue, common blue, ultramarine-
blue, deep-blue, iron-violet, greys, blue-green, etc.
" Pink and Rose Flowers. — Pink flowers are to be
painted very thin with carmines. The carmines turn
yellow in fire when applied too thick. The effect is
the same when the temperature is too low. The car-
mines become lilac or violet when the temperature is
too high. The same thing takes place in a less per-
cept ble degree with purples. All the carmines are
shaded with the same tint. Purples can also be used
for strong shadows, and blues for reflected shadows.
The strong touches are only made in the second firing.
When light tints of roses are made with light yellows,
the colours must not be spread one over the other, but
go side by side, as the yellows would injure the car-
mines. Generally, the pupils scratch out the yellow
tint before putting on another tint. Carmine A and
carmine No. 1 give light pink. For deeper pink use
carmine No. 2 and carmine No. 3 ; for laky-pink
crimson-lake ; for pa&ony-pink, half ruby- purple and
half carmine No. I ; purple-pink, carmine No. 1 and a
little purple ; crimson-pink, crimson and purple ; half
carmine No. I, half sky-blue, and a little carmine No.
3 give a good lilac. For mauve use half carmine A
and half ultramarine (mallows). For violet use violet
of gold, and for pansies violet of gold with a little
deep ultramarine. The palette for these flowers is :
" Carmine A, carmine No. 1, carmine No. 2, car-
mine No. 3, purple, violet of gold, blues, etc.
" As these are golden colours, they do not mix with
the iron colours, but with the blues and those which
do not contain any iron.
" White Flowers. — It is better to have a ground
for white flowers, and the darker the grounding around
the white part of the flower, the whiter that part of
the flower will appear. Grey grounds are well adapted
for all flowers. Plates with white flowers, such as
daffodil, hyacinth, lily of the valley, water-lily, white
lily, china aster, convolvulus, iris, etc., make a very
good effect with light-rose or water-green grounds. It
is very difficult to paint a white flower on a white
ground, because the effect obtained is but little. The
white flowers are sketched in with mixing-yellow,
which gives the light shades ; then for the darker tint
use brown-yellow and ochre. A mixture of silver-
yellow with purple or iron-violet and a little blue-green
can also be used. Sometimes a few touches of per-
manent white may be given to the most luminous
portions ; but this must be done very carefully, for
this white always forms a relief upon the plate, and
generally becomes rough and soiled if it be not pro-
perly baked. It must be used with great precaution,
for it wears off by friction if it is not very good.
Never attempt to paint white flowers on tinted china
with Chinese white, as you will surely fail. The
palette for wh te flowers is : —
" Permanent white, ivory-yellow, mixing-yellow,
silver-yellow, light-grey, dark-grey, warm-grey, carna-
tion Nos. I and 2, capucine-red, iron-violet, etc.
"Figure Pai?iting. — For the flesh take carnation
No. I, and indicate the lines of the eyes, nostrils, mouth,
and ears, and wherever there is a line or outline in the
shade, reserving the light side, which should stand out
upon the ground by its local tint only. After the local
tint«is placed, prepare a little yellow-brown and apply
it in the reflections with another brush. The local tint is
made to blend with the reflections by the putois.
Should the figure be that of an aged person, iron-violet
may be added to the above colours, and some small for-
cible strokes may be given before the tint is dry. For the
cast shadows, yellow-brown may be used and brown
No. 108 ; and for the strong shadows, iron-violet, blue-
green, and delicate grey. Never use any black in
shading the faces. Before using the putois, the tints
under the eyebrows may be made with pure carnation
No. 1. If the eyes be blue, use sky-blue, a little blue-
136
WALL-BRACKETS FOR CORNERS.
green, and some blue-grey. For brown eyes, yellow-
brown, retouched with sepia, or brown bitume. For
grey eyes use black-grey, light-grey, and a little blue.
The pupil is in raven black, and lastly the brilliant
point is left white, is removed with a penknife, or is
put in with permanent white. The nose is shaded with
carnation No. 1. In the nostrils iron-violet may be
added. Attention should be paid to the management
of the light on the angle of the nose. In painting the
mouth a line should never be made upon the upper
lip nor below the lower lip. The lips are painted with
carnation No. 1, and slightly retouched with No. 2. If
more vigour is desired, red-brown and neutral grey
may be employed in very small quantity, together with
iron-violet. Do not use the putois on the hair ; it is
painted with strokes in its natural direction. Blonde
hair is sketched in ivory-yellow, and shaded with
yellow-brown, brown No. 108, and finished with grey-
brown, bitume, and sepia — no black. Black hair is
outlined with yellow-brown, sepia, dark brown, No. 4,
and shaded with black and brown. Draperies are
painted in colours, as in monochrome. A general
tint is laid on, and is modelled with the same colour.
Other colours may be employed for the reflected
lights ; a rose drapery may be shaded with blue ; a
yellow drapery (ivory-yellow), with rose and capucine-
red. A white drapery, of which the white is reserved
in the light, will be begun in very light-blue mixed
with grey and a little green in the shadows. Upon
porcelain, a very light coat of ivory-yellow has a
good effect upon white draperies. Bear in mind
that purple and carmine, golden colours, should
never be used in flesh-tints, as they would not har-
monize with the other colours. Mr. Piton gives the
following general palette for figure-painting : —
" Greenish-blue, brown bitume, yellow-brown, deep
red-brown, brown No. 108, grey No. 1, warm grey,
iron-violet, silver-yellow, ivory-yellow, mixing-yellow,
black, ochre, carnation No. 1, carnation No. 2, orange-
red," etc.
WALL-BRACKETS FOR CORNERS.
HERE are few minor adjuncts to a house,
whether from a utilitarian or an orna-
mental point of view, that are more desir-
able and serviceable than wall-brackets ;
and of brackets of all kinds, shapes, and
sizes, those that are adapted to fit into the angle made by
the meeting of two walls at right angles to one another,
are perhaps the most serviceable and best calculated
for purposes of adornment. It is true that the bracket
which is constructed to fit against and stand out from
a single plane surface, has uses and advantages
peculiar to itself and the position it is intended to
occupy, but it is a centre of attraction only to the
eye in the midst, possibly, of the plane surface that
extends from it in every direction, upwards, down-
wards, to the right and to the left ; and though, in
especial cases, it may be made to break the continuity
of the framing of a panel or even the expanse of the
panel itself, whether broad or narrow, it can never be
instrumental in producing so striking an effect as the
bracket in a corner, which breaks to so much advan-
tage, the long lines in which the planes of the meeting
walls intersect ; rising so often in undisturbed mono-
tony, from the skirting below to the cornice above
that surrounds, or should surround, the top of the
room, taking away in its turn the abruptness of the
right angles in which the four walls and superincum-
bent ceiling meet.
To point out all the uses to which corner brackets
may be turned would occupy more space than is
desirable, and would, moreover, be unnecessary ; but it
may be permitted me to remind my readers, what an
agreeable resting-place for the eye, when taking in
survey every part of the walls of a room in order, is a
bust, or a vase, or some quaint piece of bric-a-brac,
sustained by a bracket set with due regard to the effect
that placing it at a proper height will give, in an other-
wise bare corner. Again, what can be found more use-
ful in the angle of a wall close to a bed-room door, if
space permit, than a bracket about two feet nine
inches, or three feet from the floor, which may be
brought into service as a support for a lamp for the
temporary lighting of the passage of the staircase, or
for so prosaic and common-place an object as a jug of
hot or cold water, or in summer time for the reception,
if large enough, of a cache-pot filled with a cool green
fern, or a specimen of the old fashioned bow-pot, or
bough-pot, a pleasure to our forefathers, which is now
almost wholly forgotten, and whose revival in these
later days is much to be desired.
I have no intention of dwelling on the ordinary
modes of making comer wall-brackets, for there must
be few amateurs who are unacquainted with them.
For out of the way corners it is sufficient to nail two
ledges on the same level, one to each of the adjacent
walls, to which to nail the inner edges of the bracket ;
and if the bracket be larger than usual to supplement
these supports by a piece extending from the end of
one ledge to the end of the other, occupying a position
similar to that which the cross stroke of the letter A
holds with regard to the slanting strokes that form the
sides of this letter, or even by a long strut extending
from the under surface of the shelf of the bracket to
the corner below. My object is rather to put the
amateur artisan in possession of some pleasing forms
of brackets which are well contrived and ornamental
WALL BRACKETS FOR CORNERS.
FIG. 9. — ELEVATION I I ^HRf
OF BRACKET WITH TILE. FIG. 8. — ^& M
Scale, 2 inches to the foot. bracket with tile, perspective view.
FIG. 10. — PLA N OF BRACKET
WITH TILE.
Scale, 2 inches to the foot.
138
WALL-BRACKETS FOR CORNERS.
in character, and which from these very circumstances
will render the labour he has devoted to their con-
struction far more satisfactory than it could have been
if he had been contented to follow any of the stereo-
typed methods of putting up a small shelf of this kind,
which are known and practised by every village
carpenter.
In Fig. i is given the perspective view of a strong
but handsome wall-bracket of a character that renders
it well adapted for construction, not only by amateur
wood-workers, but by carpenters and cabinet-makers
generally. The form in itself is very pleasing as far as
its outline is concerned. The parts are so simple that
the merest novice in woodwork will have no difficulty in
constructing the bracket either in pine or in any of the
hard or fancy woods. Taking its form generally, it is
composed of three pieces, a shelf and two side-pieces.
The side-pieces, whose form is shown in Fig. 2, the
elevation of the bracket, regarding it from the left, are
partly in the form of a quadrant with a projection in
front at the upper end, and a pendant below. These
pieces, when cut out and ornamented, as shown in the
illustration or according to the fancy of the workman,
are dovetailed together at right angles. The shelf
which is a portion of an octagon, showing three of the
sides of this figure, is then attached to the side-pieces,
either by nailing it down to them or by connecting it
with them by notching or dovetailing. The plan of
this shelf is shown in Fig. 3 ; the view being taken as
looking on the under part of the shelf, the whole
bracket being turned upside down. This is evident
from the marks on either side of the rectangular part
of the shelf, which show the sides in plan. If the view
of the bracket in plan had been taken when looking at
its top and from a point of view above it, the sides
would not have been visible, being covered over and
entirely hidden from view by the shelf. There is a con-
dition of form in which Fig. 3 would have served as a
view of the upper surface of the shelf, regarding it
from above, and that is if the sides had been continued
upwards, so that their prolongation in that direction
would form a ledge round the shelf, the latter mem-
ber of the entire bracket being mortised into the sides.
The short transverse lines across the plan of the sides
would then indicate notches or diversity of surface in
the edge of the ledge, after the manner of those shown
in the perspective view in the sides below the shelf.
The ornamentation of the edges of the sides, and
the engraved lines on the inner sides of these sup-
ports, add much to its appearance, and make it a very
desirable object for internal decoration. The inner
edges of the rounded part of the supports, as shown in
Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, are notched and gently rounded
along the outer part of the notching. The engraved
lines may be deeply incised in a V-form, or grooved
and filled with wood of another colour. Either method
will look well, and prove satisfactory to the eye. The
design, it may be said, will look well executed in
almost any kind of wood. If inlaid, the lines should
be either light or dark, according as the wood of which
the supports are made is dark or light. The bracket
would present a very handsome appearance if made of
light hardwood and ebonised. In this case the lines
should be incised deeply, and gilded, in order to
brighten up its appearance, which some might be
inclined to consider somewhat sombre. What are
known as cabinet-hangers are provided on the inner
sides of the shelf for hanging the bracket in position,
as may be seen in the perspective view.
For those who require wall-brackets of a more
elaborate description, Figs. 4 and 8 will furnish designs,
that will in all probability prove eminently satisfactory,
both as regards the form and ornamentation of the
brackets, and the work involved in their construction.
It may be that in their general form all the brackets
exhibited in the illustrations that accompany this
paper, are similar ; but as they are all intended to
serve the same purpose — namely, that of corner
brackets — this similarity, perhaps, is not to be won-
dered at. It will be useful, however, to note the
principal points in, and method of, construction in
each case ; but before going any further with refe-
rence to the brackets which are about to be noticed,
let me point out to the reader that Fig. 2 will serve as
well for the elevation of a bracket to be used against
a flat surface as for a corner bracket, but he must
remember that if the bracket be constructed to serve
this purpose, the side now in view will form a projec-
tion running outwards from the wall, along the centre
of the shelf, the other side being extended in a reversed
form to supply a back-piece, into which the projecting
part of the bracket may be mortised. The side that
is converted into the support of the shelf in front, must
be notched on both sides of the edge, and the shelf
must be doubled in size, being extended in a reversed
form in the same manner as it has been found neces-
sary to extend the side which now forms the back.
To return to Fig. 4, in which a perspective view of
the second bracket is shown. This bracket is largei
in size than the first, more elaborate in its ornamenta-
tion and construction, and of greater capacity, as it
contains a small shelf below the larger one, which may
be used as a depository for any choice piece of china.
The full size of the bracket may be gathered from the
figures showing the elevation, plan, and details which
are done on a certain scale, the plan and elevation
being on a scale of ij inch to the foot, and the
details on a scale of 6 inches to the foot, or one-half
the full size. In making a full-sized working drawing,
the amateur artisan must remember, that in the
WALL-BRACKETS FOR CORNERS.
139
plan and elevation every line in the figures must
be exactly eight times as long as those shown
in the drawing, to the scale of ij inch to the foot,
and twice as long as each line shown in Fig. 7. The
side-pieces, as shown in the elevation, must first be
accurately cut out and dovetailed together, mortises
being made for the reception of the shelves, as shown
in the plan. The profile of the two side-pieces is
shown in Fig. 5, which is the elevation of the bracket,
regarding it from the left. The plan is shown in Fig.
6, the observer being supposed to be looking down-
wards upon it from a point of view above it. In this
figure the upward extension of the sides so as to form a
ledge round the upper shelf is clearly shown. The
circlets along the edge of the shelf show the position
of the little spindles of turned work that form a dwarf
rail in front of the shelf. The spindles are bedded
into the front of the shelf, but the top of each enters a
rail in the form of a quadrant, or quarter of a circle,
whose ends enter a square piece of wood, with turned
ends, into which the projecting part of each side, for a
little distance, both above and below the upper shelf,
is securely mortised. A part of the upper shelf is
supposed to be removed in Fig. 6, in order to show the
plan, or rather a part of the plan of the smaller bot-
tom shelf, which, as well as the top shelf, is notched
along the under part of its edge. The detail of the
small spindles, and the square projecting member, with
turned ends, resembling chess pawns, is clearly shown
in Fig. 7. Much that was said about the wood of
which the bracket, shown in Fig. I, was to be made,
and the method to be followed in finishing and orna-
menting it, applies as well to this as to the first bracket
described, and there is no occasion to waste time and
space in repeating it
The bracket shown in Fig. 8 is more elaborate even
in construction and embellishment than that which is
shown in Fig. 4, although straight lines greatly pre-
dominate in the outline of the sides, the only curved
lines in these members of the bracket being the small
arches surmounting the columns and the trefoil-shaped
ornament at the bottom, assuming this form when the
sides are joined together. There are only four prin-
cipal pieces in this bracket — namely, the two side-pieces
and the top and bottom shelf, the balustrade on the
upper shelf being simply supplementary. The bracket
would perhaps be improved if the side-pieces were
extended upwards, as in the case of the bracket shown
in Fig. 4, so as to form a back to the upper shelf ; this,
however, is a mere matter of taste, and can be easily
carried out by any amateur if this style be preferred.
The side-pieces in this bracket present no structural
difficulty, except in the insertion of the small columns,
which are added for the sake of elaborating the design,
and adding to its ornamental appearance. The detail
of these columns on a scale of 6 inches to the foot are
shown in Fig. 12. They are plain in character, though
in perfect harmony with the other parts of the bracket.
To make these columns square pieces of wood must be
planed up, and from these the columns must be pro-
duced in the lathe. The caps and bases of the columns,
when fixed in their place, will project slightly beyond
the surface of the sides in front and back. In order
that the sides may rest flatly against the walls in rear
of them, the projecting parts at the back must be taken
off with a smoothing-plane, as clearly shown in Fig. 9,
the elevation of the bracket regarded from the left, and
drawn on a scale of 2 inches to the foot. The upper
shelf is either notched into the sides or nailed down
to them, the former method being preferable ; the
lower shelf is mortised into the sides, which are joined
by dovetailing. Cabinet hangers are attached to the
sides at the top of the bracket, as a means of suspend-
ing it against the wall. The plan of each shelf is
shown at one view in Fig. 10, in which they are sup-
posed to be viewed from above, part of the upper
bracket being removed in order to show the plan of
the lower bracket. Fig. 10 is drawn on a scale of 2
inches to the foot. The front edge of each shelf is
moulded. The top shelf is surmounted by a light
balustrade, formed by spindles, whose details are shown
on a scale of 6 inches to the foot in Fig. 1 1, which also
exhibits the edge of the shelf in which the spindles are
fixed, and a section of the curved quadrant-shaped rail
by which they are surmounted.
The principal feature in this bracket is the intro-
duction of an ornamental tile, inserted diagonally
instead of square. Considerable scope is given to the
taste and ingenuity of the amateur in the general cha-
racter and ornamentation of this tile. Some will prefer
one of painted china ; others may like a terra-cotta
tile in relief. If the amateur can manage it — but I
fear there will be but very few who could— a piece of
repousse work in metal would present a good appear-
ance ; and if embossed work is liked, a piece of Lin-
crusta- Walton might be pressed into the service, though
I much doubt the possibility of being able to get a
small piece of it, unless the amateur happened to be
acquainted with any one who was using it in quantity
for internal decoration. If any one, however, is in-
clined to ask the question, he should apply at the
Show-Rooms, 9, Bemers Street, London, W., where it
may be seen as fixed in various styles and for various
purposes.
Perhaps, after all, the most suitable and efficient
tile for the amateur's use in this kind of decorative
work is the Papyrotile, a new patented tile, which has
the merits of being cheap, light, durable, and easily
applied, and which, if wanted in large quantities, can
be made to order in any design that may be preferred.
140
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL,
The Papyrotile is produced by a company whose offices
are at 14, Holborn Viaduct, London, £.C, where
specimens may be seen and ever)' information obtained
from the manager, Mr. A. W. Duret. The tiles, how-
ever, cannot be obtained here, as the company supplies
the trade only. More will be said about these tiles and
their application to various decorative purposes in a
future number.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
[The Editor reserves to himself the right of refusing a reply to
any question that may be frivolous or inappropriate, or devoid cf
general interest. Correspondents are requested to bear in mind
that their queries will be answered only in the pages of the Maga-
zine, the information sought being sxipplied for the benefit of its
readers generally as well as for those who have a special interest
in obtaining it. In no case can any reply be sent by post.]
ANY inquiries have arisen out of the
papers devoted to organ-building, ar.d
much interest has been displayed in the
subject by many readers of Amateur
Work, Illustrated. To prevent any
undue disappointment through the non-appearance of
answers to queries in this Part, it may be stated that
they will be given in a collected form in Part IV., in
which a smaller type will be used for replies to corre-
spondents, and an attempt made to classify the
information given under various headings, for the con-
venience of readers when looking for answers to their
inquiries.
Several correspondents, including H. H. and
H. W. H. (Brompton), ask for instruction on the mode
of fixing and managing " Electric Bells." Arrange-
ments have been mcde for a series of articles on this
subject, which will be commenced on the completion
of the papers on "Electro-plating at Home." L. W. B.,
and others who are interested in "Bookbinding" are
informed that full instructions in this useful art have
been promised by a contributor, whose papers on this
subject will be commenced at no distant date.
L. R. L. (Sheffield). — If possible your request shall
be complied with at an early date.
J. F. B. W. H. (Whitchurch) asks where the cheap
saw called " The Holborn" mentioned in a reply to a
correspondent in Part II., can be obtained. I am
told it is sold by Mr. Fordham, of High Holborn,
who has other specialities so called, so that the name
must be considered rather as a trade-mark for certain
of his wares than as the name of the saw. The second
query proposed by J. F. B. W. H. will be answered in
Part IV. This reply also answers the inquiries made
by J. M. (East Wemyss) and T. L. (Clapham) ; but I
must remind the former that I did not recommend the
saw in question "as suitable for holding ordinary fret-
saws" but as being fitted with a blade longer than the
ordinary fret-saw, which might be used with advantage
in the " Simple Fret-Sawing Machine " described in
Part I. The teeth of the blade are somewhat coarse
and rendered unfit for fine work, but for rough work
and cross-cutting it will do very well.
Fox. — You say, and say truly enough, with regard
to organ building, fhatzV would have been a good thing
to have given the idea of the cheapest pipes first, or at
least at the same time as those of wood. The appear-
ance of the first paper on " How to Build a Small
Organ," caused an amateur organ-builder to write
with reference to an invention of his own for making
pipes at a far cheaper rate than those of wood. This
has led to an arrangement for a new series of papers
on the subject, in which these cheap pipes, and the
method of making them, will be described, and in-
structions given for building organs on a larger scale.
These papers will be commenced in Vol. II. In a
magazine of this description there are many sub-
jects that require treatment, and it is not fair to its
readers generally to devote too much space to any one
particular subject.
J. C. (Partick). — You will find the promised paper
on "Wall Brackets for Corners " in this Part. It was
crowded out of Part II. Your wish for instructions
on how to make a camera of the " sliding body " kmd,
suitable for taking, say, \ plate photos" with working
drawings to scale, shall be satisfied as soon as possible,
but I cannot promise that a paper on the subject shall
appear, without fail, in Part IV.
Snowball, in reply to E. P. C.'s request for a few
hints as to sharpening lancets and other surgical in-
struments (see page 93) says : — " / have always
shatpened mine on a slip of Turkey stone, and used
glycerine and enough alcohol to make it run easily.
Practice alone can tell you when they are sharp enough,
unless you try them. I cannot tell how the polish is
put on unless with a leather wheel and fine emery"
F. J. R. (Stoke Newington). — The vulcanization of
india-rubber was effected, in the first instance, by im-
pregnating pieces of the rubber with sulphur. This
has the effect of depriving it of its adhesiveness, and
increasing its pliancy, while its elasticity is altogether
unimpaired. The addition of magnesia, sulphide of
antimony (which makes red rubber), and other sub-
stances, is resorted to in order to increase its solidity
and power of resistance. Vulcanization of rubber, for
manufacturing purposes, is effected by the application
of steam in special machinery, contrived for the incor-
poration of the ingredients. You may possibly suc-
ceed in vulcanizing the rubber for making stamps by
melting sulphur in an iron pot, and dipping pieces of
the material into it, until they are thoroughly per-
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
141
meated by the sulphur. This may be ascertained by
cutting open the rubber. The action of the sulphur
deprives it of its dark colour, and if the rubber present
a light colour throughout the piece, it is sufficiently
impregnated with the sulphur as far as mere permea-
tion is concerned. To effect complete vulcanization,
however, the rubber must be left for an hour, or there-
abouts, in the sulphur bath, at a temperature of about
2/5D, and it should be suspended in the bath by wires,
so as to keep it just below the surface of the melted
sulphur, in order to prevent hardening and loss of
elasticity, through being subjected to the greater heat
at the bottom of the bath.
W. R. P. (Bournemouth). — Wood that has been
warped may be brought straight again, in some cases,
by wetting the convex side and placing it in the sun,
or at a moderate distance from the fire. Fret-work
brackets, reading-desks, etc., cut out of smooth wood
should be stained of the colour required, if the maker
is not satisfied with the ordinary colour of the wood.
When the staining is dry, the work must be sized.
The size, which can be bought of the oil and colour-
man, must be melted in an earthen pipkin, and applied
to the work when warm. As soon as the sizing is dry,
apply a coat of hard white varnish, or even two coats,
if necessary. Papers on finishing wood-work and
pieces of furniture will be given in due course.
J. C. (North Shields). — A good filling for wood is
mentioned in Part I., page 43 ; you should try this.
In using plaster of Paris for filling, it should be brought
to the consistence of thick cream with water, colour-
ing matter being added to assimilate it to the colour
of the wood. This must be rubbed across the grain
with a piece of rag until the pores are filled, when the
surface of the wood should be carefully wiped, and
when thoroughly dry, rubbed over with fine glass
paper. The French polish should then be applied
lightly and with a semicircular motion of the hand
until the entire surface is completely polished. The
polish will be partially absorbed by the wood, and it
may be found necessary to repeat the process again,
and even for a third time, rubbing down the former
coat with glass paper that has been already worn down
by use before repolishing.
R. C. (Bradford) is thanked for the receipts for
dyeing wood that he sends. A description of a com-
plete suite of doll's furniture, with designs and work-
ing drawings, shall be given in a future number, when a
suitable opportunity offers.
Amateur. — Plaster casts can be taken from busts
or statuettes, modelled in ordinary modelling clay. It
is not possible to give "<z short description of the
process" here, which would be a sufficient guide for
the performance of the operation. It must be reserved
for a paper on the subject
F. C. (Brighton). — Articles on the mode of con-
structing and finishing a good astronomical telescope,
with directions for grinding the lenses, will be given
as soon as opportunity offers.
H. A. H. (Shane Street). — Engraving on ivory is
carried out in very much the same manner as engrav-
ing on metal or wood, as far as the work of incision is
concerned: that is to say, it is done with graving tools.
There are many recipes for making French polish, but
perhaps the most simple one is as follows :— Shell-lac,
6 oz. ; wood naphtha, 1 pint : dissolve the shell-lac in
the naphtha, and then add i pint of linseed oil. French
polish gives a glossy appearance to the surface of the
wood, but it will not darken a light-coloured wood.
To effect this the wood must have been previously
stained.
W. C. (Bromley-by-Bo-w). — Luminous paint can be
bought in small quantities of Messrs. D. Judson & Son,
Southwark Street, S.E.
J. P. V. M. (Bishop's Stortford).— In the forth-
coming papers on " Carving in Wood," intending wood-
carvers will be told where they can purchase good
seasoned woods suitable for carving.
E. B. (Dublin). — In " Notes on Novelties," in this
Part, you will find that mention is made of a shooting-
board intended to help the amateur in bevelling pieces
of fretwork at suitable angles. You might try this,
and report on it. If it does not answer, a way shall
be found to help you and others who find a similar
difficulty in bevelling edges at any required angle.
C. H. D. (Gz/ernsey). — Papers descriptive of the
best modes of imitating stained glass will be given in
due course ; and in the second series of papers on
" Organ Building " a Supplement will be supplied,
giving working drawings of the organ-front and diffe-
rent parts of the instrument on as large a scale as
possible.
Amateur (No. 2). — To stain your white wood,
decide what wood you wish to imitate, and then pur-
chase that variety of Stephens's Wood Stain which is
prepared to produce an imitation of the wood chosen.
Old furniture must be scraped and well sand-papered
before re-staining, which must be effected in the usual
manner.
Gio. — Your kindly criticisms and good wishes are
alike welcome. The date of issue is now given on the
Wrapper, as you may have learnt from Part II. All
the modern practical applications of electricity to
household use will be dealt with in turn. By all means
write a paper for Amateur Work, Illustrated, on
your experiences in constructing a telephone at home ;
it will be useful to and appreciated by many. The
reversal of the T square was an oversight. You did
right in addressing your letter to the Editor, to the
care of the publishers.
142
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
R. L. J. ( Wincanton). — It is not possible to indi-
cate a more " simple method of setting, up a small cir-
cular saw" than that shown in "Every Man his Own
Mechanic." Any smith would make you a spindle,
with a shoulder against which the saw could be butted,
and held in place by a nut working on a screw-thread.
The puzzle you send shall be mentioned in a future
paper on " More Enigmas in Wood."
R. S. (Puddletown), says, " I have some thermome-
ters ; the degrees are etched on the glass, but by con-
tinued exposure to the weather, the black composition
that filled the degrees has been washed out. What is
the composition to be used for re-filling them ? " Can
any reader of Amateur Work, Illustrated, help
R. S. in this ? To give full-sized working drawings of
large articles to be made by amateurs is well-nigh im-
possible : there is no real difficulty in constructing a
full-sized working drawing from a drawing to scale.
Still, if it can be accomplished occasionally at some
future time, you may rely upon it that it shall be done.
C. M. H. — Papers on "the making and working of
model engines of various forms" will be useful.
Kindly send a specimen paper at your convenience.
You will notice that attention has been paid to the
request in the postscript to your letter.
Captain. — You will see that, in accordance with
your wishes, it is sought to describe tools and mecha-
nical appliances as clearly as possible, and give their
prices, etc. If you require information with regard to
the capabilities and price of any particular tool you
•nay wish to purchase, it shall be supplied in this part
of the magazine.
Merry {an ardent Cyclist) says, "In reading
your admirable Introduction, I find no reference to
any intended instruction as to repairing cycles. Surely
vou do not inte?id to omit this most useful subject.''
Certainly not ! but at present there is no one on the
staff of Amateur Work, Illustrated, who is
sufficiently experienced thereon to handle it thoroughly.
Will any cyclist and amateur smith volunteer his
services ?
C. L. {Bloomsbury). — If any new suggestions for
making tool-chests are offered at any time, they will
appear in the pages of this magazine. Meanwhile, you
will find various methods, described in detail, in
' Every Man his Own Mechanic."
F. M. S. {Whitby). — In accordance with the pro-
mise made to J. C. (Partick), a practical paper on the
construction of cameras shall be given in an early
number, accompanied by working drawings on as large
a scale as possible.
E. W. {Headley). — Your wood being only three-
eighths of an inch in thickness, when planed down is
rather thin for parquetry. The pieces, as you suggest,
may be joined oy grooving and tonguing ; but as the
wood is thin, it will be as well to glue it to the floor,
which should be planed, if in any way rough and un-
even, so as to present a perfectly smooth and level
surface before the blocks are laid upon it.
A. K. — To colour your bookcase, use Stephens's
Rosewood Stain, which affords as good an imitation
of rosewood as you can obtain. After the staining is
perfectly dry, the work must be sized and varnished.
M. G. F. supplies some useful information with
reference to some of the receipts given in " Ways and
Means," Part I. He says that the Gutta Percha
Cement, described in page 42, " has been used by shoe-
makers and by engineers for joining belting, in this
country, for the last thirty years." The Black Fluid
for Ebonising (page 43) " is a most valuable receipt."
Its efficiency is in no way impaired by long keeping,
and one great advantage is that it can be used
cold ; in fact, M. G. F. never uses it otherwise.
In making the Liquid Glue mentioned in page 43,
" the glue should be steeped in cold water for a few
hours before being put into the whiskey. It will form
a stiff jelly if the glue is good, and should be melted by
setting the bottle in a basin of boiling water. If liquia
when cold, it is of little or no use. Any spirit will do,
if not above proof strength" M. G. F. will render
great service to the readers of Amateur Work,
ILLUSTRATED, by sending for insertion in " Ways and
Means" any tried receipts that he has been in the
habit of using.
*q* To prevent disappointment to readers who
may be specially interested in them, it may be said
that Mr. Paul N. Hasluck's papers on "Lathe-Making
for Amateurs " and " Household Clocks : How to
Adjust, Clean, and Repair Them," will be resumed in
Part IV. Extreme pressure of work has unfortunately
delayed the production of " copy," and so prevented
their appearance in due continuance in the present
Part.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
MONG recent inventions of merit that will
especially commend themselves to amateur
wood-workers is the new Patent Bench
Clamp, designed by Mr. James Murphy
of Providence, Rhode Island, U.S., whose
name it bears, and manufactured and supplied by the
New England Butt Company. The chief peculiarity
of this Bench Clamp is that it is self-fastening, as may
be understood from an inspection of Figs. 9 and 10,
of which the first represents the ordinary appearance
of the machine, the second being in elevation in order
to show the form of mortise that must be cut in the
bench-top in order to receive the projecting foot of
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
143
the clamp, which is bevelled forward and downwards,
and grooved that it may hold more firmly against the
wood of the bench-top, and the form and action of the
double-acting ratchet lever, which is depressed in Fig. 9
and raised in Fig. 10. It adapts itself to any thick-
ness of bench-top or other place where its use may be
required, a simple mortise in the wood, as shown in
Fig. To, being all that is necessary to secure it wher-
ever it may be wanted. Mortises may be placed in
the bench-top at suitable distances apart, thus adapt-
ing the tool to use in connection with work of various
sizes. One of the great advantages resulting from its
use is the protection of the work as well as the bench
from the destruction so often caused by the use of
bench-knives and nails. The ratchet is so constructed
that a projecting member fashioned within the slot of
the handle engages in the slots shown in the head of
the screw, making it possible to turn the screw either
way. By lifting the handle or drawing it forward, it is
released from the slot. The screw may then be turned
by the hand in either direction, for which purpose the
edge of the screw-head is milled. It will be found
most valuable for holding work securely in any posi-
tion upon the bench between the projecting end of the
screw and any bench stop, and without injury to the
work, and it is also available for holding these strips
while being worked, and also for clamping up doors,
sashes, frames, and glued work. I do not think it has
found its way into this country yet : at all events, I do
not find it in Messrs. Churchill & Co.'s Catalogue, and
so I commend it to their notice. A sample Clamp is
sent by the manufacturers in America for $2.75, which
would make its cost here about us. or 12s., no great
price for so useful an adjunct to the carpenter's bench.
It is neat, compact, strong, and finished in black
japan.
Amateurs who are in the habit of making their own
picture frames will find Porter & Burnham's Picture
Frame Vice, which is represented in Fig. 11, a most
useful appliance for gripping and holding the adjacent
sides of a frame prior to nailing them together. The
sole agents for the manufacturers in this country are
Messrs. C. Churchill & Co., of 28, Wilson Street,
Finsbury, E.C., who supply this Frame Vice complete
for 225. 6d. To help the reader to form a better idea
of it than he can gain, perhaps, from the illustration,
it may be said that the vice itself is 24 inches high and
8 inches wide at the top, where are the jaws which
grip and hold the pieces of the frame at right angles
to each other. The vice can be fixed to a table or
bench, and removed at pleasure. It possesses the
advantages of simplicity, strength, and durability, and
can be easily and quickly adjusted to mouldings of
any width and frames of all sizes. The pieces being
adjusted and fitted together, after mitring over the two
pieces of iron connected by a quarter of a circle which
appear below the corner of the frame shown in the
vice, a pair of jaws parallel to these pieces are brought
down on the sides of the frame gently but firmly by
means of a cam lever attached to a treadle and
depressed by the foot of the operator, holding them
immovably fixed till the pressure is relaxed. The
hands of the frame-maker are thus left at liberty to do
whatever may be necessary. This frame-vice, which
is made entirely of iron, is used much by professional
picture-frame-makers in the United States, where it
has given great satisfaction to all who have made trial
of it.
The Patent Auto-Pneumatic Fountain, represented
in Fig. 12, manufactured by Messrs. Kessel & Son,
and illustrated in Fig. 12, will be welcomed by those
who wish to place anything of this kind in bay
window or conservatory. Its appearance may be
gathered from the engraving. It is a self-contained
and self-acting fountain, entirely free from the objec-
tionable appliances of springs, valves, weights, etc.,
which hitherto have been so commonly used in the
construction of machines of this sort. It consists of
three chambers, of which A is the uppermost one, or
the aquarium, into which the water is poured when it
is desired to charge the fountain. The water, perco-
lating through some fine holes pierced in a cone, finds
its way into the bottom chamber, B, and when this
chamber is full, the water will maintain its height in
the aquarium, A. At the top of the cone already
mentioned, three leaves are placed round the jet, one
of which forms the handle of a piston-rod, and if this
be worked up and down for about five minutes, the
water is raised into the third air-tight chamber, C. As
soon as the tap is turned on, the fountain will imme-
diately begin to play, the water falling into the aqua-
rium ; but by a scientific internal arrangement the
water is again carried into the chamber b, which is
now the air-tight chamber, and the air, having no
means of escape as the water rises in B, becomes
compressed with the weight of water in the aquarium.
Then, of course, there is a connection between B and
C, conveying the compressed air into the middle
chamber, which air, pressing on the surface of the
water, forces it up through the jet tube, and hence the
fountain. The principle is compressed air automatically
arranged, so that there is, as it were, a fight between
air and water for the mastery. The air is forced into
the fountain, and is only there as in any other empty
space ; but the air that is forced in is so completely a
captive slave that it cannot possibly escape, and is
compelled to do its work. The fountains are made
with one-hole, three-hole, and five-hole jets, and in
two sizes, sold at £% 8s., and ,£10 10s. respectively.
The smaller size will play from 5 to 6 hours with a
IAA
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
one-hole jet, the larger size from 7 to 8 hours. Of
course, the greater the number of holes, the less time
the fountain will play.
A new colouring matter for wood, which appears
to be cheap and useful, has been lately introduced
under the name of
" Otto's Permanent
Wood Stain," manu-
factured only by
Messrs. Otto & Co., 20,
Red Lion Square, Lon-
don, W.C. The mate-
rial, which is sold in ■
the form of a powder,
in tins of different sizes,
at is., 2s.,and4s., yields
a stain of a good brown,
having a close resemblance
to the colour usually known
as dark oak. All shades of
brown, from the lightest to
the darkest can be produced,
by adding coat after coat,
until the depth of colour re-
quired is obtained. The first
coat is a light golden brown.
The contents of the canis-
ter must be dissolved in
water, according to the direc-
tions given on each, and
applied with a brush. Before
the final coat is quite dry,
the wood should be wiped,
after which it must be sized
and varnished, or polished in
the usual way.
Messrs. R. Melhuish
and Sons, of 85 & 87,
Fetter Lane, London,
E.C., have sent me a
card of tools, which will
certainly be found use-
ful in houses where
nothing more than a
little simple every-day
work is done with car-
penter's tools when
absolutely necessary.
The card is also calculated to form an acceptable
present to a boy of about 8 to 10, who shows a liking
for hammers and saws. The price of the card is
4s. 3d., for which the buyer becomes possessed of
nine tools, namely — a small saw, a hammer, a chisel,
pincers, small screw-driver, tack-lifter, bradawl, gim-
let, and nail-punch. The tools are of fair quality, and
for the purposes mentioned are certainly very cheap.
From the same firm I have also received several
designs for fret-sawing, by Russell and Pomeroy, some
of which are bold and well conceived. Among these
is a corner dtagere, which would amply repay any
fret - sawer for his
labour in cutting it.
Those who are content
with smaller subjects
would do well to send
for one of the pattern
books, in music size or
thereabouts, that Mr.
Melhuish supplies at
2 s. each, post-free.
There are 20 plates in
each number.
I have also received some
fret - work designs from
Messrs. Harger Brothers,
Goldielands, Settle, which are
all good except one,into which
some animals — two grey-
hounds and a hare —are intro-
duced. Figures of men,
women, children, and animals,
should never be found in fret-
work, unless of Japanese
design, in which, perhaps,
animals are admissible. In
fret-work symmetry is natu-
rally looked for — that is to
sny, symmetry of parts in
correspondence of outline, and
this is marred by the intro-
duction of figures. Messrs.
Harger Brothers also
;• 10. supplyashuteingboard
— or shooting board —
to be used when mak-
ing octagon tops, six or
eight square bottoms,
or when bevelling six
and eight square, and
when making square
joints. The price of
the shooting - board
with, I suppose, the
appliances necessary for doing the different kinds ot
work, as detailed above, is 2s. 3d., and with it a plane
is supplied for 9d. I can say nothing as to their
actual value, because no specimens have been sent to
me to enable me to judge as to their utility. Perhaps
any amateur who may purchase a board and plane
will report on them.
FIG. 9. — MURPHY'S PATENT BENCH CLAMP. FIG. IO. — ELEVATION
OF MURPHY'S PATENT BENCH CLAMP, SHOWING MORTISE IN BENCH.
FIG. II. — PORTER AND BURNHAM'S PATENT PICTURE FRAME VICE.
FIG. 12. — KESSELL'S PATENT SELF-ACTING PNEUMATIC FOUNTAIN.
-yjgnt
PRESENTED WITH PART IV. OF AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED.
^S^aYaYaYa
A HANDY CORNER-CUPBOARD.
»45
A HANDY CORNER-CUPBOARD.
EARS ago, shelves or cupboards in corners
of rooms, which, were used as living-
rooms, were to be found in most houses,
and in the beginning of the present
century they
formed part of the furniture
or fixtures in many a
country house, especially in
farmhouses and the better
kind of cottages. They were
found to be eminently
useful for many purposes,
though they were chiefly
utilised, if enclosed with
doors, as depositories for
the best tea-service and
other ornaments on which
a special value was set ; or,
if without doors, for the
display of capacious punch-
bowls, jugs, glasses, rum-
mers, and other articles of a
similar kind, which served
as a means to post-prandial
enjoyment. But at last their
utility was overlooked, and
in the change of fickle
fashion they came to be re-
garded as ugly, old-fashion-
ed, and in the way; so they
were gradually done away
with, and the corners that
had known them so long,
came to know them no
longer.
Change of taste, how-
ever, in matters of decora-
tion and equipment of rooms,
and the tendency that pre-
vails to adorn apartments of
all kinds — the hall, or pas-
sage that does duty for the
hall, not excepted — with
articles in metal-work, china, glass, and bric-a-brac,
has rendered places of deposit for these things abso-
lutely necessary ; and, in Addition to brackets and
shelves in positions that our forefathers never dreamt
of, the corner-cabinet or cupboard has been revived,
and resorted to^^nce again as a suitable means
for the display of all sorts of pretty art-fancies in
wares of v? .ous kinds. It is easily made and easily
'as many an amateur will doubtless have a
•' ,;
corner here or there that he may like to "fit up in this
way, a design for a composite cabinet of shelves and
cupboard has been given here, from which he may
gather useful hints for the treatment of a piece of garni-
ture of this kind, and which he may easily alter in any
point of detail to suit his own particular requirements.
The front elevation of the corner-cabinet, as shown
in Fig. i, and the plan of
it as exhibited in Fig. 2, are
set out to a scale of one-
eighth, or in other words, so
as to be more explicit, one-
eighth of an inch to an inch;
every measurement, there-
fore, in the cabinet itself
when made, or in a full-sized
working drawing of the
cabinet, should be exactly
eight times as much as the
corresponding measure-
ment in the drawing. Being
drawn to scale, the amateur
will experience ho difficulty
in making a full-sized work-
ing drawing from the illus-
tration given. According
to the scale, the sides of the
cabinet which butt against
the walls that form the
corner of the room in which
the cabinet is to be placed
are 15 inches in width, the
measurement across the
front being 21 inches, and
the height from its base to
the top of the members that
rise above the top rail being
41 inches; the height, there-
fore, is very nearly double
the breadth, and, if it please
the amateur to do so, for
the sake of attaining exact-
ness of proportion between
the length and the breadth,
he may make his cabinet
exactly 42 inches in height.
It has been said that the measurement across the
front is 21 inches. For all practical purposes this
is near enough ; but the width of the sides being
exactly 15 inches, the precise width of the front
will be 21.21 inches, or 21-^ inches. Any one
who has got to the end of the first book of Euclid
knows, or at all events ought to know, that the square
of the side which subtends a right angle is equal to
the squares of the sides by which the right angle is
G
I. — A HANDY CORNER-CUPBOARD.— FRONT ELEVATION,
Scale, ij inches to the foot.
146
A HANDY CORNER-CUPBOARD.
contained. The angle at which the sides of the cabinet
meet is a right angle, the sides of the cabinet are
15 inches in width, consequently the square of each
side of the cabinet is 225 ; the aggregate sum of the
squares of the two sides is 450, and the square root of
450, which represents the square of the width of the
front, subtending the right angle contained by the
sides is 21.21 inches. To the great majority of the
readers of Amateur Work, Illustrated, these
remarks may possibly appear needless ; but there may
be some to whom a simple lesson in geometry of this
kind will be useful, and for their sakes the opportunity
of giving it must not be thrown away.
It is possible that some who may be thinking of
making for themselves a cabinet of this description
may consider that the dimensions, as given above, are
too small ; and they will be, perhaps, confirmed in
this opinion, if they hold a two-foot rule before them,
FIG. 2. — PLAN OF HANDY CORNER-CUPBOARD.
and see how small a length 21 inches appears to be.
They will find, however, when the cabinet is made
and put in its place, that it is quite large enough, and
that, if it had been larger, it would have presented a
heavy and unsightly appearance. It has been found
from experience that corner cupboards and cabinets
invariably appear to be larger than they really are,
and that there is nothing more deceptive than trusting
to the eye alone in judging of the size of corner
articles. The amateur, therefore, is advised not to
exceed the dimensions given, for the reason that has
just been stated. The area of each triangular shelf in
t he cabinet, allowing f inch for the thickness of the
sides, will be 101A square inches ; and as there are
shelves and a small cupboard, this will afford room for
the display of many pretty pieces of china and glass,
large and small. According to the plan shown in
Fig. 2, the sides are of J inch stuff, grooved and tongued
together, and framed into rectangular slips of wood,
1 inch square — one at the angle in which the sides
meet, and one at the outer edge of each side. There
is no necessity whatever for the square rod at the
back, as the edge of one side may be made to overlap
the edge of the other, and be nailed to it ; and if it be
desired to break the stiffness of the angle, as shown in
(.BOT-
TOM
TOP
SHELF.
GREATEST
DEPTH OP
FILLET.
TOP OF
CCPBOAED.
the elevation, all that is necessary is to saw an inch-
square rod down cornerwise, from end to end, and,
after planing up the face, to nail it in the angle. Such
a piece as this is not shown in the plan (Fig. 2), but it
is apparent in the elevation (Fig. 1). The principal
use of the square rod in the angle is to afford a
holding into which to mortise the rail that forms a
capping to the spindles ; but when the sides are
nailed edge to edge, a piece may be
contrived to lap over the sides at their
juncture in the angle, and butt
against the wall, thus affording an
upright, into which the capping of the
rail may be mortised ; the end of
this, and of the pieces at the outer edge
of the sides, being finished as shown
in the illustration.
The sides being joined together,
and the shell of the structure, so to
speak, being completed, the shelves
must be dropped in and screwed in
their places from behind. This will
be found to give stability and stiffness
to the structure. The shelves are of
inch stuff, and to take away from the
too substantial appearance of wood of
this thickness, a groove from i in. to
■J in. in width is made along the edge
of each shelf as shown. Before each
shelf is placed in position and screwed
up, provision must be made by grooving
or by nailing a fillet on to the under
side, close to the edge, for the recep-
tion of the rails or fillets, with, in two
cases, bracket-like ends which appear
in the illustration. These fillets may
be made according to taste, but the
lowest one will look well if neatly
scalloped and bored in each scallop.
The cupboard in the centre is 1 1 inches
high in the clear, and the doors are
9 1 in. by 11 in. The panels of the
doors may be of glass, but if so, the
styles and rails of the doors should be
considerably less in width than shown
in the illustration. A fret-work band
may be substituted for the rail at the top, but if
the cabinet be finished as shown in the illustration,
the upper ends of the sides should be grooved
into the slip which forms the lower member of
the rail, and the spindles should be dropped into
holes recessed for the purpose into this slip and the
capping above the spindles. The cabinet will look
well in any kind of wood, whether light or dark, but
the colour must depend upon the positionwhich it is
BOTTOM OF
CUPBOAED.
BOTTOM
SHELF.
FIG. 3. — GRA-
DUATED ROD.
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A BAROMETER.
147
to occupy, the nature of its surroundings, and the
colour of the wall, or predominating tint of the wall-
paper against which it is placed.
Before commencing work the amateur is recom-
mended to set out the length of the cabinet from top
to bottom, as from A to B in the rod shown in Fig. 3.
This rod may be marked or graduated so as to show
the position of the rail and its members at the top, the
thickness of the shelves, and the relative distances
between them. The rod thus marked can be applied
to the inner surface of the sides along either edge,
and the position of the shelves determined with the
utmost accuracy. It is always safer to do this in such
cases than to trust to mere measurements with the rule.
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A BAROMETER.
By A. F. MILLER.
T the present time, when so much impor-
tance is attached to the science of
meteorology that its professors are to be
found in almost every land, the recognized
and valued agents of manygovernments or
of extensive and important private enterprises, a few
words will not be amiss as to the construction of that
most important instrument, the barometer ; the sound-
ing-line, so to speak, whereby the meteorologist
inquires into the ever-changing conditions of the great
aerial ocean which surrounds us on every hand, and
obtains an insight into the physical forces by which it
is actuated, and the laws by which it is controlled.
I propose as briefly as possible to give simple
instructions for the making of a barometer. The
instrument has been constructed in many forms, of
which I will describe three — the siphon barometer, the
portable cistern barometer, and the stationary cistern
barometer, leaving it to the reader's judgment to decide
which of these will best suit his purpose.
A few words must first be said regarding the
selection of the glass tube, as on its fitness for the
purpose the instrument's future excellence will very
much depend. Ordinary white, easily fusible glass
tube should not be used, as the mercury is apt to
attract its oxide of lead, and not only become impure,
but by adhesion to the inside of the bore hinder the free
oscillation of the barometric column. The proper kind
of tubing is that which shows a greenish tinge in the
glass when looked at endways. For either of the
instruments shown in Figs. 1 or 2, it should not be less
than f inch outside diameter and i inch bore ; and if
slightly larger may still be used with advantage.
For the siphon barometer, Fig. 1, a piece of tube
about 42 inches long is required. This is to be well
cleaned by running through it plenty of warm soft
water, while at the same time a little swab made from
a piece of soft, fine linen, tied in the middle of a cord,
is pulled through the bore from end to end. After the
water has drained out, alcohol, in which precipitated
chalk is suspended, should be applied to the inside by
means of the swab. A clean swab, moistened with
alcohol, will remove the particles of chalk, when the
cord being withdrawn, distilled water is to be poured
through, after which the tube must stand in an upright
position till it has drained perfectly diy, a little cap of
paper, meantime, being placed on its upper end to
exclude dust. The inner surface of the tube must
finally be polished with a small piece of soft wash-
leather fixed on the end of a clean, smooth brass wire.
The tube thus cleaned and dried is now to be
closed at one end by drawing it in two in a gas flame
a couple of inches from the extremity. Instructions
for sealing and bending glass tubes are given in so
many works on elementary chemistry and kindred
subjects, that it seems superfluous to repeat them here.
Suffice it to say that the narrow pointed end, which
forms when the tube is drawn asunder, should be
pressed and rotated in the flame till a substantial and
well-rounded closing has been obtained. Thirty-six
inches from the sealed extremity a (J -shaped bend is
to be made. Care must be taken to make the curve a
gradual one, as failure in this respect would not only
mar the appearance of the instrument, but might also
tend to narrow the bore and make the bend a weak
point. The arc of the curve is to be l£ inches. The
longer limb of the siphon is thus 36 inches long, and
the shorter one about three inches. The short limb is
not to be bent down quite parallel with the longer one,
but should make a slight angle with it, to render the
subsequent introduction of the mercury more easy.
The tube T T, is to have adapted to it a supporting
stand, A A, which may be a piece of dressed walnut,
38 inches long, 3! inches wide, and about & of an inch
thick, rounded off at the top and furnished with a brass
screw and ring for hanging up. A shallow groove,
curved to correspond with the bent tube, is made on
the wood. The three small brass clasps, c, c, c,
provided for attaching the tube to its support may
be readily cut from sheet-brass, polished, bent to
shape, and drilled with a hole in each end to
receive the appropriate small brass screws. The
sliding-scale support, S S, is a slip of cherry or
mahogany, 1 inch wide, -& thick, and 32 inches long,
having two longitudinal cuts, G, G, made therein,
through which pass the screws, D, D, which fasten
it to the walnut scale and allow of its motion
upward and downward. These screws may be of
brass with milled heads, or a cheap and excellent
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A BAROMETER.
-31
-30
-29
M
substitute may be found in two of the brass buttons with screw-stems sold
for fastening carriage aprons. These are to have their stems passed through
the longitudinal cuts, G, G, and screwed into appropriate holes in the walnut
support till their projecting shoulders bind on the scale support and
prevent it from moving except when required. The bottom, B, of the
sliding scale support is a piece of sheet-brass cut to shape and attached
by two small rivets or screws. Its angle or corner, P, is used as an index,
as will afterward be explained. A scale, I, made of a piece of ivory
veneer, 4 inches long and about \\ inches wide, is required for the upper
end of the sliding support. This must be carefully and accurately divided
into inches and tenths, the lowest inch mark being numbered " 29," the
next " 30," and the upper one " 31." It will be well to have the figures and
lines done by an engraver ; but, if economy be a consideration, the markings
can be very well ruled with a fine pen, and after the ink has dried a coat
of thin dammar varnish will protect the lines from injury by moisture.
The ivory scale is now to be fixed to the sliding support, with the upper end
of which its top exactly corresponds. If the measures have been correctly
made its 30 inch mark will now be situated exactly 30 inches from the bottom
of the brass index. An excellent cement for attaching the ivory to the wood
is made of a little isinglass dissolved by heat in equal parts of alcohol and
water. The walnut support, A A, should receive two or three coats of
copal varnish. The cherry wood slide, S S, may either be finished with
boiled linseed oil or varnish, according to taste.
All parts of the instrument being thus fitted, it only remains to
introduce the mercury. For this purpose the tube, T T, being detached
from the support is placed upon a level table and sustained by small pieces
of wire, so that the short limb is uppermost, the long limb lying flat upon the
table. The mercury used should be as pure as possible : though if freshly-
drstilled mercury cannot be had that of commerce may be used, provided
it has not become contaminated by lead or kindred metals. A fair test of the
goodness of mercury is made by dropping a little into a clean white plate
and causing it to run about. If bright round globules are formed, which
readily coalesce and leave no trails of discolouration on the china, the metal
is sufficiently pure. If, however, the drops become pear-shaped and soil
the plate with dull, metallic splotches, the metal must be rejected.
Before being used for filling, the mercury should in any case, be forced
through small pinholes in a piece of thin chamois skin to remove mechanical
impurities. It must then be caused to boil for a few moments in a thin
glass flask or large test tube, so as to expel moisture and air. While still
hot it is to be introduced by successive portions into the open end of the
short limb, through a small glass funnel, the stem of which has previously
been drawn to a rather fine orifice and bent in an L- shape. By slightly
agitating the tube, any bubbles of air adhering to its inner surface may be
dislodged and caused to pass upward through the bend, and so out.
When the metal has risen to within an inch of the orifice, this is to be loosely
closed with a small cork, and the tube being lifted up and sustained with
the sealed end a little downward, the contained mercury must be made to
boil inch by inch, beginning from the closed end throughout the entire
length of the longer limb and curved portion, by means of a large spirit
lamp flame, over (but not through) which it is made slowly to pass.
In the last mentioned operation some caution is necessary to avoid cracking
the tube : though with moderate care there is no danger of this casualty
happening. The boiling process effectually expels any particles of air adhering
to the mercury or the inside of the tube (a most essential element as regards
future accuracy in the barometer), and when the tube has cooled the metallic
fig. 2. — CISTERN
BAROMETER.
FIG. I. — SIPHON
BAROMETER.
FIG. 3. — CISTERN
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A BAROMETER.
149
column will be found to present a surface per-
fectly bright and without speck or flaw. The
tube being now raised gently into a vertical
position, with its closed end uppermost, the
mercury will descend a few inches, showing
the Torricellian vacuum in the upper part of
the longer limb, while at the same time it
rises and overflows from the open orifice of
the short limb. From the latter enough of it
should be displaced, by inserting a small
round piece of wood into the bore, to leave
a couple of inches empty. After this it
only remains to finish the instrument by
attaching the tube, T T, to its support with
the brass clasps, C, C, C, and screws. A
narrow strip of green surface paper, 4 or 5
inches long, slipped behind the upper part of
the tube where the vacuum appears, is an
improvement to the look of the instrument
and an assistance when taking the readings.
It will now be evident at a glance that by
bringing the corner, P, of the brass index, B,
level with the surface of the mercury in
the short limb, as often as an observation
is to be made, the height of the mercurial
column in inches and decimals will at once
be shown on the ivory scale.
A small thermometer, M, fixed beside the
sliding scale is at once a useful and orna-
mental addition to the barometer. A small
cap, L, of metal or wood must be loosely
fitted over the open end to exclude dust.
The style of barometer just described
while possessing many advantages as regards
simplicity of construction and uniformity
of working, has yet the drawback of not
being very portable. As some may require
an instrument which will admit of being
readily carried about from place to place, I
give a few particulars in regard to the
making of a cistern barometer. These
hints, in connection with the instructions
already given, will enable those who may so
prefer to construct an instrument of the
portable kind.
The tube must be cleaned as already
described, and closed at one end ; but
instead of being bent is left straight, and
cut off at a length of 36 inches. Fig. 3 shows
a section of the cistern, which is simply a
small wooden cup turned neatly out of hard
wood; its outside dimensions being i|
inches diameter and 2i inches high, and the
inside cavity being i\ inches in diameter
and 2 inches deep. A cut made with a fine
-STATIONARY
[ BAROMETER.
saw along the line, S S, separates the under-
neath part of the cistern as a small wooden
ring, to the bottom of which must be glued
a piece of stout wash-leather, B, made
loosely convex so as to bulge readily inward
and outward, forming the cistern-bottom and
supplying a movable surface on which the
atmospheric pressure is to act. A hole, E, in
the closed top admits the pipe T, which
passes down into the cistern till its end is
level with the line of division, s s, and is se-
cured in place by being cemented where it
goes through the wood of the top. A small
hole, H, for adjusting the height of the mer-
cury is made half an inch below the closed
top of the cistern, and stopped for the time
with a little wooden plug.
The filling with pure warm mercury is to
be done as already described in the case of
the siphon, except that the tube may now be
placed in a nearly vertical position with its
closed end downward ; a small straight
funnel is to be used for pouring through. The
subsequent boiling in the tube must also be
performed as before directed ; but as the part
of the tube within the cistern cannot be
exposed to heat it will be best to leave the
last few inches empty till the boiling has
been finished, when this portion may be
carefully filled with hot mercury. The
cistern, which, of course owing to the
position of the tube, is being held top down-
ward, is also to receive as much mercury
as will fill it to the edge, S s, after which,
the ring-shaped piece, bearing the wash-
leather bottom, B, is coated with glue on
its sawn surface and pressed on in place, so
closing the cistern. As soon as the glued
joint is firm, the tube may be turned up
into proper position by placing the finger
on the wash-leather bottom, and pressing it
inward till the orifice of the tube is felt, when
the whole is quickly inverted. Thus no air
enters the tube during the moment of turn-
ing over ; and as an instant later its opening
is covered by the mercury of the cistern, the
vacuum is now secured. Care should be
taken, however, never again to turn the
cistern bottom upward. The tube being now
in a vertical position, the level of the mercury
is adjusted by removing the plug from the
hole, H, when the superfluous metal escapes
and the column in the tube descends, leaving
the vacuum above. The plug is then to be
reinserted and glued in place.
i5°
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A BAROMETER.
The stand (which it is well to make and fit to the
tube before the latter is filled) is so plainly shown in
the figure (Fig. 2) that description is almost unneces-
sary. It may be of walnut, mahogany, or cherry, and
its general style and finish must depend on the taste
of the maker. A shallow groove down its centre
receives the tube, T T, and an oblong cavity at the
bottom admits the back of the cistern, while its front
may be covered with a hollow ornamental turning, F,
as represented. The scale, S S, which in this case
should be 5 inches long, may be ruled on ivory as
already suggested, though an instrument of this des-
cription is really deserving of a well-made engraved
scale, with a vernier giving readings to the hundredth
part of an inch. Such a vernier, V, is a narrow piece
of ivory i| inches long, provided with a groove to
receive the inner edge of the ivory scale along which
it slides next to the tube, a hollow being cut in the
wood of the stand behind the scale to admit of its
motion. It is divided into eleven equal parts by ten
horizontal lines numbered downward from one to ten,
each of the divisions measuring therefore Tg + t£o of
an inch. The method of reading with the vernier is
very simple, but space will not admit of its being
explained here. It can, however, be readily learned
from almost any work on meteorology. The 30 inch
line of the scale is to be placed exactly 30 inches above
the centre of the hole, H, which marks the level of the
mercury in the cistern. It is best to affix the scale to
the stand by little brass screws. A small thermometer,
M, opposite the barometer scale adds to the elegance
and efficiency of the instrument. A slip of green
surface paper should be pasted in the groove behind
the tube before the latter is fixed in place. The top
of the tube, T T, should be covered by a small turned
button, B, of bone or wood.
For the assistance of those who possess enough
mechanical skill to attempt the construction of a very
accurate barometer, such as is required in observa-
tions for meteorological records, a few hints may be
ventured upon. The tube for such an instrument
should be larger in internal diameter than the size
given for the simple barometer here before described;
as thus the correction for what is known as capillarity
will be reduced and greater accuracy insured. Much
care should be taken as to the quality of the glass, and
I need hardly say, as to its inward clearness. It is to
be closed at the end, and bent so that the long limb
shall measure 37 inches ; but its curve must be of much
smaller diameter than that of the siphon tube in Fig
1 ; in fact, the distance between the two limbs should
not exceed half an inch. The short limb is to be half
an inch in length. The object of this turned-up
portion which, as the figure (Fig. 4) shows is immersed
n the mercury of the cistern, is to prevent the gradual
introduction of particles of air into the vacuum by the
oscillations of the mercurial column, a result likely to
happen in all straight tube barometers when used
during long periods of time. The cistern, c C, Fig. 4,
is made from a piece of stout tubular glass, 2 inches
in diameter and 4 inches long. Its top, M N M, and
bottom, O O, are of any firm dry wood, turned with
cavities to fit the ends of the glass body and firmly
cemented thereto. The top, M N M, has two holes, D
and E ; the more central one, D, admitting the
barometer tube, T T, while through the other passes
the stem of the attached thermometer, G, for giving
the temperature of the contained mercury. The pro-
jecting neck, N, of the cistern-top, M N M, enters and
sustains the brass tube, B B, 25 inches long and 1 inch
in diameter, which serves to protect the barometer
tube, T T, as well as to sustain at its upper end the
wooden piece, A, which steadies the vacuous part
of the glass tube, and supports the scale fastened on
by screws. The bottom turning, o O, of the cistern,
C C, is annular in form, its ring-like edges having glued
to it the concave wash-leather cistern-bottom, R.
The shoulder of the cistern rests in a stout brass
support, P P, screwed to the board which sustains the
instrument.
A surface or zero mark, L L, is made with a file on
the outside of the cistern glass, i£ inches below the top,
giving the standard to which from time to time, when
observations are being made, the height of the mercury
in the cistern may be adjusted by the milled screws.
The instructions for filling the siphon tube above, give
with sufficient accuracy the steps to be taken when
introducing the mercury in this case. Only recently
distilled pure mercury must be used, and the boiling
and other operations should be done with the utmost
care and attention to detail. The cistern, filled to a
little below the zero mark with mercury, receives the
curved end of the tube, T T, after the filling and boiling
have been accomplished. The top, M N M, is then
passed down over the tube and cemented in place, and
the other parts put together. The adjustment of the
position of the scale is made by measurement from the
zero mark, L L, on the cistern glass. An amateur
should not attempt to make the scale. This work
should be intrusted to a good engraver, or, better still,
a scale and its vernier purchased at the shop of an
instrument maker. The woodwork 01 the cistern and
scale support looks well blackened and polished. The
brass tube should be burnished and its surface polished
with suitable lacquer.
Either one of the instruments I have described
constitutes a useful and ornamental addition to the
furniture of a hall or sitting room, and if made the
subject of daily observation will afford its possessor
much pleasure and instruction combined.
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
iSi
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS:
HOW TO ADJUST, CLEAN, AND REPAIR THEM.
By PAUL AT. HASLJICK.
III. — Varieties of Clocks ; Tools required ; the
German Clock.
OUSEHOLD clocks are represented by
various types each possessing distinctive
peculiarities. England, France, Ger-
many, and America, each contribute to
furnish the large number of clocks distri-
buted through the households of our countrymen.
The same treatment is not applicable to all clocks, and
some particulars of the various varieties in common
use Trill be useful so that the amateur may distinguish
the nationality and some other important details be-
fore commencing operations. Commencing with Eng-
lish clocks and timepieces we have : —
Turret Clocks, which seldom come under the
notice of an amateur. The construction of these
clocks is similar to the ordinary kind, but the mechan-
ism is much larger and stronger. Turret clocks are
placed in church towers, town halls, and similar posi-
tions, and therefore do not properly come within the
scope of these articles.
Regulators are constructed with every possible
care to ensure the greatest accuracy in time-keeping.
Astronomical observatories, watchmakers' shops, and
occasionally the houses of private individuals who
value extreme accuracy, are the usual repositories for
regulators. They generally have pendulums that beat
seconds, and which are compensated for variation in
temperature. Mercurial pendulums are now mostly
used when cost is not a great object. Regulators
seldom require any other attention than cleaning very
carefully and oiling properly. On account of the
value of the timekeeper and the delicacy of the
mechanism, the inexperienced amateur should not
make any essays on regulators.
Chime Clocks are those which chime at eveiy
quarter hour. They have an extra train of wheels,
working independent of the going and striking trains,
which is also wound separately. These clocks are
also known as quarter clocks. Those that play a tune
at intervals are musical clocks and not necessarily
chime clocks. The number of bells on which the
chime is played may be two or more. When only
two bells are used the monotonous chime is termed a
ding-dong.
Skeleton Clocks are frequently found in com-
mon use. They are made with pierced plates of
ornamental design, and the entire movement is ex-
posed to view. A glass shade is placed over it tc
exclude dust, etc. These clocks are very good time
keepers, and are interesting inasmuch as they afford
the opportunity of inspecting the mechanism when
going, and thus becoming familiar with its action. A
simple eight-day skeleton clock standing 18 inches
high, may be made for about 25s. complete, with
marble stand and glass shade. The whole of the
component parts, including the frames, wheels, pinions,
dial, hands, etc., may be bought, and amateurs having
a small lathe and a few other tools could fit the parts
together ; the resulting clock being a reliable time-
keeper and an ornament to the mantel shelf. If any
of my readers care for them, complete instructions
how to make a skeleton clock may be published.
Spring Dials. — These are the ordinary English
office clocks, which hang against the wall, and may be
seen at most railway stations, and in shops and offices.
It is the most largely used of all English clocks, and
close imitations of it are imported from America and
Germany. The diameter of the dial is generally used
to specify the size of the clock, and we speak of 9-inch,
12-inch, 15-inch, etc., "Dials." When the cases are
circular, forming merely a rim to the dial, with a box
to cover the movement, the clocks are called " round
dials." In order to accommodate longer pendulums,
a drop is sometimes added to the case, and then it is
called a " trunk," or " drop dial." The pendulums of
these clocks vary from about 7 inches to 20 inches, and
the train is, of course, calculated accordingly. The
English spring dial has a fusee on which the gut line
or chain is wound from the barrel. Foreign clocks
have no fusee, the spring itself being wound round the
barrel arbor on which the winding key is placed.
The fusee is the distinguishing characteristic in Eng-
lish spring dials.
Bracket Clocks are like spring dials, so far as
the mechanism is concerned. The case is, however,
adapted to stand on a bracket, instead of to hang
against the wall ; and it is in this peculiarity that the
difference lies. Bracket clocks were much in favour
with past generations, and some may now be found
fitted with the verge escapement, as illustrated in
De Wyck's clock, Fig. 2.
Hall Clocks are the old-fashioned long-cased
clocks, standing 6 or 7 feet high. They have pendu-
lums beating seconds, and have weights for the motive
power. The movement of a hall clock is shown at
Fig- 3-
German Clocks axe. made chiefly of wood, as
shown in Fig. 9. Brass bushes are driven into the
wooden frames or plates, to form bearings for the
pivots. Familiarly called Dutch clocks, they are well
known, being cheap, and fairly good time-keepers
Weights are the motive power, and they hang from
152
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
FIG. 4. —
SCREWDRIVER.
he clock, exposed together with the pendulum ; this
is a distinguishing feature.
Iffl American Clocks are distinct from
II all others ; they are made in large quan-
|| tities by machinery, on the most eco-
nomical principles. Being very cheap,
III tolerably good-looking, and fair time-
keepers, American clocks are exceedingly
popular, and at least one specimen is
usually found in every household where
clocks are to be found at all. Some few
have weights, which are arranged to fall
the entire height of the case, but nearly
all have springs. Small timepieces for
the mantel, and large dials for the wall,
are made, and also every other variety
that is saleable. Some go for thirty hours,
and require winding daily ; some go for
eight days, and require winding weekly.
The cases of American clocks are generally of the
cheapest possible construction.
French Clocks differ from all those which
have been enumerated. They have movements
that are much more delicate and smaller ; in
fact, they almost suggest a grade between
clocks and watches. The plates of these clocks
are usually circular, and the pendulums are
short and heavy. Drum timepieces are perhaps
the most familiar specimens of French produc-
tions ; they are a source of continual trouble to
the repairer. Being extremely portable, they
are frequently carried about the house, often
on a tray ; and being very unstable, it is no un-
usual occurrence, under such circumstances, to
find that the drum timepiece is precipitated f'&
down a flight of stairs. The result may be
more or less serious : " a good
shake" is the usual remedy.
The better kinds give very
accurate results, and the
striking timepieces are so deli-
cate and fragile that amateurs
should be very chary of them
until some manipulative skill
has been acquired. The cases
of French clocks may be dis-
tinguished by their elaboration.
Marble, wood, and gilt zinc
are the materials most com-
monly employed for cases.
Those who adjust, clean,
and repair clocks are called
clock-jobbers; those who simi-
fig. s-— pliers. larly treat watci1es are watch-
jobbers. The terms may appear somewhat discordant,
fig. 6. — NIPPERS.
ably.
but they are strictly the colloquial technical appella-
tions. The amateur will require
some tools with which to do his
work, be it even of the most
simple kind. If he finds any
difficulty in procuring the neces-
sary appliances, it may be said
that tools of every kind necessary
for clockwork may be bought of
Messrs. Mel hid sh and Sons,
Fetter Lane, E.C. When pur-
chasing tools I would strongly re-
commend inexperienced amateurs
to explain, as nearly as they can,
the purpose for which the par-
ticular tool they seek is required,
and leave the selection of it to
the seller, whose practical experi-
ence will avail them consider-
The tools necessary for the amateur in clock-
jobbing on a small scale are neither numerous
nor costly. A screw-driver, a pair of pliers,
and a knife will often suffice. A couple of
brushes will be wanted for cleaning with, pegs
of wood being used to clean out the pivot-holes.
A pair of nippers, a pin-vice, and a hand-vice,
generally complete the list of tools used in
clock-jobbing. A few files and a bench-vice
are frequently useful auxiliaries. Oil for lubri-
cation when the movement is finally put together
is of course indispensable.
With a view to further guiding the be-
ginner, illustrations of the various tools are
given, and some particulars of size and cost are
.— added. Fig. 4 is a screw-driver ; this should be
about four to six inches long, and will cost about
is. A good tool with a steel blade can be purchased
for that sum. For small work, such as French
timepieces, etc., the screw-
driver illustrated on page 48
is to be chosen. With four
changeable blades of various
sizes, the tool costs only is. 6d.
It frequently happens that a
small screw-driver, such as is
usually supplied with sewing-
machines, is available, and in
that case it is quite unneces-
sary to purchase a tool ex-
pressly for clock-jobbing.
A pair of ordinary pliers
are shown by Fig. 5. These
should be about five inches,
and will cost from is. 6d. to
2S. 6d., according to quality and finish.
FIG. 8. — HAND-VICE.
Tools that
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
153
are finished " all bright " are more costly, though
not necessarily more serviceable, than those left
" black." The nippers (Fig. 6) should be about the
same size as the pliers ; they will cost from 2s. to
2s. 6d. These tools are used to cut off wire pins, etc.
A pin-vice is shown by Fig. 7. There are several
different designs for this tool. The one shown is the
ordinary English and Swiss pattern ; it will cost about
2s. Several American tools of a similar kind are
made. Fig. 8 is a hand-vice which is used for work
that is too clumsy for the small pin-vice. Hand-vices
are made in different styles of finish and varying
prices. A 3-inch vice is about the size most useful,
and it will cost about 2s. It maybe said that these
prices are rather over than under the mark.
The illustration, Fig. 9,
shows the interior of a
clock of the cheapest de-
scription ; it is a Dutch
clock though more popu-
larly known as the com-
mon kitchen clock. These
time-keepers are made in
the Schwarzwald (Ger-
many), where labour is
cheap, and the cost of
production has been di-
minished to such an
extent that some clocks
made there are sold in
London at the ridiculously
low price of fifteenpence.
The American pro-
ductions have in recent
years to a great extent
superseded the Dutch,
but statistics show that
ten years ago there were
in the Black Forest
nearly 1 500 manufacturers, who employed 13,500 work-
people, and produced nearly two millions of clocks
yearly. Various kinds of clocks are included in this
aggregate. One of the cheapest is shown in the
accompanying illustration, but "cuckoo" clocks and
regulators are also made in the Schwarzwald. One of
the most noticeable peculiarities in these clocks is
that they have lantern pinions. It is only for work of
the highest class and most costly description that
lantern pinions are used in English clocks. That they
are far superior in many ways, as compared with ordi-
nary leaved pinions, has been practically demonstrated.
Why makers of English clocks will not adopt lantern
pinions is a question that appears very difficult to
answer. It is out of place here to discuss the merits
of the two forms of pinion ; but the observant amateur
FIG. 9.— A COMiMON DUTCH OR GERMAN CLOCK.
will not fail to notice how much better the gearing is
with lantern pinions, and also that the wheel teeth
need not be cut so accurately as when used to drive
ordinary leaved pinions.
Let us now glance at the illustration Fig. 9. It
shows the common Dutch clock that may be found
hanging in many kitchens, and which is a most trust-
worthy time-keeper. Each side of the movement of
clocks of this description is provided with a door, and
when one door is unhooked from its hinges, the move-
ment is disclosed, as shown in the illustration. By
means of the lettering the various parts may be des-
cribed. A, A show the top and bottom of the whole
movement, and into these the uprights B, B, which
form the bearings for the wheel axes, are mortised.
One of the pieces B,
usually the front one, is
easily removed, to take
out the wheel-work, by
being pressed outwards
C is a piece to which the
ends of a, a are fixed ; D is
the dial ; and E the back,
by which the clock is
hung on a nail. This nail
enters a hole in the upper
part, not shown, the legs
F, F serving to keep the
clock away from the wall
sufficiently to leave a
space for the pendulum,
G, to swing clear.
The wheel-work is
shown towards the left.
H is the axis of the great
wheel, which turns once
every hour. This axis
also carries the pulley on
which the weight-cord R
minute-wheel O, and the
explanations given in the
is wound ; also the
hour-wheel s. The
previous chapter will enable the amateur to under-
stand the working of these wheels O and S, which,
together with P, form the motion work. The great
wheel on H usually has 56 teeth, and it gears into the
pinion, having 7 trundles, I. On the same axis, or
arbor, is a wheel which drives the pinion J, and this
carries the escape-wheel. The escape- wheel, of course,
is entirely different from the others, its teeth being
formed to drive the pallets on k. The axis of the
pallets has a wire fixed in it, which protrudes at the
back of the clock, and forms the crutch L, with a
horizontal hook at the lower end, which embraces the
pendulum rod G.
The motion work consists of the minute-wheel O,
G 2
154
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
which is fixed spring-tight on the arbor H. At its
outer end it carries the minute-hand n. The wheel S
rides loose on the socket of O, and carries the hour-
hand M. The small wheel P turns on a stud, and is
kept on its place by a small bent wire, as shown.
This wheel is driven by O, and in its turn drives S at
such a speed that every twelve revolutions of O pro-
duces one revolution of S.
In tracing the power to the regulator, we com-
mence with the cord R, on which the weight is hung.
This cord is frequently replaced by a chain, which is
more durable, but the effect is the same. A click and
ratchet-wheel allows the cord to be wound over in one
direction, but when the weight pulls in the other direc-
tion the power turns the great wheel, which drives the
next, and that one the next, till the teeth of the escape-
wheel act on the pallets. The power that reaches
this point is not sufficient to move the pendulum, but
when once this has been set in motion, the clock
movement, if in proper order, will keep the pendulum
swinging till the weight has exhausted its power. The
pendulum swings freely from the point of suspension,
and a very slight impulse given at each vibration is
all that is required to keep up the oscillation.
In order to use the slight impulse to the best
advantage, it must act on both sides of the pendulum
equally. The "drop" on the pallets — that is, the
amount that the escape-wheel revolves from the time
when a tooth is liberated from one pallet till another
tooth falls on the other pallet — is arranged to be equal
in manufacturing. It is seldom that an amateur will
have to interfere with this " drop." If the pendulum
when hanging still does not leave the pallets precisely
midway between escaping, the clock will be out of
beat ; that is to say, that the pendulum must swing
farther towards one side than is necessary on the
other, in order to allow the wheel-teeth to "escape"
from the pallets. If the amount of error is slight
the clock will frequently go all right, but in order
to promote accuracy, every clock should be carefully
adjusted to be "in beat."
The clock shown at Fig. 9 may be best set in beat
thus wise. Hang it on a nail approximately upright,
put the weight on the cord, and hang the pendulum on
the eye shown near the top F ; the rod of the pendu-
lum must of course be inside the hook on the lower
end of the crutch L. If the pendulum is now swung
sufficiently far, the pallets K will be moved enough to
allow the teeth of J to escape. If the clock is not
hanging with the crutch vertical, the pendulum will of
necessity continue to swing, on one side, after the tooth
has escaped ; this is an error. By drawing the pen-
dulum aside very gradually till a tooth is heard to
escape, and then allowing the pendulum to swing free,
it is easy to ascertain whether the arc through which
it swings is sufficient to allow the pallets to be lifted
on both sides the requisite amount. A practised ear
will detect by the " tick " whether a clock is properly
in beat, and by shifting the movement slightly the
crutch is got to hang vertically from the pallets. It
may happen that when the clock is in beat the dial is
not quite upright ; in that case, the crutch has to be
bent, or more properly straightened, so as to allow the
necessary adjustment to be made. Clocks that are
out of beat, if they go at all, do so at a great disad-
vantage, and probably more than half those household
clocks that are now useless as timekeepers would be
set right by any one putting them in beat. The
regular, synchronous "tick, tick," is necessary har-
mony from a good timekeeper ; when the " ticks " are
alternately long and short, the clock is out of beat,
and should be at once adjusted.
A few instructions on cleaning the common kitchen
clock will conclude this chapter. Taking Fig. 9 from
its hook, first unhook the pendulum and the weights.
Open the doors on each side of the movement and
unhook them from their hinges. This will leave the
interior movement open to inspection ; it will be pro-
bably found to contain dust and flue. Often a vigorous
blast from the kitchen bellows suffices to remove the
obstructions, but such a process is not to be recom-
mended. Proper lubrication is essential to all
machinery. The hands are to be removed first, a
small screwed collet will probably be found on the
centre arbor, unscrew this and the hands may then be
lifted off, one at a time. The dial D is next removed ;
it is generally held by some pins which cannot be
easily indicated and which must be discovered by
searching for them. The motion wheels s, O, and P
are then taken off. The front upright B has next to be
taken out. It is usually fitted into a couple of mortise
holes in the lower A, and the top slides inwards
towards K till upright, the piece being secured by a
vertical pin through the top frame A passing into the
upright E. On removing this upright the whole
train of wheels will fall out, the pallets K are also
taken out, and the clock is in pieces. A brush and a
soft cloth will serve to clean all the pieces, the pinions
must be carefully attended to so as to remove all flue
and dust from the interior. The various holes in
which the pivots work are cleaned by means of a piece
of stick. It is cut pointed, thrust into the hole and
then twirled round ; the holes are thus cleaned,
several applications of the stick, which is each time
re-sharpened, being requisite. The whole being
cleaned, the movement is rehabilitated, a small drop
of fine oil applied to each bearing, and the clock is
ready to be hung on its hook with every probability of
going and keeping time for two or three years.
( To be continued?)
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
155
MODELLING IN CLAY.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ART OF CARVING
IN WOOD.
IV. — Treatment of Surfaees.— Examples for Prac-
tice and Hints on Procedure.
JLMOST every branch of art has an exten-
sive literature, covering not only the
theoretical, but the practical side of the
subject. The teachers and masters have
left us abundant instructions to guide us
in composing in light and shade, for the disposing of
figures in pictures, for the arrangement of masses and
the theory of colour. In a word, for all that is neces-
sary in making a picture or producing a decorative
design, we have an abundance of rules and directions.
Indeed, the student's difficulty is one of selection and
of digestion. He usually finds more material than he
can master. When, however, he turns from his
brushes, and, taking up the clay and modelling tools
attempts to work in relief, he seeks in vain for a
master. Little or nothing has been given to the world
on the principles involved in decorations in the solid,
or in industrial modelling, as it may, perhaps, more
correctly be called. For this reason it is difficult to
write intelligent instructions, for the teacher to a great
extent finds himself upon an unknown sea, with only
his own experience as a guide. Principles have not
been established, and there is little to aid one in
deducing them from the works accessible. Until
copies of great decorative works in relief are available
it will be difficult perhaps to show, as has so often
been done in painting, how success may be obtained
by following recognized examples.
When sitting down with the pattern of a rosette or
a panel before one, the question is naturally asked :
"What are the principles by which we should be
guided in giving these forms relief?" The student
often asks : " How shall I proceed in order to obtain
an effective disposition of light and shade on a sur-
face?" To a certain extent he must answer himself.
WTien one is working in clay, the very material seems
frequently to suggest what is to be done. The student
is, therefore, not altogether without a teacher, and, as
it is easy to correct mistakes, it is a safe rule in model-
ling to follow any suggestion in regard to the disposi-
tion of surface or form, and see whether it be correct
or otherwise. In a design we first have our arrange-
ment of lines to make. This is obtained by following
some of the general principles that would guide the
designer in ornamenting a flat surface. One who has
studied decorations in the works of Colling or Dresser
will find that they give abundant assistance, but when
we ask how shall the relief be distributed, the case
becomes different, and the student is left without
guidance.
The first subjects likely to be attempted by the
beginner are probably such designs as will be appro-
priate for rosettes or panels. In modelling such work,
it is well to observe that the design ought not to pro-
ject above the rails or framework in which it is held,
nor above the mouldings which surround it. If this
is applicable to a rosette as to a panel, the reason for
the rule is found in the fact that projecting work is
continually liable to do injury and to receive it also.
Very high relief is offensive, as it makes the ornament
appear more like a separate work than a decoration.
Some of the best work that I have ever seen, although
on a large scale, has only 1 inch or i& inch projec-
tion from the background, and yet the panels are 4 feet
or 5 feet long, and perhaps 2 feet in height.
In a disposition of the lights and shadows, con-
sidered by themselves, we find in modelling that the
same rules may be observed that guide us in designing
in black and white upon a flat surface. The means
for obtaining lights and shades of graduation are
altogether different. For example, in Fig. 18 we roll
up a ball of clay in the hand and place it in the centre
of the rosette, and we obtain a small and very high
light, which will be graduated into a shade upon one
side, while upon the other side will be a strong, dark
shadow, and if there is a background on the side away
from the light, there will be a shadow darker upon
that surface than upon the ball itself. In this parti-
cular case, however, there is no flat background, and
consequently no opportunity for a shadow to be
thrown. The exact position of the light point will, oi
course, be determined by the direction in which the
light falls. If the light comes from directly overhead,
the shadow will probably be very strong and the effect
very bold. A great portion of our ornamental work is
modelled under a light which falls thus upon it, or at
an angle of perhaps 40 or 45 degrees. This is admir-
able for the artist, but the work suffers, because the
most of wood carving — and, in fact, most of the orna-
mental work in relief — is seen by side lights. Conse-
quently, if we make our first design to be seen from a
light coming from above, it suffers when seen in a side
light. If the student will model a rosette like that
shown in Fig. 18 or in Fig. 21, doing it with a light fall-
ing in one direction only upon his work, and without
turning it around, he can easily get a very pleasing
effect. If he now turns the work through 45 degrees
or 90 degrees, a very decided change in it will be seen,
and if he turns it still further he may be surprised to
find that its character is altogether different from that
which he supposed it had. One thing will certainly
be evident— that many errors had been made which
were entirely invisible with the light falling as at first
iS6
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
Since most work is to be seen with side lights,
common sense dictates that the model should be made
with the light falling as nearly as possible like that in
which the finished work is to be seen. The light
which is found in ordinary-
rooms is more diffused and does
not usually permit of the same
striking effects to be obtained
by the overhead light, but the
general appearance of the work
modelled with a diffuse light
from the side will be greater
than that done in the usual way.
In the distribution of light
and shade we must study the
effects which the forms of sur-
faces have upon the reflected
light, and by properly handling
the forms we may obtain lights
or shadows in such forms, and
of any intensity that we may
wish to give our work effective-
ness. For designs which are to be seen at great
distances, as in the cornices of buildings, it often
happens that the only thing to which the artist's
attention is directed in the modelling is this formation
of surface as it modifies the light. When, however,
the object is to be seen within a few feet of the eye,
something further becomes necessary. We may intro-
duce absolute beauty of form in addition to the beauty
confined by light and shade, and what we may be per-
mitted to term " flat outline." A mass of light can be
produced by the use of a flat
surface turned toward the side
from which the light comes.
To graduate such a mass, a
portion of the surface may be
curved away from the light,
which will introduce a shadow
or a partial one, according to
the inclination. A similar gra-
duation may be obtained by
turning a surface sharply up
to catch the light, and then
allowing it to sink away rapidly
till it reaches a considerable
depth, so as to be out of reach
of the light. In Figs. 18, 20,
and 21, deep shadows are
obtained by carrying the work
down to great depths, so that in any ordinary light
they will appear almost black. Shadows of pro-
jecting parts may sometimes be used for the same
purpose. In the leaf on the right hand of Fig. 20 we
have an illustration of how twisted or winding surfaces
FIG. 17.— STEM WITH LEAVES AND FLOWERS ON
CONCAVE OR CONVEX SURFACE.
FIG. 18. — ROSETTE IN CLAY, THE FOUR
QUARTERS SHOVV.NJ DIFFERENT LEJREES
OF FINISH.
give modulated lights and shadows. Where fine lines
of light are wanted, they are obtained by means of
sharp raised edges. Lines of black, as in Fig. 18, can
be obtained by sunken lines, the depth or colour or
shade being in proportion to the
depth of the cut. In Fig. 20,
which was sketched from a
model made by a beginner, two
leaves are shown, illustrating
different kinds of work. The
one on the left-hand side is like
that employed in stone work,
and in that material is very easy
to produce. Such convex sur-
faces, however, are difficult in
wood, and the leaf on the right
shows more nearly the form
which would be used by wood
carvers.
The tongue which rises up
between these leaves is almost
flat, and rises sharply at the
edges. A section of it would be almost like a sled
runner, the curve only commencing within a very
short distance of the edge. The bunch of grapes
gives a roughness, and breaks up the light and shade
very effectively. The original design was intended
to form part of a bold decorated moulding, and this
pattern is repeated continuously. The edges of the
leaf in the original are left wide, and in the spaces
between the leaves several lines are cut to increase the
shadows. This is shown as solid black in the cut.
For architectural work, and that
which is seen at a distance, the
edges of the leaves are often
worked up an eighth or a
quarter of an inch wide. This
is very effective, as it outlines
the forms perfectly and prevents
them from having an appearance
like sheet metal. In small
carvings, to be seen near the
eye, this treatment is not ne-
cessary, and the leaf will be
finished more like that on the
right-hand side, the line of light
which the edge catches being
ample for the purpose of out-
lining.
Fig. 21 is a rosette, which
is very difficult for the beginner to model in clay,
yet in wood carving it would be comparatively easy
since the lines can all be drawn, and the work cut,
almost as well without a model as with one. This is
one of the few designs which appear almost as well
MODELLING IN CLA V.
157
when reversed as when positive. That is to say, if
instead of a cup in the centre we had made a ball,
with a cross cut into it, the design would have had
nearly the same appearance as at present. Each of
the cup-shaped leaves at the sides rolls upward, so
as to give a mass of graduated light on either side
the central depression. At the same time, the lines
forming the edges of these leaves are very graceful
when properly modelled in the solid, and are good
illustrations of the fact that we can often see beauty
in relief which does not appear when the same
subject is drawn in plan or elevation, or when
seen from any point of view with one eye. This is
particularly true of all lines which have widely different
curvatures when seen in profile and in front view.
Such lines give a wonderful grace and beauty to relief
work. Of course, when represented upon paper, only
one set of their curvatures can possibly be repre-
sented, and
much of their
beauty must
of necessity
be lost.
These illus-
trations are
all drawn
from the
work of a
beginner, and
are useful in
illustrating
the different
steps which
were taken,
and the mea-
sure of pro-
gress which may be expected. Fig. 19 is a style of work
once very fashionable, but now chiefly useful for show-
ing how surfaces may be treated, in order to carry out
a scheme of light and shade and of outlines at the same
time. If the plain bands at the top and bottom, by
which the scrolls are joined or held together, be set at
different angles, the amount of light which they will
catch will be greatly varied, and their effects empha-
sized or diminished. The main stems and branches
forming the scrolls are raised nearly their own width
from the background, and while nominally octagonal,
the lower sides are considerably higher or wider than
the others, and stand at an angle with the background,
so that upon examination it would seem as though the
stem had been pushed over sideways after being put
in position. This increases the shadow upon the one
side, and augments the amount of light reflected by
the other. The same is true of the stem, shown in
Fig. 17, where the relief is greatly exaggerated, and
FIG. 19. — SCROLL WORK FOR PANEL.
FIG. 20. — PORTION OF CARVED MOULDING.
the pieces connecting them with the body of the work
are vertical on one side and greatly cut away upon the
other.
It will be profitable for every one who wishes
to learn
enough of ==;
the art to j|
make it ~
useful as
an aid in
wood carv-
ing, to at-
tempt to
copy these
designs on
a large
scale. Fig.
18 should be made about 10 inches square, and
the ball in the centre given a projection of
about 1 inch. For speed of working, it is a great
advantage to have the work so large that the finger
will answer for tools. Fig. 21 should also be made
about 10 inches square. If convenient, this may
be cut in wood without attempting to make a clay
model. Fig. 20 should be about 20 inches wide. It
will be a very grand lesson if this design can be com-
pleted without the use of a tool. One-half of it may
be made as a model for wood, and the other, as shown,
for stone. It will be found that it is much easier in
clay to get the stone effect than that which imitates
wood. In this, as in most of the early work, the
beginner is constantly tempted to seek after too much
relief. He
wants to
get bold-
ness and
vigour by
leaving his
work stand
ing up
away from
the back-
ground. It
will be well,
therefore, ii
the highest
portion of
this work
be limited
to 2 inches. While not very pleasing on paper, it
becomes effective in the clay.
In Fig. 21, as in Fig. 18, it is well to try the effect
of finishing the different sides differently. Thus in
Fig. 18, three different methods of decorating the
leaves are shown. In one the ground is sunk leaving
FIG. 21. — ROSETTE ON SMALL SUNK PANEL.
i58
THE " ALHAMBRA" FIVE O'CLOCK TEA-TABLE.
flat, raised ribs ; in another, deep lines give the effect ;
while the other two are ornamented with lines made
by a broad, round, pointed tool.
Fig. 19 was modelled, like the others, by a beginner,
from a very small sketch, and in copying it the student
will have one very good lesson in the preservation of
his outlines, while he is attending to relief also. This
design should be modelled on a large board, and
should not be less than 30 inches from top to bottom.
The highest relief need not be more than 2 inches.
In doing it, work rapidly, and do not attempt to finish
any portion the first day. In fact, the clay should be
kept so soft that finishing is impossible. Get it right
as near as possible, and then at the next sitting begin
the finishing. The focus of each of the stems, when
they are single, may be made slightly concave with
advantage, instead of perfectly flat. Fig. 17 is made
upon a round and concave, or convex, bed of clay.
The relief need not be great. For a model for this
design the student may take a flower and buds of the
buttercup, laurel, or, better yet, the common potato.
The leaves may be taken from the willow, while the
stems should be from the apple. These are all good
to study if one aims at the character, and does not
attempt to make a "dead copy." The raised stem
through the middle of the leaf is difficult at first.
Model the leaf without it ; then down the centre place
a three-cornered roll of clay, and cut and trim till it is
reduced to the right size. After modelling a leaf once
in this way, the difficulty will disappear, and other
similar leaves can be made at once without any stick-
ing on of the middle. Flower buds are especially
valuable objects for copying. The bud, however,
should be very small, and the copy a foot long and
done entirely with the fingers. This will prevent an
imitation of details, and, at the same time, force
a bold and striking resemblance, a character greatly
to be desired, since it is the foundation of all good
work.
The readers for whom these instructions for model-
ling in clay have been prepared, are of two widely
different classes — namely, those who know nothing of
carving, practically speaking, and who take up these
lessons as leading them to the threshold of this beau-
tiful art, and those, who, by association and long
experience, thoroughly understand the use of wood-
working tools. For the benefit of both classes, and
especially the latter, it has been thought desirable to
continue the consideration of forms in clay, as in the
present paper, than to enter, as might have been dene,
at once into directions for cutting in wood — a part of
the subject with which it may be fairly supposed that
some of our readers are already familiar, but which, for
the instruction of the inexperienced, will be fully and ex-
haustively treated in future papers. The disposition of
surfaces, the means of expression, the manner of
attaining certain desired effects, and especially the
broad subject of light and shade, early demand the
learner's attention. A familiarity with these matters is
more easily obtained by experiments in clay than in
any other way. Accordingly the student is recom-
mended to pursue his investigations in this direction
until considerable skill in manipulation is obtained.
From that point forward his progress in cutting wood
in ornamental forms, and in shapes to express ideas,
will be easy and rapid.
THE "ALHAMBRA" FIVE O'CLOCK
TEA-TABLE.
HOW TO MAKE IT AND FINISH IT.
By J. W. GLEESON-WBITB.
(For Illustrations, see the Supplement to this Part.)
HE tea-table shown in the Supplement
this month is the result of an attempt to
utilise the powers of amateur fret-cutters
in a larger and more enduring form than
the work usually obtains. At bazaars, at
amateur sale-rooms, displays of "the bride's presents,"
and other places where fret-work is most often seen,
one is vexed to observe so much honest work expended
on the most fragile and unsuitable objects. The sad
end of these dust-collectors, when, after the brief life
of the drawing-room and the not kindly old age of the
spare bpdroom, they vanish into the lumber-room, may
surely be avoided by a form wherein fret-work is the
most important point, but by its suitability of design
and plentiful structural support of solid wood-work, it
shall be enabled to last, with ordinary care, as long as
the other furniture of the house. The tea-table shown
is intended as an experiment in this direction ; and if
done as it is proposed to explain, without unduly
taxing amateur powers, will repay working out.
First comes the choice of wood for working it in.
The designer prefers, on the whole, a dark, straight,
grained walnut, finished with oil only, not with
French polish, which is invariably fatal to a good
artistic effect in fret-work, the glitter of the surface
showing in very bad contrast with the rough and
unsightly saw-work of the cuttings, stained by the
excess of polish (if polished after cutting). If walnut
is not available, the next best would be any fairly hard
wood stained dead black, with a mere suspicion of
polish ; or else natural unstained oak, always success-
ful, but a little ecclesiastical and crude for an ordinary
drawing-room. A good effect might be obtained by
using wood stained black for the structural parts,
THE " ALHAMBRA" FIVE O'CLOCK TEA-TABLE.
r59
while the actual fret-cutting was executed in satin
or other light yellow wood, or mahogany thoroughly
gilded (the inner saw-cut edge as well as the surface)
with Bessemer" s gold, or similar preparation.
The top should be of plain wood, in any of the
above ways of treatment, the same as the other struc-
tural parts. If it is wished to cover this with plush, or
any other material, with a fringe or edging of lace,
the plain rail at the top of the fret-arches (and,
of course, the legs) should be made at least two inches
higher, or the fret-work will be hidden, for the most
part, from an ordinary point of sight.
If needed, a shelf may be placed resting on or
fastened below the rails connecting the legs, but the
designer prefers the shape as shown in the Supple-
ment, without an under-shelf.
Should the mysteries of the hexagonal form strike
terror to a young amateur joiner, the table may be
made, and no less serviceable in its new form, as a
square four-sided table ; but in this case it would be
better with legs not less than 2 feet 6 inches high, and
with one under-shelf at least ; or it might be made
still higher with a second series of rails, fret-work
band, and under-shelf. In this case the topmost
shelf should nearly touch the spring of the fret-work
arches.
Before commencing to explain the construction, it
would be well to remember, as a very important detail,
that the angle of 6o' — the angle of the equilateral
triangle, either singly, as of 6o°, or doubled, so as to
form an angle of 120° — is the angle that governs all
parts of the design, of which an hexagon, consisting
of six equilateral triangles, may be said to be the
motif. A perfect hexagon can be made to any size by
dividing the circumference of the circle in six parts,
and subtending these six arcs by straight lines, each
of which is exactly the size of or equal to the radius
or half-diameter ; or, in other words, by dividing the
circumference into six parts, and drawing straight lines
from each point to the one nearest it. If all of these
angles of 6cT or 120° are cut true, the whole will fit
well and easily ; but if cut by guess-work, or inaccu-
rately, the failure is a foregone conclusion.
The construction and composition of the hexagon
is shown in the annexed figure. With regard to the
construction, let us suppose that it is desired to set
out the plan of a regular hexagon, whose sides shall
be each equal to the straight line a b. From A and B
as centre, with the radius A B or B A, describe the
arcs c A, C B, and draw the straight lines C A, c B.
The triangle A c B thus formed is an equilateral
triangle, that is to say, its sides A b, b c, c A
are equal, and each of its angles A B c, B c A, and c a
B, is an angle of 6o°. From the centre c, with the
radius C A or C B, describe the circle A B D E F G.
Draw the straight lines B D
CONSTRUCTION AND COMPOSI
TION OF THE HEXAGON.
From the points A and B, as centre, with the same
radius, describe short arcs calling the circumference of
the circle in G and D, and from the points G and d thus
obtained, describe other arcs, cutting the circumference
of the circle in F and E.
D E, E F, F G, G A. The
figure A B D e F G thus
inscribed in the circle is a
regular hexagon, having
its sides each equal to A B,
and each of its angles an
angle of 1200. By draw-
ing the straight lines D G,
C E, and c F, it is shown
that the hexagon is com-
posed of six equal and
similar equilateral tri-
angles on three equal and
similar rhombuses, each rhombus in this case being
composed of two equilateral triangles placed together
base to base.
Having decided on the variety of wood, it has to
be purchased by the foot. It will be necessary to
obtain for the fret-work six pieces a foot square, and
one about 12 by 16 inches, this should be \ to i inch
thick, about 9 square feet of inch stuff for the top, a
piece 24 by 12 inches of 2-inch stuff for the legs,
and a piece 17 inches long by 14 inches wide for the
top hexagon ; also a piece of inch stuff about 14 inches
square for the twelve rails, and some small pieces for
the brackets. Enough should come off the top to
make these, if planed down to J or f inch.
The table is shown with alternative half designs
for the fret-work. One should be chosen for the whole,
or, at least, for each of three sides, and will require
tracing to complete the design in the usual way.
The six arch-pieces should be cut with the grain of
the wood perpendicular (i.e., parallel with the legs),
and the grain of the fret-work bands running the same
way, as the weakness is more than balanced by the
rails into which it is grooved. The fret-cutting should
be done with a rather fine saw, to avoid much filing.
The brackets should be in wood at least \ inch thick.
If the design given is too elaborate for the saw used
a plain bracket, cut with keyhole saw, will be prefer-
able to using a thinner wood.
The designs being pasted on the wood for cutting,
they should be all fitted into the framework before any
part is cut. It is important that each is pasted on
exactly square with the edge of the wood, a danger
so easily overlooked, that it is worth specially guarding
against.
The top, ii left without covering, which is best in
this table, may be of wood, grooved and tongued to-
gether to requisite width, or put together in six perfect
i6o
SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE.
triangles, with the grain marking the hexagon ; or it
may be inlaid or painted with design as preferred ;
but common-sense treatment of a table seems to
suggest a plain top, as its fair use is to hold things
and be hidden, not to be in itself decorative.
The six pieces of wood C c, \\ inch thick, for the
top frame, should be made first. These lap over each
other, as shown in sketch of c. This frame C C is
screwed for the last completing work underneath the
top by thumb-holes with screws, as shown in plan of
top of table.
The legs, A A, themselves perfect hexagons, should
be cut with 22 inches clear, and peg above to fit into
hole in each angle of top frame C C as shown. A
round shape is chosen, instead of usual mortise and
tenon, to allow a little " easing" in the putting together.
The legs must be prepared with grooves at each side,
to admit the fret-work arches D D and fret-work band.
The rails B B for band E E mortises into these. It will
be seen that the grooves must be cut at an angle, to
allow the panels D D to enter. The brackets to sup-
port the top of the table mortise into the legs A A and
the frame c C. These should be put in last.
All being worked to instructions given, put the
band of fret-work E E between rails B B in their proper
grooves, place these into the legs standing upright,
slide the arches D D down into their places (the
groove for these should be just long enough to keep
them up in their right position), now insert the pegs of
the legs at top into the frame C C, screw into the legs
through c from top, peg the mortise of E rails to pre-
vent their giving way (all the fittings should be glued
as well, to insure stability), fit in the brackets as de-
scribed, and by screwing to the top frame C C, the
table will be finished ; and if made as above, will be
found as firm and lasting as at least the custom
from which it derives its use and name.
It has been assumed throughout this description
that the worker is familiar with fret-cutting, but it
may be better to note a few points not always insisted
upon. First, that, as a general rule, for work to be seen
on one side only. It has a better effect when finished
if worked with a somewhat slanting saw, so as to cut
the under side larger than the top, this allows each
piece as cut to drop freely out, and also clears the
design a little, especially in rather fine work. Again,
do not be too anxious for mechanical accuracy of each
part ; if a curve is likely to "flow" better (cutters will
know the feeling in hand-work of the saw going
naturally along a line) a little more or less than the
line drawn, so that it is only on a leaf or other some-
what fine form, the effect will be better if not exact
enough to cramp the natural free working of the saw.
For those who, liking the shape of the table, do not
like, or cannot undertake fret-work decoration, a plain
arch piece D D, with a simple horse-shoe or Gothic
arch and solid pieces for bands E c, will give a table
that would decorate well flowers painted on a dark
ground, or an arabesque ornament in bright colours
in style of the Alhambra work generally, would make a
novel if rather bizarre table. As a final word, if the
ornament be well or badly worked, the fitting neatly
or roughly done, try and secure firmness and stability,
or all the beauty it may have will be worse lhan
nothing, if a shaking and unsteady structure be the
final result.
SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCI-
DENTAL HEMORRHAGE.
HE following remarks on simple methods
of staunching accidental hemorrhage are
from the pen of a writer in the Indiana
Medical Reporter, a periodical publica-
tion, which, as its name implies, is pro-
duced chiefly for the use of members of the medical
profession. At first sight it may seem to be altogether
foreign to the purpose of this Magazine, but when it is
remembered what efforts are now being made in this
country to impart to all who are willing to take advan-
tage of it, an elementary knowledge of the structure of
the human frame, and to render them competent to
assist in cases of emergency, arising from accidents or
otherwise, this paper will not be considered to be out
of place, dealing as it does, with "amateur work" of a
very important character.
"At first sight," says the writer of this interesting
paper, " it seems almost superfluous to write or say a
word about any method of arresting hemorrhage from
wounds ; for the practitioner, as a rule, is well ac-
quainted with all the different manipulations and appli-
ances for the purpose, and enough may be obtained
from the text books. Nevertheless, to call attention to
some useful, or old, or apparently forgotten mattei
occasionally, seems not to be amiss, for it refreshes our
memory, stimulates us to think about and keep before
our eyes important subjects. A few hints on the above,
I hope, will therefore be well received.
" The treatment of hemorrhage, viz., the arresting of
the same from open wounds, is not only important to
the surgeon as the basis of surgery, but it is also of
great importance to the laity, and especially to those
workmen who are perpetually in danger of being
injured. It is astonishing how unknowing the people
seem to be, with any method to check bleeding from a
wound temporarily ; even the most simple method
of pressure is in the majority of such accidents not
resorted to. The sight of a little blood does not alone
SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE.
161
FIG. I. — BLEEDING
FROM UPPER ARM.
upset a timid, nervous woman, but many times the
strongest of men ; and why ? — because it naturally
creates a feeling of awe and detestation. If a person
is wounded by a machine, or otherwise, a crowd of
all his fellow-workmen gather around him, and look
on the poor fellow bleeding ; half a
dozen or more will start out on a
run in different directions to hunt a
doctor, or some old woman who has
a reputation for stopping bleeding
by sympathy, either of whom they
are likely to find ' not at home.'
In the meantime the vital fluid
trickles away ; nobody knows what
to do ; everybody does something,
but none the right thing. Now, it
is true, it does not often happen
that any one bleeds to death, wise
mother nature, as a rule, coming
to their assistance, especially in lacerated wounds ;
but the anaemic condition produced by excessive loss
of blood is followed by severe consequences, and is to
be dreaded, for it retards recovery. To save all the
blood possible ought to be apprehended as an impor-
tant matter by every one.
" Hardly a week passes that some unfortunate is not
brought to my office, who has been badly injured in
some way ; he has been bleeding, perhaps, the dis-
tance of several blocks, and arrives almost faint. In
the most of such cases they have something tied
around their wounds, but hardly ever in any manner
so as to be equal to stop the bleeding. In exceptional
cases you find a tourniquet or the Spanish windlass
applied. This, when applied by a surgeon, may answer
very well, but when applied by a non-professional
person it is invariably screwed up so tight that the
pain produced thereby is so great and intolerable that
the patient prefers rather to
bleed to death. This is a great
objection.
" Therefore I will call atten-
tion to the method of forcible
flexion ; and though extreme
flexion has been practised by
surgeons in isolated cases, still
to Professor Adelman, of
Dorpat, is due the credit of
first having systematized the
following method : —
" i. Bleedingfrom the Upper Arm {Art.Brachialis).
— Bring the elbows of the patient as near as possible
together upon the back, and fasten them with a ban-
dage. From this point let a doppelt bandage pass
down to and over the perineum ; separate the bandages
again in front, let one end run over the left, the other
FIG. 2. — BLEEDING FROM
UPPER THIRD OF ARM.
FIG. 3.— BLEEDING FROM
FRONT PART OF LEG.
over the right groin back again to the elbows (Fig. 1).
The illustrations will explain at a glance how to carry
out the instructions given here.
"2. Bleedingfrom the Arteries in the Upper Third
of the Arm). — Acute flexion of the elbow, simple bend-
ing of the forearm upon
the upper arm, will suffice.
But if there is bleeding
from the arteries near
the joint of the hand, or
from any part of the
hand, then the hand must
also be brought into
flexion, and secured by a
bandage. (See Fig. 2.)
The bandage must always
be wrapped around the
wound first.
" 3. Bleeding from
the Thigh {Art. Femoralis). — It needs no other ex-
planation, as Fig. 3 shows the mode of stopping the
hemorrhage from that region temporarily.
"Bleeding from the front part of the leg {Art.
Tibialis Ant.), same as Fig. 3.
Bleeding from the posterior part of the leg {Art.
Tibialis Post, el Peronea) same as above, with the
addition of a tampon or compress under the knee
joint, or like Fig. 4.
"4. Bleeding from the Foot {Art. Planiaris et
Dorsalis Pedis). — Flexion of the leg upon the thigh,
and flexion of the foot upon the front of the tibia.
" Objections might also be raised to the above
method on account of the pain which it may produce ;
but the flexion never needs to be so forced as to be un-
endurable to the patient ; the position may be a little
uncomfortable to a very sensitive person, that is all.
Furthermore, it has been
proven that a limb can be
kept in a flexed position for
several days, ' nine by some
authors,' without any injury,
and with a complete closure
of the arteries. We do not
expect, however, that this
method of arresting hemor-
rhage will ever be adopted
as 'the' method in surgery,
neither will it be necessary
here to point out any cases where the practitioner
can have and under certain circumstances be obliged
to have to resort to this simple method. Military
surgeons may also profit by it, for it is certainly a
valuable and admirable mode, and so easily applied in
cases of emergency by any one, if the unfortunate
should be distant from surgical aid. I also believe
fig. 4.-
-BLEEDING FROM
FOOT.
l62
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
that it would be advisable and certainly humane, to
instruct the people in general, by popular lectures or
through the press, the manner of stopping hemorrhage
temporarily.
"The simplest of all methods, however, to arrest
hemorrhage is the rubber bandage. It has displaced
in surgery the old tourniquet almost completely, which
required a certain skill and anatomical knowledge to
apply it ; not necessarily so with the rubber bandage.
Any one can apply it, for the amount of pressure
needed to arrest the hemorrhage from a wound suggests
itself. The rubber bandage produces but little pain ;
the patient is comparatively comfortable and out of
immediate danger and anxiety ; while in the mean-
time the proper attention can be secured.
" I think it would be well if our health officers would
direct their attention a little to the accidental hemor-
rhages, and if they do not possess the power, to refer
the matter to the proper tribunal to enact a law that
would compel all owners and corporations of factories,
saw, planing, and rolling mills, and, in fact, every
establishment where the labourers are constantly in
danger of accidents, to keep on hand a certain number
of strong rubber bandages, according to the number
of men employed, and that at least several of the men,
if not all in every establishment of that kind, be in-
structed in the application of the bandage. Steam-
boats and other vessels should carry a supply, and
railroad companies should be obliged to furnish all
watchmen along their respective roads with rubber
bandages, and see that the men know how to use them
in case an accident should occur. Every train that
goes out should have some bandages on board, in care
of some employe who knows how to handle them
when needed. Many pounds of precious blood may
thus be saved, and danger to life from this cause be
averted."
BOOTS AND SHOES :
HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
By ABEL EAENSEAW.
IV.— Riveted Boots and Pegged Boots (continued).
Finishing— Putting in the Lasts- Paring— Rasping— Colouring
—Setting the Edges— Finishing the Bottom of the Soles—
— Withdrawing Lasts— Cutting out Pegs— Completion of
Riveted and Pegged Work.
HE amateur who has followed the instruc-
tions given in previous chapters will now
have learned how riveted and pegged
boots are constructed, and, if he has put
the information to practical use, will
doubtless be awaiting directions how to finish off his
first attempted pair. I will therefore defer the chapter
on hand-sewn boots, and devote the present one to
instructions upon finishing.
If the boots to be finished have been made by the
riveting process, they will need to be filled out by
wooden lasts while this work is being done. The
reason for this is, that if no lasts were used, the
uppers, the stiffenings, and, indeed, the boots alto-
gether, would be so bent and crushed out of shape
during this finishing process, that a great part of their
value, and certainly all their neatness and newness of
appearance, would be taken away. It is desirable that
the wooden lasts used in finishing should be copies of
the iron ones on which the boots have been, made ;
but if these are not easily procurable, others may be
made use of, if they will fairly fill the boots out. Of
course, in pegged work the lasts are allowed to remain
in until the boots are complete, but the iron ones
riveted boots are made upon are too heavy to allow
the work to be handled with the ease and freedom
required. There is, besides, the danger of damage to
the uppers caused by the worker losing his hold, and
allowing the boot with the iron last inside it to fall to
the ground. Accidents of this kind cannot always be
avoided, and the general result is to bruise, if not to
cut a hole through the upper leather ; while if the
same accident happens when the boot contains a
wooden last, no harm is usually done, or, at the worst,
an insignificant scratch is made.
Putting in the lasts is sometimes a work of dif-
ficulty to the inexperienced worker, particularly if they
are the same size as the boots. The block, or move-
able instep piece, must first be taken off the last and
laid aside ; then the worker, holding the boot in his
left hand, must insert the toe of the last, and steadily
force it forwards until it completely fills the toe of the
boot. This operation may be assisted when the toe
of the last is nearly to the end of the boot, by giving
the heel of the last two or three smart blows with the
hammer. The back part of the upper is next to be
drawn over the heel of the last, and it may then be
pressed down into its place. After this has been
done, the block has to be pressed in, and the boot will
then be properly filled out ; but the worker must not
exert too much force in doing this, or he may tear
the boot-lining. If the block sticks, or seems dis-
posed to go any way other than that it should take,
the worker should withdraw it and make another trial,
when probably he will find it slide into its place
without difficulty.
The wooden lasts having been fitted in the boots,
they are now ready for finishing. I may here again
state that the process of finishing is from this point
identical for riveted, pegged, and, indeed, practically
for all other kinds of boots, there being but some
BOOTS AND SHOES: HO IV TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
l63
small differences, which will be touched upon when
hand-sewn work is spoken of.
The sitting position is generally adopted in finish-
ing, and the seat occupied is as low as possible in
order that the worker may use his lap as a table to
rest his work upon. The first operation is paring.
This means cutting round the edges of the sole and
the heel so that an even edge is obtained. The
worker, when about to pare the fore-part, first places
the boot in such a position that the toe rests and is
held by the hollow part of the chest, the heel resting
upon his knees, the bottom of the sole being towards
the right hand. Then holding the knife perfectly
square with the sole, and not with the point inclining
towards the upper, he takes off a shaving of leather,
which may be thicker or thinner according to the
amount of superfluous leather which appears beyond
the edge. " But why," the reader may say, " is their
any leather to be taken away now, when the sole was
carefully' shaped before it was put on ? " The reason
is this, that while it is being worked the manipulation
and hammering it receives causes it to give or spread
slightly, and the variation in its texture at different
points may cause this spreading to be somewhat
irregular. Making the upper his guide, the worker
pares the sole evenly from joint to joint, reversing the
position of the boot as the toe is pared, and leaving the
edges about one-eighth wider than the upper part seems
to be. The distance and the squareness of the sole
edge — which are very important matters to attend to —
may be ascertained in a moment by holding the boot
up to a level with the eyes, and with the bottom part
of the sole away from the worker. The amateur must
not attempt to do this part of his work quickly, or to
cut too much at once, but to trim the edges carefully,
and keep thorough command over his knife. When
the forepart is pared the heel next requires attention.
The top piece must be made the worker's guide, and
he, grasping the boot firmly with his left hand, must
cut away all superfluous leather by clean, steady,
downward cuts. The leather may seem hard and
awkward to pare off in this way, but the worker must
restrain the tendency which almost all beginners have
to haggle or saw the stuff off. The latter way of
paring is not only tiring to the worker, but is also dan-
gerous to the work. Above everything, let me again
impress upon the amateur not to be in a hurry when
occupied at this position of the work. The front, or
" breast," of the heel has next to be trimmed. This is
simply a piece of straight clean cutting. A line may
be drawn across the front of the" top piece just far
enough from the edge to enable a vertical cut to clear
all irregularities, and this cut may then be made down
as far as the sole, which the worker must be very care-
ful not to make an incision in. The sole in the waist
is not usually pared, but a strip is bevelled off it from
the row of pegs to the edge, leaving that part about
an eighth of an inch in thickness. This lightens the
appearance of the boot without detracting from its
strength or wearing qualities, and completes the
operation of paring. Next follows that of rasping.
The small half-round rasp mentioned in the second
chapter has now to be vigorously applied to the edges
all the way round, the effect of the rasping being to
take away all marks left by the knife, and whatever
irregularities may exist, and at the same time -to harden
the edge somewhat. This rasp is a very safe tool in
the hands of the beginner, who may be recommended
to use it in preference to the knife whenever possible.
The edges, having been well rasped, are next damped
slightly with a sponge, and the edge knife {i.e., the
piece of steel busk, or, failing it, a morsel of broken
glass) applied. This will take off, if moved over the
edges at an acute angle, very delicate shavings, just
enough to "take out the marks left by the teeth of the
rasp. If this is done properly, the leather will then be
left with a very smooth edge all the way round, but it
will again be improved by rubbing it with a piece of
the finest sand-paper.
It will now be found that although the solid part
of the leather has been made perfectly smooth, small
portions have turned over both towards the upper and
outwards from the sole. This, on the sole side, has to
be trimmed off evenly with the knife ; but the portion
nearest the upper can only be cut away safely, except by
old "knife-hands," with the "welt-plough," which is a
tool of the nature of a gouge, but with a guard at its left
hand side or inner edge. The loose leather having been
taken off evenly all round the boot, and at the seat of
the heel (where the sole joins the upper at the back)
as well, a " fore-part iron," exactly corresponding to
the thickness of the sole at ihe fore-part, may be
pressed round the edge. This will improve its shape,
and its guard smoothen down any odd fibres or rough-
ness left by the welt-plough. An iron may also be
run round the seat for a similar purpose.
The work is now " ready for colour;" that is to say
for the ink which is used to dye the edges. Shoe-
makers' ink is of a special kind, and much cheaper
than ordinary inks. It is applied to the edges of boots
with a small brush, a liberal supply being necessary
to insure a good black being obtained. It should be
carefully run into all the interstices between upper and
sole, so as to give a regular appearance throughout.
The boots must be laid aside for a short time after the
ink is applied, until it has had time to dry in properly.
In dry weather about half an hour will be sufficient,
but in damp weather a longer time will be necessary.
If on examination the leather does not then seem to
be properly dyed, a further application of ink should
164
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
be made wherever the brown patches show themselves.
When nearly dry, the edges must be wiped with a
piece of cotton rag, which will remove any gritty
matter or other substance left by the ink on the surface.
The work is now ready for " ironing up," or " set-
ting," by which terms the polishing and hardening up
process the edges undergo are known. First, the fore-
part iron is heated at the fire, or in the flame of gas
or candle, nearly to the point at which, if moisture is
applied, it will hiss. If the hissing noise is produced,
it must be allowed to cool slightly, and in this condition
it must be pressed on the edge, and passed steadily
backwards and forwards, being subjected meanwhile
to all the pressure the worker can bring to bear on it.
It will be found that the edge will now begin to show
a polish ; and when this appears all round — needing,
by the way, more than a single heating of the iron —
the first setting will be complete. The heel-edges are
now to be burnished. For this the rod-iron burnisher
has to be heated at its centre to the same degree as
mentioned above, and the worker, holding the toe part
of the boot between his knees, must rub the burnisher
vigorously upwards and downwards, changing the
position of the boot slightly as the required polish is
obtained, so that the whole circumference is thus
brightened. Another way of brightening heels is to
use a glazer. This is a tool consisting of a piece of
iron with a rounded face, about the size of a florin.
It is passed backwards and forwards instead of up and
down like the burnisher, and is equally efficacious, but
not so rapid in its action. A waist iron, which is a
modification of the fore-part iron alluded to above, is
next to be run along each side of the sole in the waist
of the boot, and the bevelled part brightened by
rubbing it with the burnisher.
The next process is a second ironing, and this time
a small quantity of heelball is " ironed into" the edges.
The heelball may first be warmed for a second or so,
and then rubbed on the edges here and there. The
application of the heated fore-part iron and burnisher
at their respective points will cause this to melt and
spread evenly, and if it is worked well in, it will ensure
a brilliant polish afterwards. The seat-wheel must
next be heated and passed round the back of the heel
seat, which takes from its guard an even and regular
appearance ; and from the wheel itself, that small line
of parallel marks which may be seen in most boots at
this point. The seat-wheel may be touched with the
heelball when hot, and a small quantity will adhere
— enough, however, to lend the requisite gloss to the
part over which the wheel passes. This completes the
work to be done to the edges, except the final " rubbing
off," which does not take place until the bottom of the
sole is finished ; that is to say, if the amateur thinks
it necessary to finish the bottom at all. Of course, in
the manufacture of boots the eye has to be pleased as
well as the wear studied ; and if I may reveal a not
very closely-kept secret, the former point is usually a
good deal more thought about than the latter. Few
people would buy boots if the bottoms did not " look
nice " as well as the upper parts and the edges ; but
while it is very desirable that the processes already
described should be gone through, the soles being
improved and made less liable to get out of shape by
the hardening their edges get, a portion of the best
wearing leather is taken away when the bottoms are
finished. It is true this is but a small portion, but it
must lessen the time the soles will wear, nevertheless.
Still, it is desirable the amateur should know how the
finishing is to be done, even though the work he does
from this point will be lost sight of once and for all.
the first time he goes out-doors in his new boots.
Taking an ordinary metal file, preferably half round
on one side, the worker carefully files the bottom
of the sole and heel where the pegs or rivets are
"placed, until an even surface is obtained, the grain,
or smooth outer portion of the leather being removed.
Then, by the aid of a buff knife (which may be simply
a common table-knife, first sharpened, and then its
edge turned over by passing an awl smartly along it)
the grain of the sole is taken off in the centre, or
wherever the file may have left it. It is now rubbed
well, first with coarse, and then with fine, sand-paper,
and next a small quantity of a kind of dried pipe-clay
is scraped on, and rubbed in with the fine sand-
paper ; and finally the leather is " damped down " or
moistened very slightly by passing over it a flannel
rag which has been immersed in water, and squeezed
as dry as it can be made. By this process the leather
assumes, when dry, that smooth, white, and hard
appearance the public prefer the soles of their boots
should have when new. It now remains only to
remove the superfluous heelball from the edges ; and
this is accomplished by giving them a hard rubbing
with a piece of woollen cloth. This rubbing must be
continued until every smear or trace of smear is re-
moved, and a jet black polish produced — such a one
as " you can see your face in," as the shoemaker
usually tells his apprentice that he must obtain.
The lasts may now be removed by pulling out first
the blocks, and next the lower parts, by the aid of a
" last hook," which is inserted in holes made in the
respective portions for its reception. If the boots are
riveted ones nothing more need be done to them, but
if they are pegged the points of the pegs will have to
be taken off inside by means of a tool known as a
" peg rasp," which is simply a small piece of an
ordinary rasp fixed obliquely at the end of a rod. This
rasp is inserted, and rapidly cuts away the projecting
pegs, leaving the inside smooth
THE PRESERVATION OF CATERPILLARS.
i65
Pulling out the lasts is likely to put the boots some-
what out of shape, and it is necessary that wherever
this can be restored while the boots are yet damp it
should be done. If the stiffening is pushed out of
place it may be set right easily by pushing it back again
from the inside with the end of the sleeking stick ; and
if the waist be bent, a rubbing with the same tool will
probably be all needed to give it its proper direction.
The boots should now be laid aside for a few days
for the leather to dry and harden before they are worn.
It is a mistake at all times to put new boots on just as
they come from the hands of the workman.
In my last paper, in line 3 of page 125, I see that the word
11 newish" has, by a clerical error, been used instead of "moist. ''
My readers will kindly note and correct this.
( To be continued?)
THE PRESERVATION OF CATERPILLARS.
By I. W. HARRIS.
AVING noticed in Amateur Work, Illus-
trated, Part I., a short article under the
heading " Insect Taxidermy," I venture
to give a description of a simple process,
which I have found very effective for
preserving the larvae of butterflies, moths, beetles, etc.
BLOW-PIPE FOR INFLATING SKINS OF CATERPILLARS.
The materials required are a glass tube of about
I of an inch diameter, and about 12 or 15 inches long,
a small piece of thin steel spring, about I of an inch
wide and 3 inches long, and some sheets of clean,
white blotting-paper.
The glass tube must be first heated in a flame, and
drawn out to a fine point, as shown ; care being taken
to keep one side as straight as possible. This is
easily done, if you take hold of the tube in the middle
with one hand, and with the other take the extreme
end of the tube and apply the flame about 3 inches
from the end. As it softens, a steady pull will cause
it to draw. The flame is again used to soften at the
places where it is to be bent, and when finished it
should be as near as possible like the pattern shown.
The reason for this shape is to prevent any saliva or
moisture from the mouth getting into the skin as it is
dried. The steel spring is bent to the shape as above,
and simply tied on with a piece of thread. It will be
found that by simply pushing the spring backwards or
forwards, and keeping the thread in the same place
on the glass tube, the pressure on the point of the
tube may be increased or diminished at pleasure.
Now, supposing you have all ready, and you wish
to operate upon a caterpillar, the insect must first be
kept without food for at least six hours, otherwise a
black patch will be left behind the head when finished,
from the food lately eaten ; it is then killed in any
humane manner the operator thinks fit. This being
done, if it is one of the hairy sort, it is as well to soak
in alum-water for a short time— about ten minutes
will be found enough : this hardens the hair on. Then
lay it on a sheet of blotting-paper, and pass a darning-
needle into the body through the anal orifice, care
being taken not to make any other hole in the skin ;
the contents of the larva may now be gently pressed
out with the finger, working from the head, the blotting-
paper meanwhile absorbing the intestines and all
moisture. When nothing more can be extracted, take
the skin up, and insert the fine point of the glass
tube into the hole already made, and let the steel
spring just clip the extreme edge of the skin — in fact,
only just enough to hold it on the tube. The big end
of the tube is now placed in the mouth, and the skin
distended with the breath, over a hot iron plate, or
held up high over the chimney of a paraffin lamp, so
as to get heat enough to dry the skin thoroughly, but
not scorch it.
The skin must be kept full of air all the time.
When thoroughly dry, it may be slipped off the tube
quite easily, and mounted with glue, or cement, or
gum, on a grass stem, or any way the collector thinks
fit. A very little practice will enable one to dry a
skin so naturally, that it would be difficult to tell
whether the insect were dead or not, when nicely
mounted.
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD H. ALLEN.
The Modern Schools— The Wood— The Model.
N the last chapter I noticed the best of the
Italian makers ; there remain, therefore,
only the most celebrated of the French,
German, and English copyists of those
high originals to whom to accord a pass-
ing notice before going forward with our work. To
begin with the French makers.
Nicholas Lupot (Paris), 1794 — 1824. Is cited as
the best of the French makers. He copied Stradivari
almost exclusively, though his copies of the other
great masters are also excellent. Used a very good
varnish, which varied from light to dark red.
i66
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
J. B. Vuillaume (Paris), bom 1799, died 1875, is
said to have been one of the most perfect copyists and
imitators that ever lived.
Barak Norman (London), 1688— 1740. Originally
a viol maker ; copied Maggini very much, especially
in his double purfling. High build, / holes decidedly
German in style, varnish very dark.
Benjamin Banks (Salisbury), born 1727, died 1795.
Copied Amati, and used a very excellent varnish.
Left his wood rather thick, so that his instruments
have immensely improved with age. His only weak
point was his scroll, which seems wanting in character.
Many of his instruments are branded with his initials,
B. B., in several places. Ticket, " Benjamin Banks,
fecit Salisbury."
Thomas Dodd (London). Best known by his very
perfect varnish, the secret of whose composition he
kept to himself. He did not make fiddles himself, but
employed Fendt and Lott, whose instruments he re-
ceived " in the white," and varnished with his own
hand. The instruments of Fendt and Lott are among
the best of English manufacture, Lott being chiefly
famed for his double basses.
William Forster (London), born 1739, died 1808,
one of the best English makers, copied the Amati
school. His varnish was exceptionally fine.
Richard Duke (London), 1768. Copied Amati, his
work and varnish, which was yellowish, being ex-
cellent, the pattern long. Has been most copiously
and ruthlessly copied and imitated. His tenors were
small and very broad, some of his instruments are
poor, having merely been stained deep brown, and
then a coat of varnish laid on.
Peter Wamsley (London), about 1720 — 1760. One
of the best English makers, followed the Stainer model.
He was in the habit of artificially aging his instru-
ments, consequently his wood is often too thin to last
well. His varnish was reddish, or yellowish, brown ;
he often drew lines round his instruments, instead of
inlaying purfle.
John Lott (London), 1830— 1870. One of our most
talented makers, and perhaps our best native copyist.
Marvellous tales are told of his cunning in the matter
of repairs, which has been compared with that of J. B.
Vuillaume himself.
William Ebsworth Hill (London), 1830. Now
living. The last surviving representative of the old
English school. Works out an original model from
the masterpieces of Stradivari and Guarneri. His son,
Alfred Ebsworth Hill, following in his father's foot-
steps, is one of the best (perhaps the only) " child of
the century " to whom we may look for the fiddle-
maker's art in years to come.
Edward Withers (London), i860. Now living. Only
pupil of John Lott, whose style and varnish he has
copied and improved upon at times. Copies Stradi-
varius and Joseph del Jesu. Uses an exceedingly per-
fect amber varnish of a red gold colour, some of his
backs having a most magnificent live, waving appear-
ance, as its consequence. Some of his new fiddles
(one of which is used by Mr. Carrodus) have a sweet
purity of tone which promises great things, to the
patronizer of modern work.
Jacobs (Amsterdam), 1690 — 1740. So close and
perfect a copyist of Nicholas Amati that the two are
often confounded. Followed the " grand " pattern.
His distinguishing marks are his rather inferior scroll
and whalebone purfling. Varnish, very fine.
And here I must cease these memoranda, which
for shortness I have confined exclusively to the fiddle
proper, apologising for their extreme brevity by the
fact that we must hurry on to the practical part of our
work. They are collected from the most reliable
sources, and especially I desire here to record my best
thanks to Mr. Edward Withers, of Wardour Street,
who has kindly placed both his trade-stock and private
collection of fiddles at my disposal for the purposes of
these notes. To all such as are interested by them,
and would care for more historical and biographical
detail, I recommend Mr. Hart's book before referred
to (published by Dulau and Co.), and dealing most
fully with all matters connected with the old and new
" fiddle-makers."
The next thing to be considered in respect to our
subject, is the theoretical part of the fiddle-maker's art,
the science, and the rules which guide him in the deter-
mination of the form he will adopt, and the material
he will use.
It is a matter of considerable astonishment to many
persons that the fiddle took its present familiar shape
apparently quite suddenly in the sixteenth century,
and, in spite of all attempts to change it, and experi-
ments made in other forms, has kept it ever since. It
is the object of the present and following chapters to
explain, (1) Why this form is the best ; (2) How it is
obtained. Many experimentalists, many of them men
of undoubted ability, among whom are most noteworthy
Chanot and Savart, have applied their skill, science,
and labour to the discovery of a model to supersede
that which has prevailed from Gasparo da Salo, 1555
to Edward Withers, 18S2 ; and as many of these inno-
vations have been most interesting to all, and espe-
cially instructive to the fiddle-maker, I shall make these
scientific vagaries the subject of a future chapter. At
present, I shall confine myself to pointing out the
arrangement of the seventy parts of a violin* in the
* The seventy parts are made up as fol'ows : Back, 2 ; Belly,
2 ; Blocks, 6 ; Sides, 6 ; Linings, 12 ; Bass bar, 1 ; Purfling, 24 ;
Tail-piece rest, 1; Tail-piece, 1; Tail-piece fastening, 1; Tail pin,
1 ; Pegs, 4 ; Fingerboard, 1 ; Bridge, 1 ; Nut, 1 ; Strings, 4
Sound post, 1 ; Neck and Scroll, 1.
VIOLIN-MAKING ; AS IT WAS, AND IS.
167
manner best calculated to charm by its results the
musical ear. And I shall point out the advantages of
this generally accepted arrangement more from a theo-
retico-scientific point of view than a purely mechanical
one, leaving this latter to its proper place, i.e., to be set
down when we have acquired sufficient of the art and
technique of fiddle- making to be able to put our know-
ledge into practice.
Let us look first at the tout e?isemble of a fiddle.
What is it? It is a hollow box, from 13 to 14 inches
in length, at the widest part 8k inches, and at the
narrowest 4.4 inches, broad. It is about 2i inches deep
at the deepest part, and weighs about SA ounces (avoir-
dupois). Beyond this we have a neck, terminating in
a scroll, which, with pegs, finger-board, and tail-piece
of ebony, bring the weight up to about 20 ounces. The
wondrous capabilities and wonderful equilibrium of all
the parts may be summed up in one short sentence — it
supports a weight on the bridge of from 88 to 92 pounds'
pressure.
The Wood. — This is, of course, the first considera-
tion when setting about to make a fiddle. And when
I speak of the wood, I mean, of course, that used for
the back, belly, linings, blocks, and sides of the instru-
ment, without regard to the ebony or rosewood used
for the pegs, finger-board, tail-piece, and tail-pin.
(For explanation of these terms, vide Figs. 16,
page 101.) The wood most generally used for backs of
fiddles is sycamore, though pear and maple are also
sometimes used ; and as we have seen in the last
chapter, the wood is cut either sur maille (on the
quarter) or sur couche (on the layers), vide Fig. 26.
As to the cutting, we shall speak farther on ; it is as to
the nature and quality of the w?ood, on which so much
depends, that we must now consider. The wood most
sought after for bellies is Swiss or Tyrolese white pine,
of a fine (not too close) even grain. Both the syca-
more and the pine should be that growing not only on
the south side of the forest, exposed to the sun, but
also only the south side of the tree should be used,
and should be cut in the months of December or
January'. According to M. Fetis, in his notice of
Anthony Stradivari, the maple used by the old Italian
makers came from Croatia, Dalmatia, and even Turkey ;
and he goes on to say that it was sent to Venice pre-
pared for galley oars ; and that the Turks, always at war
with the Venetians, took care to select wood with the
greatest number of waves in it, in order that it might
break the sooner ; that it was from these parts of the
wood intended for the rowers that the Italian makers
chose what suited them for the manufacture of violins.
An interesting and curious fact indeed, if true. The
sycamore and pine from the Cantons of Schwytz and
Lucerne are the best. It is of the greatest importance
that the wood used in fiddle-making should be tho-
roughly dry and well-seasoned, and for this purpose
should be laid fully exposed to the sun and air (but not to
rain) for some five or six years at least before it is used.
We are told that Stradivari had a kind of open shed
or awning on the roof of his house in Cremona, where
his wood was stored on rafters all ready for use. It is
doubtful whether any advantage is derived from arti-
ficial preparation of the wood, though many recipes for
such an operation have been suggested, and, indeed,
recommended. Mr. Bishop, in his translation of Otto's
" Treatise on the Violin" (a useful little work, whose
value is quadrupled by the translator's valuable and
intelligent notes), mentions a process discovered in
1839 by one Schlick, "for depriving wood of water,
acid, resin, etc., by which means he was enabled to
make violins with a tone scarcely distinguishable from
that of the best old Italian instruments." A bold
assertion, truly !
Amongst others he mentions a process noticed in
the Bulletin (Paris) 1822, in operation at Vienna for
preparing wood intended to make musical instruments
by steaming it in a room or chest 10 ft. by 5 ft, made
of strong boards well joined. He says, " This steam
by penetrating the pores of the wood softens the vege-
table parts, and renders them susceptible of being
dissolved. The steam condensed in the chest forms,
in the lower part, a liquor at first, but slightly coloured,
which gets deeper as the operation proceeds ; at
length it is quite clear, and acquires a very decided
acid taste. This is let off by a proper pipe. The
operation commonly lasts sixty hours. The wood is
afterwards taken out and dried in a stove, heated to
420 or 480 Rifamur (=i'26J° or 140° Fahrenheit). The
dessication lasts two or three days when the boards
are half an inch thick ; but if thicker several weeks,
or even months, are necessary. This wood acquires
such a degree of dryness as to resist all the variations
of the atmosphere ; its colour increases in intensity,
particularly the wood of the walnut, cherry, or maple.
It becomes firmer and more sonorous, which is a
great advantage for musical instruments. Violins
acquire the quality of the esteemed old instruments,
of which the true merit is due perhaps to the slow
dessication which the wood composing them has un-
dergone." Mackintosh, in a pamphlet on the " Con-
struction and Materials employed in the Manufac-
ture of Violins " (Dublin, 1837) remarks, " I am
borne out by traditionary accounts in believing that the
Cremona makers actually put their wood through some
process for the purpose, not only of preserving, but of
cleansing it, and making it, consequently, a better con-
ductor of sound." The same author, according to
Mr. Bishop, states that " the wood must be not only ot
firm and regular texture, but have pores of a certain
size and formation ; and, above all, it is essential that
i68
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
it shall have attained not only full maturity of growth,
but shall have remained for some years after being
felled, in order to make it fit to go through a process
by which the pores (for that is the great object to be
arrived at) may be rendered so perfectly dried and
cleared as not afterwards to be liable to close or alter
their natural position, or become crooked or irregular,
as would be the inevitable consequence if cut up im-
mediately into thin pieces, as it is then liable to shrink,
which is also objectionable, as being injurious to the
pores When experimenting I have had recourse
to steaming, steeping, stoving, boiling, and baking the
timber : I have also used all kinds of spirits, caustics,
and acids ; but all these disorganized the pores and
impaired the fibres of the timber, which ought to be
in a sound and perfect state." Against all this Abele
in his book "Die Violine" (Neuberg, 1874) assures us
that there is no proof in
existence that the old
Italians used any artificial
means for drying or pre-
paring their wood. Not-
withstanding all that has
been written on this point
(which would fill a large
book) it seems that the
wood, if carefully selected,
is better if left to nature to
mature and fit for
OUr FIG. 26.— SECTION OF SYCAMORE TRUNK WITH CUTTINGS.
the
soft
and
dull
purposes.
Apart from its maturity
the sycamore must be
thoroughly sound, without
knots or cracks, the grain must run evenly and
not in curves or waves. (The reader will distinguish
the difference between " grain " and " figure " of
wood.) It must be neither too hard nor too
if the former the vibrations will be sluggish
the tone harsh ; if the latter the tone will be
and wofully lack brilliancy. Above all things
never dream of using a piece of sycamore which the
worms have touched ever so slightly ; for sooner or
later such ravages will either be continued or become
the seat of a thousand ills. M. Maugin, in his " Manuel
de Luthier," mentions a wood called " azarole " as
being used by the Cremonese masters, but neither
he nor I have ever come across this wood, at any
rate under this name. Lastly, never let the syca-
more be spotted in any way, for the sake of both
appearance and sound the wood should be of a uniform
silvery cream colour. The pine, as I have before
remarked, should be quite white, avoiding anything
like a reddish tinge, which indicates a most unhealthy
growth. The grain must not be too close or. too wide,
and must be disposed evenly and straight from top to
A, " Sur Maille " (on the quarter) for half-backs ; B, Piece cut sur
maille, marked for recutting; C, Piece recut and ready to work
upon; D, Planks cut "Sur Couche" (on the layers) for whole
or slab hacks.
bottom of the belly. Care must be taken to select the
pine neither too hard nor too soft in texture and with-
out any defect, knot, stain, or other fault. Deal owes
its great recommendation for bellies to its slight density,
elasticity and vibratory powers. If a rod of steel,
another of glass, and another of deal be taken identi-
cal in size and dimensions, they will when similarly
struck produce the same note ; therefore of these
three bodies deal is equal in elasticity and immeasur-
ably superior in lightness. Maple or sycamore are
much more slow to vibrate than deal, and consequently
a fourth rod made of sycamore would give a lower
note than that made of deal ; and consequently the back
of a violin (sycamore) when struck, or vibrated alone
with a bow, would yield a lower note than the belly
(deal), and M. Fetis in his "Notice of Anthony Stradi-
vari" (a book much more instructive than its title
would denote), fixes this
difference of sonority at
exactly one tone, and
M. Savart coincides in
(though he has sometimes
been made to contradict)
this statement, and his nu-
merous experiments go to
prove that if by a reduction
of the thickness of the
back it were made to coin-
cide in intonation with
the belly, a feeble and
unsatisfactory tone would
characterize the fiddle so
formed. If the difference
the tone of the instrument
if more than a tone an
Some
was less than a tone,
would be throbbing, and it more than a
even more unsatisfactory result was obtained
interesting experiments have been made with some
fragments of Stradiuarius violins of various dates.
Thus rods were made 7I inches long, | inch broad,
and f inch thick of maple and deal from one of these
destroyed fiddles. Two rods of maple, one plain
the other figured, dated respectively 1708 and 1787,
gave, when struck, identically the same note. Three
rods of deal, dated 1690, 1724, and 1730, gave identi-
cally another higher note, and the coincidence of tone
with the disparity of dates and appearance must
surely indicate that Stradivari had a standard of
acoustic intonation, and relation between back and
belly, to which he paid more attention than the mere
appearance of his fiddles.
In Chapter II. I made frequent use of the terms
" whole," " half," or " slab " backs, referring to the way
in which the wood forming that part of the instrument
was cut, and I here give a woodcut of a section of a
tree trunk (Fig. 26) with cuttings to explain these
VIOLIN.MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
169
terms. As bellies are almost invariably joined and
very frequently, nay, almost always, backs are cut in
this manner, I will shortly explain this figure before
proceeding. It represents a trunk cut at D " on the
layers " for the whole back,
and at A " on the quarter "
for the half or joined back.
The wedge A is squared at
the thick end and re-divided
down the middle, as shown
at B, the two halves are then
j Dined at the broad ends in
the manner shown at C. The
model, or outline is then
traced on the flat surface, cut
out with a fret-saw and file,
and the work proceeds. At
D is shown the cutting for
slab form, the planks thus
cut are worked without any
further preparation. As
much depends upon the
model you cannot be too
careful to draw an outline
correct in every particular,
and for this purpose either
copy some old master, or
trace one for yourself mathe-
matically in the manner
to be hereafter laid down.
The Model. — To copy an
old master's model : Having
decided what fiddle you will
copy, ,-ery carefully remove
the belly or the back of the
instrument to be reproduced.
This is done by applying a
rather blunt knife to the
point where the belly is glued
to the sides in the manner
described farther on in the
mechanical portion of the
work. This done, the belly
or back is held on to the
planks of deal and sycamore
FIG. 28. — SECTION OF VIOLIN ACROSS INNER BOUTS.
(For References to Letters, see below.)
the ends, so that it cannot see-saw on the rise in the
middle. Take a pair of compasses with a fine point
or lead, and opening them about an inch, place one
point sideways on the back or belly, so that the other
point touches the piece of
wood held at right angles to
it, then draw the point touch-
ing the surface to be copied
down the centre of it, so that
the arm touching the piece of
wood will, by following the
motion of the lower arm
exactly reproduce on the
lath thus held for the purpose
the contour of the back and
belly to be copied. Be very
careful that the wood is held,
and the lower arm drawn,
down the exact centre of the
surface being reproduced.
Similar models should be
taken of the rise across (i),
the broadest part of the upper
bouts, (ii) the narrowest part
of the inner bouts, and (iii)
the broadest part of the
lower bouts.
The reader will be mate-
rially assisted in compre-
hending what has been said
with regard to making a copy
of the rise or arching of the
back or belly, if he refers to
Fig. 28, in which is shown a
section of the violin across
the inner bouts. In this, the
swell of both back and belly
is clearly indicated, as well
as the position of the rod A A,
and the peg B, which tend to
lend strength to the belly of
the violin at the very part
where the greatest pressure
is exerted. I have already
spoken of a method of
prepared for the belly and fig. 27. — diagram of the interior of a violin without tracing the outline of an
back of your fiddle, and the THE SIDES- instrument by a
C Bridge.
D Side-linings.
A Baas-bar.
B Sound-post -
F Blocks.
oudine sharply and cleanly
traced round it with a
sharp pencil or point. To copy the rise or arching of
the back or belly, proceed as follows : Take a piece of
wood 2 inches across, \ an inch thick, and a little
longer than the body of the instrument you wish to
copy. Place this edgeways on, and at right angles to>
the back or belly, holding it firmly or wedging it at
G Tail-pin.
H // Holes.
that is
purely
process
mathema-
tical, or rather geometrical.
This I shall describe fully in my next paper, in
which I hope to say something about the prices
of the materials used in fiddle-making, and where
they may be purchased.
{To be conti/.ucd.)
H
170
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
By GEORGE EDWINSON.
IV.— Preparation of the Electro-Plating Solution.
N this paper I propose giving the neces-
sary instructions in making the electro-
plating solution, and keeping it in order
when made. I hope that I have not tired
my readers with preliminary details in
previous chapters. I promise them, however, that they
will not lose anything by preparing thoroughly for this
work. Having had some experience in failures
through bad solutions and unpreparedness, and know-
ing the value of having good tools ready to hand for
the work, I have been and am careful only to offer the
best advice on the subject, and such as I have proved
by actual experience extending over several years of
practice in the art.
This part of an electro-plater's work demands
more care and attention than any we have yet con-
sidered. On his skill and care in making up the
plating solution depends the success of future opera-
tions and the quality of the deposit of silver. An
error in the choice of a battery may be easily and
cheaply repaired, and any inconvenience resulting
from a choice of vessels or tools may be quite as easily
altered or removed, but a bad plating solution remains
bad in spite of all efforts to improve it, and (like the
characters of many bad men) grows worse with age and
an accumulation of filth. A bad plating solution is one
made up in a slovenly manner out of bad materials, or
by some intricate and tortuous process involving the
unnecessary use of other salts besides those actually
required in the solution. As there seems to be a
natural tendency on the part of amateur artists to
shirk expensive materials and noxious or troublesome
processes, and to put up with" make shifts," because of
the trouble and expense attending the use of proper
material and processes, I will warn them at once that
I cannot be held responsible for any 'departure, even
in the slightest degree, from my instructions. I have
tried many and various methods of making up a
plating solution, and I offer them here the method I
have proved to be the best for the amateur plater.
Having been engaged in making up large quantities to
be used commercially and in the trade, I am also able
to say that the processes admissible and perhaps advis-
able, on the score of economy, in a large workshop,
cannot always be practised at home. For instance, in
a well-appointed workshop we can take scrap silver
and convert it into a plating solution with a little
expenditure of time and labour, but it would not pay
the amateur to refine his silver, dissolve it in nitric
acid, half poison himself with the fumes, and be
indicted as a nuisance by his neighbours. Pure
materials can be bought at the nearest chemist's shop
at a price which precludes the necessity of establish-
ing a manufactory for them at home.
The best solution for electro-plating at home is
that made by dissolving the double cyanide of silver
and potassium in distilled water in the proportion of 2 to
2j ounces of the metal in one gallon of water. If the
solution be purchased ready for working, it will be
well to ask for this strength ; weaker, and also stronger
solutions have been made and worked to advantage
for special purposes, but experience has demonstrated
this to be the best for general work. As this salt of
silver can be rarely obtained commercially, except in
solution, and may be sold in an impure condition
whilst its adulteration cannot be detected by simple
means, it will be best for my readers to make it for
themselves as here directed.
To make one pint of solution, we shall require
7 pennyweights of crystallised nitrate of silver, three-
quarters of an ounce of best cyanide of potassium,
and about half a gallon of distilled water. Before I
give directions for making the solution, it will be
well to become acquainted with the salts we are about
to use in it ; and here let me say that the term " salt "
does not in any way imply the use of the culinary
material popularly known by that name. It is a term
used by chemists to designate any material composed
of an acid and a base of metal or any other element.
For instance, nitrate of silver is a "salt " composed of
nitric acid and a base of metal — silver. Cyanide of
potassium is a " salt " composed of prussic acid and
the metal or element potassium.
Nitrate of Silver is prepared by dissolving
pure silver in dilute nitric acid, and driving off the
excess of acid by heat until the salt crystallises. Its
purity can be tested by the condition of its crystals,
which should be of a beautiful clear white and free
from the least tinge of green. Pure nitrate of silver
can be purchased of chemists and dealers in photo-
graphic materials at 3d. per pennyweight or 4s. per
ounce. They are caustic and poisonous, will stain the
skin of the hands an indelible black, will stain, tarnish
and destroy other metals, and will get moist and spoil
on exposure to damp air or in the sunlight. The
crystals should be shaken from the bottle on to a
sheet of thin paper and weighed on the paper to protect
the scales, and any excess of crystals picked out with a
forceps of bone, horn, or wood. The crystals should be
kept in a blue, glass-stoppered bottle.
Cyanide of Potassium is prepared by a process
beyond the means of an amateur chemist, being
manufactured on a large scale out of yellow prussiate
of potash and carbonate of potash. The most pure
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
171
and strongest variety has a dirty grey tint, arising
from the powdered charcoal mixed with it during the
process of manufacture. This charcoal acts as a pre-
servative to the cyanide, and prevents it from being
converted by the air into the lower cyanate of potash ;
but the dark tint is not always a guarantee of purity,
for the vilest rubbish sold in the market as cyanide of
potassium has a dark tint, and is known as black
cyanide. The best black cyanide of potassium, to be
obtained from Messrs. Mawson and Swan, of New-
castle-on-Tyne, or of Mr. Mayfield, 41, Queen Victoria
Street, London, can only be purchased at a price
ranging from 8s. to gs. per lb., whereas the crude stuff
mentioned above may be bought from 2s. 6d. per lb.
upwards. A very good white variety, used by photo-
graphers, can be bought for 6d. per oz., or from 6s. to
7s. per lb. It is very important that a good cyanide
should be obtained, and one rich in the element
which unites with the silver ; but I think that the
amateur must trust to the honesty of his dealer for a
good material, rather than to any tests of purity I can
give here. We will, therefore, briefly consider a few
characteristics peculiar to all varieties of this salt.
They all give forth an offensive, sickening odour,
resembling slightly that of crushed bitter almonds ;
they are also dangerously poisonous to human beings,
their action on the brain and nervous system ot ani-
mals being swift and usually fatal, even when the salt
is combined with a metal such as gold or silver. The
antidote to poisoning by any of the cyanides, is a
speedy administration of a solution of one of the salts
of iron (that sold by chemists under the name of tinc-
ture of iron or steel drops will do), followed by strong
doses of brandy, and an application of cold water to
the head and down the back. The vapour from
cyanide solutions is also injurious when breathed. I
state this to warn young operators against holding
their heads over the solutions when working them,
and also to caution amateurs against having the solu-
tions in their living-rooms or bed-rooms. The work-
shop, the atelier, or a room set apart for this work
should be deemed absolutely necessary, and the room
used for this purpose should be well ventilated. The
poison may also be absorbed by the skin, and produce
derangement of health ; and when the skin is broken
it will cause painful sores. A word or two like this to
those who are wise is enough to prepare them for the
following cautions : Keep cyanide of potassium and
cyanide solutions in closely-stoppered bottles, under
lock and key when not in use. Do not handle the salt,
or put the hands in its solutions, and only dissolve
the actual quantity required at the time for use, as it
spoils when in contact with the air ; this latter caution
does not apply to the double cyanide plating solu-
tions, which are not so speedily spoilt by contact with
the air ; but it is best to cover these closely when not
in use.
Being now acquainted with the materials we are
about to use, my readers will better understand me in
the following directions for making up the solution,
and will avoid careless manipulation of them. With
proper care, no person need fear any bad conse-
quences ; without care and cleanliness, no person can
be a successful electro-plater or a successful chemist.
The Electro-plating Solution is made by
adding a solution of cyanide of potassium in distilled
water to one of nitrate of silver in distilled water,
carefully, until the white curdy precipitate first formed
by the addition of the cyanide solution has settled
down to the bottom of the vessel ; this precipitate is
then washed in two or three lots of clean water, and
dissolved in a strong cyanide solution, to form the
double cyanide of silver plating-solution. Such is the
brief outline ; now for the details. Procure two vessels
of porcelain or of glass, each capable of holding one quart
of liquid, and a piece of glass rod, or a clean ash stick,
of about J- of an inch in diameter and 1 S inches long. In
one vessel dissolve the 7 pennyweights of nitrate of sil-
ver in one pint of distilled water, and in the other dis-
solve the J ounce of cyanide of potassium in one pint of
distilled water. This salt dissolves slowly in cold water ;
but if the water is heated in a clean enamelled sauce-
pan, and poured boiling hot on the salt, it will dissolve
more quickly, but the solution must be allowed to cool
before using it. Pour a little of the cyanide solution
into the nitrate of silver solution, and watch the effect.
White curds of cyanide of silver will form, and slowly
sink to the bottom of the vessel. Stir them with the
glass rod, and add a little more of the cyanide solution;
this will form more curds. Stir these well, and allow
them to settle, then add a little more cyanide, and
continue this process until all the silver has been thrown
down. Add the cyanide solution cautiously, and when
the last few drops fail to produce a precipitate, or the
least sign of curdiness, do not add any more. Remem-
ber that there will be enough cyanide in the precipitat-
ing solution to make the. plating solution, and therefore
only about one-third of it will be needed to precipitate
the silver. The cyanide solution may be poured from
a lipped jug ; but if a vessel without a lip is used, the
solution may be poured cleanly from it by holding the
glass rod obliquely to the side of the vessel, as
shown in Fig. 22. If too much of the cyanide
solution be added, some of the precipitate (the cyanide
of silver) will be dissolved, and consequently wasted.
Allow the cyanide of silver to settle well down to the
bottom of the vessel, then carefully decant off the
supernatant liquid, and, if the operation has been care-
fully performed, this liquid may be thrown away.
Throw a little distilled water on the cyanide of silver,
172
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
allow this to settle again, and again carefully decant
off the liquid. Now pour in briskly a jugful of clean
spring water, and when all has settled down, decant
this off carefully. Repeat the operation three times,
and at the last drain off carefully all the water from the
cyanide of silver. Note the quantity of cyanide of
potassium solution remaining in the other vessel, and
pour just enough on the wet cyanide of silver to dis-
solve the whole, stirring it all the time. Then add
one-fifth more of the cyanide solution to form " free
cyanide," and dilute the whole with distilled water to
form one pint of plating solution.
If a larger quantity of plating solution is required
the amount of nitrate of silver and of cyanide of
potassium must be increased in proportion. Dilution
with distilled water must only be attempted to increase
the bulk to a small extent ; for solutions poor in metal
are apt to put on bad work. The quantity of nitrate
of silver mentioned above will suffice for small quan-
tities of solution up to one gallon ; but
for solutions above that quantity at least
3i ounces of nitrate of silver should be
allowed to the gallon, and a proportionate
quantity of cyanide of potassium. The
proportion of free cyanide should always
be about one-fifth more than it takes to
dissolve the precipitate of cyanide of
silver ; more can be added if found neces-
sary in working, but this we shall find out
for ourselves as we proceed. The larger
operations of precipitation for solutions of
a gallon upwards can be well conducted
in the glass vessel sketched in my last in
page 97.
Following the plan adopted in a previous article, I
will now explain the process already given. I recom-
mend distilled water to be used in the operation, be-
cause common water contains some salts which would
unite with the silver to form foreign salts in the solu-
tion, and thus cause a waste of silver. I recommend
glass vessels, because the operations can be better
observed in them, and a glass rod for a stirrer, because
it is not acted upon by the solution. The nitrate of
silver should be dissolved in a large quantity of water,
to ensure room for the cyanide to act on its particles.
In the first operation, viz., that of precipitation, the
silver held in solution with the element nitrogen, left
that when a solution containing cyanogen was added,
and combined with the latter element in a definite pro-
portion to form cyanide of silver. At the same time,
the liberated nitrogen seized hold of the free potash,
and converted it into nitrate of potash. The former
salt, being insoluble in water, fell as a white precipitate
to the bottom of the vessel ; whilst the latter salt,
being soluble, was dissolved, and held in solution.
FIG. 22.— MODE OF POURING
CYANIDE SOLUTION FROM A
VESSEL WITHOUT A LIP.
We were thus able to pour away the useless nitrate of
potash solution, and to wash the cyanide of silver with
water without injury to the salt. But although it was
insoluble in water, it was not proof against a solution
of cyanide of potassium ; hence the necessity of careful
manipulation.
In some text-books of the art the amateur is recom-
mended to use common salt to precipitate the silver
and it has been even naively stated that both silver
and cyanide can be saved by this process. This
fallacy has been exploded long since, and all reason-
able men see plainly now that it takes equally as much
cyanide to convert any other salt of silver into the
cyanide of silver as it does to precipitate it from the
solution of its nitrate ; whilst the latter process has
this advantage over all others, it enables the plater to
make a pure cyanide of silver, and to wash it free from
all foreign salts before dissolving it to form the plating
solution. By all other processes — even that of making
the solution direct from the metal by
battery-power — foreign salts enter into
the solution, and prematurely age it.
The reader will not have failed to
observe the term " free cyanide," and may
require a little explanation of the term to
enable him to understand it. " Free
cyanide," means an excess of this salt in
the plating solution over and above that
required to convert the cyanide of silver
into the double cyanide of silver and potas-
sium. It is called "free" cyanide, because
it is not combined with the metal in solu-
tion, but is free to act upon any metal that
may be immersed in the solution. On the
quantity of free cyanide in a plating solution depends
in a great measure the condition of the metal deposited
from it, and also the variety of metals which may be
plated in the solution. The quantity I have given will
be just suitable for plating brass and German silver,
but it would be too much for articles made of iron, or
of copper, and not enough for those made of Britannia
metal, pewter, and lead. A good plating solution
should not deposit its metal upon the metal we wish
to plate with silver, by simple immersion. The use of
free cyanide in a plating solution is to act as a reserve
of that solvent to attack the anode, and dissolve it at
the same rate as the silver is going on the article at
the cathode ; if the anode is dissolved too slowly, the
solution will become poor in metal, if too fast, it will
become too dense to do good work.
The Anodes must be made out of pure sheet
silver, and must be large enough to present as many
square inches of surface to the solution, as that of the
article to be plated. They may be of any thickness
(I have found those of from h, to \ of an inch thick to
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
i73
give the best results), they should be annealed by heat-
ing them to a red heat and cooling suddenly in cold
water, then have a hole punched in the upper edge,
and bent to nearly resemble the configuration of the
article, when this, as in the case of a teapot or jug, has
a rounded outline; and, they should be hung in the solu-
tion by a hook of platinum wire passing through the
hole punched in the edge, as this wire is not acted
upon by the solution. It will be seen on reference to
the sketch on p. 97 that the anode is suspended from
the hooked end of the battery wire proceeding from
the copper or carbon element, and that the spoons are
arranged from the cathode hoop around it. If we wish
to plate a large article, a tea-pot, or a cream-jug, for
instance, we reverse the position of the anodes and
hang them from the hoop, whilst we suspend the
article in the centre of the vat from the wire leading
from the zinc of the battery. The rate of deposit can
be regulated by the distance of the anodes from the
article, and also by the surface exposed to the solution;
distance and a small surface decreases the rate of
deposit, whilst the reverse condition increases it. Their
condition whilst working indicates the strength of the
solution and the strength of the current of electricity.
The proper condition is, a slightly yellowish tinge
whilst working, with a speedy change to white when
not in work.
The plating solution and the battery being now
ready, I will next give some instructions in plating
such small articles as lockets, brooches, solitaires,
etc. Before these, or in fact any article, can be pro-
perly plated, they must be properly cleaned and pre-
pared ; and in my next I will tell my readers how to
prepare the articles for the bath and how to deposit
the silver on them.
{To be continued.)
a— -|. ~c
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
IV.— Putting the Parts together— Key-board— Case
Action— Treble Pipes— Conclusion.
E now begin to draw towards a conclusion
of our labours. We have made the bass
pipes, the bellows, the wind-chest : we
have now to put the whole together, and
add the connecting mechanism.
Turning to the view of the completed organ (Fig. 20),
K K are the stopped wood pipes, and L L are the open
metal pipes. A B and a b are two stout boards of any
wood, forming the sides and main supports of the
instrument. They should be of inch and a-half stuff,
and their lower edges should be let into cills, C, C.
The back-edge of each of these boards being straight,
the fore-edge may be neatly cut in stages, so as to
diminish the width of the board from 18 inches, or
even 2 feet, at the cills to 14 inches at the top. These
side-boards must be connected together by cross-rails
D D, of inch stuff, mortised firmly into the boards, and
fixing them 3 feet apart. If the organ is not to have
a regular " case " over all, the ends of these rails will
not look amiss if brought boldly through the boards, a
large peg being passed through them afterwards. The
upper edge of the lower rail may be 8 inches from
the ground, and the upper edge of the upper rail
2 feet 3 inches. Similar rails, level with these, will be
fixed at the back. Screw two strong wooden ledges
to the inside of these boards, and on these ledges rest
the ends of the middle-board of the bellows, at the
height of 1 foot from the ground. Ledges must also
be screwed strongly on, for the sound-board, etc., to
rest on. Secure the bellows to the ledges by three
screws at each end.
On the upper rails the key-board E is to rest. This
you will, of course, not attempt to make. You may
be able to pick up an old one for a trifle. Pianofortes
are now so common, that their cast-off keys are com-
mon too, and two shillings or half-a-crown will often
buy a sufficiently good set from some cabinet-maker,
or at a music-shop. Whatever its extent, you must
neatly alter it to the compass of 54 notes— c C to F in
alt. ; but be careful that you only cast aside the keys
at each end which may be superfluous, as you will find
they are all stamped with the name of the note which
they are intended to act upon. Take the opportunity
of cleaning the keys nicely, and of renewing the baize
or other mufflers which secure their silent action.
Leaving the keys for the present, we may proceed
to place the wind-chest and sound-board F on ledges
screwed to the side-boards, at a height of 6 or 8 inches
above the keys ; and at a further height of 4 or 5
inches above the top of the sound-board fix a board of
£-inch pine, M. In this, called the rack-board, holes
will be bored to receive the pipe-feet, and to support
all the pipes firmly in a vertical position. Above the
level of the rack-board you need not carry your side-
boards, unless you intend to form the whole into a
regular "case."
A case, however, is a great protection to an organ
in a room, as it keeps out the dust and dirt. If
covered in the front with a piece of silk or damask,
like the old high pianos, it will look very nice, and will
not shut in the sound too much. It should be made so
as to be easily opened for access to the pipes.
The wind-trunk H is shown in the cut as rising
from the end of the bellows, and entering the bottom
of the wind-chest. But it may be placed more con-
veniently at the back of the organ ; and, in any case,
its dimensions may be about 7 inches by 2 inches.
174
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN,
You will make it of J-inch board, putting it to-
gether like a pipe, and gluing it very well inside ; cut
an oblong hole 6f inches by if inch, in the trunk-
band, and in that part of the wind-chest which is most
convenient (its back, for instanced, and make a tidy
fit of the trunk into these apertures, using leather and
glue to secure all joints and all mitred angles. Take-
care that dust or chips do not remain in the interior
of the bellows and chest. After all is dry, you may
cut through the trunk, about its middle, with a backed
saw, so as to enable you to separate the parts ; and
one of your last acts (in finishing the organ) will be to
glue a slip of paper or leather round this saw-cut.
The bellows will be conveniently blown by means
of a pedal made of any hard wood, having a little
wheel let into the end which raises the feeder, and
having one or two small spikes in the flattened part
on which the foot is placed. The block on which this
pedal works will be best screwed to the floor, inde-
pendently of the organ frame, and you should
shape the pedal so that the feeder may have its full
play at each stroke. Load the upper-board of the
bellows with two common half-bricks (quite dry),
wrapped in paper or baize ; on inflating the bellows,
if your work is good, no hissings should be heard, and
the reservoir should descend with extreme slowness.
The places for the rack-board holes may be deter-
mined by laying a sheet of paper on the sound-board,
and rubbing it with your hand until it takes impres-
sions of the pipe-holes ; the centres of these impres-
sions can then be pricked out with an awl on the
rack-board, and the holes bored with centre-bits. You
will now perceive the advantage of having left the
pipe-feet unglued in ; glue in each of them now as
you plant the pipes, and by a little adjustment of the
pipe-foot, see that every pipe stands vertically. The
mouth of every pipe must, of course, be clear of the
side or back of its neighbour.
We must now make the action. It may be hoped
that you already comprehend it pretty well by an in-
spection of Fig. 14. In the tail of every key, j of an
inch from the end, bore a small hole, and burn it
larger beneath than above. This is to receive the
wire of the sticker L, Fig. 14, and to allow it to work
freely. There will be 54 back-falls, made of any wood,
\ of an inch thick, and 1 inch in width. Observe that
the tail of every back-fall (except the six most to the
right, or treble end, of which more presently) must be
exactly over the key-tail to which it corresponds ; and
that its fore-end must be exactly under the pull-down
of the pallet to which the key corresponds. From this
it results that the back-falls will not be all of the same
length, and that they will not necessarily be parallel to
each other, like the keys. You will do well to mark
the places of the key-tails on a ruler of wood ; then,
turning the sound-board over, fix this ruler temporarily
in such a position as to enable you to mark the line of
action of each back-fall on the bottom board of the
chest. Then cut 54 notches or grooves, an inch deep,
with a saw and chisel, in the broader face of a small
balk of hard wood, 2 inches by I \, and 3 feet long, to
form a "bridge." Each notch must have the slope or
inclination proper to its back-fall ; and the 54 back-
falls will work freely in the 54 notches on a single
wire running the entire length of the bridge through
every back-fall, and fastened down at intervals with
small staples driven into the wood between the notches.
A little blacklead should be rubbed on each back-
fall, to ease friction. If you manage this cleverly, each
pull-down will come through a hole bored in the fore-
end of its own back-fall when the bridge is screwed to
the under side of the chest ; and on the tapped end of
the pull-down you will screw a small nut, made by
punching bits out of old leather (new will not do), such
as every saddler will readily give you. On replacing
the sound-board in the organ, the tails of the back-
falls ought to be over the tails of the keys ; and the
stickers, little round rods of wood, should be neat and
perfectly vertical. Put a little morsel of baize or other
cloth on the ends of each sticker before inserting it,
that wood may not rattle against wood.
The six right-hand back-falls will be worked by
means of a " roller-board." A roller is a slip of |-inch
wood, 1 inch wide, and of the necessary length to
transfer the action of the keys from one side of the
organ to the other. It should be a little rounded off
at its edges ; and each end has a wire, on which the
roller revolves between studs or blocks fixed on a
board behind the row of stickers. If now an arm of
wood is fixed into the roller above the key-tail of c cs,
and a similar arm be fixed into the roller below the
tail of the back-fall belonging to the right-hand pallet,
it is clear that by using two short stickers — one from
the key-tail to its arm, and the other from the second
arm to the back-fall — the key will act on the pallet
exactly as if a single sticker connected the key and
back-fall. We shall have six of such rollers, neatly
arranged on a thin board, 3 feet long and 5 inches
wide, and every pallet will thus be under command.
Much of the comfort of the player will depend
on the smooth and silent action of your back-falls, etc.;
spare no pains, therefore, with all this mechanism.
The little leather nuts, or buttons, will, of course,
enable you to adjust the keys to a perfect level.
My readers cannot have failed to notice that I have
hitherto said little or nothing of the 30 treble pipes.
I have, in truth, postponed any mention of them until
the last, because I venture to hope that, if you have
constructed the organ thus far well and soundly, you
may think it worth your while to purchase 30 metal
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
175
pipes for your treble. These metal pipes, if they are
of the kind called " Open Diapason," will cost about
thirty shillings ; they should be of decidedly small
scale and soft tone, approaching to that of the stop
called " Dulciana." Any good organ-builder will sup-
ply them, or they may be had from a regular pipe-
maker. If I mention Mr. T. R. Willis, Minories,
London, it is because I have found his pipes invariably
good, and his charges moderate. All requisites for
organ-building can also be purchased at his establish-
ment. The metal pipes will, of course, be planted in
holes in the rack-board like the wooden ones. If a
few of the larger ones will not stand conveniently, use
a small conducting-board for them.
The purchase of metal pipes, however, may not be
practicable. In this case, by all means make the
treble as a " Clarabella." Put the pipes together just
as you did the larger ones ; of course, as they are to
be open, they will be double the length of stopped ones
of the same pitch. Middle C will be two feet from the
mouth to the top, and should be made much smaller
in scale than the stopped pipe of the same length.
The Clarabella is generally made with a reversed
mouth ; that is to say, the chamfer, or bevel, above the
lip, is inside the pipe, the outside presenting an un-
broken front from top to bottom, with the narrow
mouth cut in it. The throat occurs below the mouth,
as in other pipes, and the cap is glued below the mouth
on the front board of the pipe. The quality of tone
produced by this device is fluty and pleasing. Such
pipes are tuned by means of a little lid of pipe-metal
or tin, or thin brass, fixed in a saw-cut in the top of
the back-board of the pipe ; the pipe being cut as
nearly as possible to the exact pitch of its note, then
the bending down of the lid slightly flattens, and the
raising it slightly sharpens, the tone, as may be desired.
The stopped pipes are tuned by driving in the stoppers
with light taps of a hammer for sharpening, and draw-
ing them upwards for flattening. By all means handle
metal pipes very tenderly. They are tuned by cones,
shaped like the " extinguisher" of a candlestick. The
pipe being first cut with scissors nearly to the pitch
required, you sharpen it by widening the top a little
with the cone, and flatten it by pressing the hollow of
the cone on the top, so as to contract it slightly.
If a pianoforte or harmonium in good tune be at
hand, you will do well to tune your organ by it, note
for note, exerting all your skill to regulate your pipes ;
that is, to make them of one uniform tone, not one
louder than another. This is a delicate business, and
you should attend carefully to the following directions :
1. If a pipe gives a coarse, rough note, or if it
utters a chirp or whistle before its true sound is heard
diminish its supply of wind.
2. This may be done by planing or otherwise re-
ducing the inner side of the cap, so that the " wind-
way " may be narrower ; or it may be done by partially
stopping the hole in the pipe-foot with a wooden plug
or plugs.
3. If a pipe " over-blows " — that is, sounds a note
an octave above its true pitch — it has too much wind,
or the whole wind of the organ is too forcible. In this
last case, take some of the weights off your bellows.
4. If a pipe ciphers, that is, sounds when the key is
not pressed down — a rather common occurrence, and
very annoying — look at the pallet and see whether
anything prevents it closing tightly, or whether the
spring has slipped, or is too weak.
The great desideratum is a sweet and soft tone :
hollow and humming in the bass, clear and fluty in
the treble. No attempt must be made to obtain power
from so small an instrument. If your work is sound
and good, your stoppers fitting well, and your regula-
tion well managed, your little organ ought to be a
pleasing accompaniment to the voice.
I am unwilling to take leave of my readers without
a few more remarks for the information of those who
may desire to pursue the subject of organ-building
somewhat further. The organ which we have described
is, of course, of the tiniest kind : I would show, in
few words, how its dimensions may be expanded by
workmen whose skill and whose means are equal to
the undertaking.
Suppose that, instead of one set of 54 pipes,
we desire to have two sets, or 108 pipes, and that we
wish to use either set, or both combined, at our plea-
sure. In this case, after making a sound-board with
54 channels, as before, and planing its top very truly,
we prepare a board of inch stuff (mahogany, oak, or
cedar) of the same size as the sound-board, and also
very truly planed. This board will be screwed down
upon the sound-board, but between the two a couple
of sliders will be placed. These sliders are rulers of
smooth wood, a few inches longer, than the sound-
board, 3 or four inches wide, and quarter of an inch,
or less, in thickness. They are made to slide from
right to left, and vice versa, between fixed pieces of
the same thickness, called " tables." Thus the whole
sound-board will consist of three layers of wood — the
sound-board itself, the sliders with their tables, and
the upper-board. And now it is plain that, if you bore
your pipe-holes through all the three layers, you may
close all the holes at pleasure by shifting the slider,
so that the holes in the layers no longer coincide. Of
course you will arrange a " slot," or mortise, in each
slider, with a strong pin driven into the sound-board,
to adjust the distance traversed by the slider. Rub
sliders and boards with plenty of blacklead, and, in
screwing down the upper-board to the tables, glue
strips of paper to the latter, in order to allow a little
176
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
play to the sliders, which should move easily to and
fro. To do all this well requires good workmanship
and good planes.
The pipe-holes must
now, of course, all be within
the limits imposed by the
dimensions of the sliders ;
hence the conducting may
become complicated. This
leads me to describe a me-
thod of avoiding conductors
altogether. Let us sup-
pose a sound-board, 3 feet
long but only 6 inches wide,
with 42 channels. This
will easily accommodate
the pipes above Tenor C
without crowding, and you
may have two sliders on it.
Let us suppose another
sound-board, 3 feet long and
6 inches wide, with 12
channels only, at intervals
corresponding with the feet
of the larger pipes, for
which alone it is intended.
On this also you may have
two sliders. If now the
sound-boards be glued edge
to edge, one wind-chest
may serve for both ; the 12
bass pallets being pulled
down at the back, the 42
upper pallets at the front,
and, by a little management
of roller-boards, a very
symmetrical arrangement
of pipes may be attained
without a single conductor.
I have known a very com-
pact organ to be made in
this way, having two bass
" stops " (viz., sets of pipes)
and 4 treble stops. The
stops were as follows : —
Bass.
Stopt Diapason (wood).
Principal (metal).
Treble.
Stopt Diapason (wood).
Dulciana(metal). Principal
(metal). Flute (wood).
The organ complete will be 8 feet 2 inches high.
If this is loo high for the room it can be made lower
by planting some of the largest pipes at the back of
organ off the sound-board, and conveying the wind to
them from their proper channels with J inch tubes.
For the benefit of
those who may not yet
have got so far as the
grooving for the pipes, I
may mention that, if the
four largest pipes are
placed two at each end,
and about eleven of the
next largest are arranged
in a line along the front,
it will have a very pretty
effect, and a case for the
upper part be rendered
unnecessary. The pipes
may then be stained and
varnished, or painted and
ornamented according to
taste. If it is required
to get at any of the pipes
at the back it will only
be necessary to lift out
one or two pipes where
required.
Before bringing this
paper to a close I must
point out an error in the
drawing of the bellows,
Fig. 6. Both folds are re-
presented as inside folds,
whereas the upper one
should be an outside fold.
If you look at the dia-
gram of the complete
organ you will see what
I mean. This is an im-
portant point, as it is the
only way to secure an
equal pressure of wind,
and constant equality in
the pitch of the instrument,
no matter what amount of
wind there may be
the bellows,
bellows has
FIG. 20. — FRONT ELEVATION OF ORGAN WHEN COMPLETED.
Scale, J inch to the foot.
A B Sides and main
supports.
C C Cills.
D D Cross-rails.
E E Key-board.
FF Wind chest and
sound-board.
G Bellows.
H Wind-trunk.
in
Even if the
been com-
pleted, it is worth while
making the upper folds
afresh. The leather will
come off easily if damped,
and can be used again.
Having set this matter
right, I have only to suggest a method of finishing the
instrument, which I will do in my next.
(To be coJitinued.)
K K Wooden pipes.
L L Metnl pipes.
M Rack-board.
N N Stickers.
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A SKELETON HANGING WALL-CABINET.
For Description and Working Drawings to Scale, see page 177.
A SKELETON HANGING WALL-CABINET.
177
A SKELETON HANGING WALL-CABINET.
easily
NE of the chief purposes of this Magazine
is to put the amateur wood-worker in
possession of designs for pieces of
furniture of various kinds that are
constructed, and which, when finished,
At first sight, its peculiar appearance is apt to
suggest to the observer that its construction is ex-
tremely complex, and that the would-be maker, if he
be an amateur, and not a cabinet-maker by profession,
would find some difficulty in putting it together ; but
when the cabinet is analysed, so to speak, and
taken to pieces in imagination, any difficulty of
FIG. i. — FULL-
SIZE SECTION
THROUGH
SHELVES
FIG. 1. — FRONT ELEVATION OF CABINET. (Scale, ij inches to the foot).
FIG. 2. — SIDE
ELEVATION.
are highly effective — indeed, far more effective than
anyone would suppose, when the simplicity of their
various parts, and the ease with which they can be
framed together, are taken into consideration. Such
a simple, yet handsome-looking, piece of furniture as
this is to be found in the skeleton hanging cabinet
which forms the subject of the frontispiece to this
Part of Amateur Work, Illustrated.
construction that might have been expected vanishes
at once, and the amateur is then almost surprised to
find how simple is its construction, and how easy it is
to make it.
If any one, after examination of the illustration,
asks himself of what this cabinet consists, he must per-
force makeanswer tohimself— Q/V^//"//^ more than five
shelves — two smaller and tliree larger — and a number oj
H 2
178
A SKELETON HANGING WALL-CABINET.
uprights and rails, which are mortised together, and
notched into the shelves. And when he has said this, and
added, that two simple doors, with glass panels and
back and sides, of which the former may be dispensed
with if preferred, and the latter made of glass, framed
to correspond with the doors, and fitted in between
the uprights that form the corner-pieces of the cup-
board, as shown in the illustration or perspective
view, he has said all that he well can say on the sub-
ject. Taken as a whole, this hanging cabinet has
many features to recommend it to professional as well
as amateur wood-workers. The central feature con-
sists of the small cupboard with glass doors and
sides, and a back, if thought absolutely necessary, in
which may be placed such articles as it is specially
desirable to preserve from the dust and air of the
room in which the cabinet is hung. In addition to
this, the largest amount of shelf-room is provided for
the display of old china, glass, bric-a-brac, and odd
ornaments, the whole design forming a very pretty
piece of room decoration, and withal a useful article
of furniture.
As the general appearance of the cabinet can be
gathered from the perspective view, so its proportions
and general principles of construction can be gathered
from Figs. 1 and 2, which are drawn on a scale of \\
inch to the foot. Of these, Fig. 1 presents the front
elevation of the cabinet, and Fig. 2 its side elevation.
This figure also serves to indicate what a sectional
view of the article would be. Having regard to the
scale on which these figures are drawn, and remem-
bering that in the finished article itself, or in a full-
sized working drawing of it, every line will be exactly
eight times as long as its corresponding line in Figs.
1 and 2, we find that the cabinet is 30 inches wide, 8
inches deep, and 44 inches in height, measuring from
the extreme end of the central ornament at the bottom
to a line drawn touching each of the two cone-shaped
ornaments at the top. It will be necessary then at
starting, to make three shelves of 1-inch stuff, 30 inches
long, and 8 inches broad, and two smaller shelves,
16 inches long and 4 \ inches wide. When planed
down the thickness of the shelves will be reduced
to J-inch full, as shown in Fig. 3, which represents a
full-size section through the shelves. The edges of
the shelves are formed in a simple yet effective man-
ner, by three beads of small size, worked on a surface
slightly sunk below the actual surface of the edge of
the shelf. This beading is carried along the ends, as
well as the front of each shelf. When this has been
done, the shelves may be considered as being com-
plete, as nothing remains to be done to them but to
notch them, or rather half notch them, for the recep-
tion of the uprights, and to make mortises in the
uppermost of the three larger shelves for the reception
of the tenoned ends of the central uprights that sup-
port the front of the topmost small shelves. Similar
mortises must be cut in the under part of the lower-
most of the larger shelves to receive the tenoned ends
of the uprights that support the front of the small
shelf at the bottom.
Passing on to the uprights, the whole of these, and
the cross-pieces or rails, and the diagonal pieces at the
sides at top, and behind at top and bottom, are made
out of i^-inch stuff, ripped into pieces \\ inch square,
planed on all sides, and reduced by planing to 1 inch
square. The amateur must be careful to make his
uprights and rails of exactly the same size throughout,
as any difference in size will detract from the symmetry
and beauty of the cabinet. For the back, five uprights
of different lengths will be required, including the
central upright, which need be carried only so high as
the lowest of the large shelves, though it would give
strength to the structure, and in no way detract from
the appearance of the cabinet, if it were carried to the
height of the two pieces, connected by the double rail
and spindles at top, and finished in the same way,
thus dividing the rail which has just been mentioned
into two parts. For the front, four uprights are re-
quired, and two shorter uprights are wanted between
the topmost and lowermost of the larger shelves, one
on either side. The rails that are necessary are six
in number, being two notched into the uprights just
mentioned at the sides, two at the back, just below the
level of the short topmost shelf, and two shorter ones
connecting the short uprights, that receive and support
the front of the small topmost shelf, with the uprights
in front that stand immediately in advance of them.
Eight diagonal pieces are required ; for these, for ob-
vious reasons, are fitted separately between the uprights
to which they are attached. It might be thought that
the diagonal pieces at the bottom might be of one
piece instead of two, and that they might be notched
into the uprights at the back ; a little consideration,
however, will serve to show that such a mode of pro-
cedure would only tend to weaken the structure. Thus,
to summarize what has been said, it is found that fif-
teen uprights of different lengths are required, with
six rails and eight short diagonal pieces, and that this
is all, although the cabinet at first sight appears to be
a perfect network of rails and uprights. The uprights
of the framework are finished at top and bottom with
a conical, or rather pyramidal, ornament, easily pro-
duced, which, with the spindles that form the rail at
top, are shown in detail in Fig. 4.
As soon as the shelves and the different parts of
the frame-work are finished, and the rail at top, and
its capping — which were not included in the enumera-
tion of the pieces, as given above — has been prepared,
and mortises cut in the uprights of the back for their
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
*79
reception, [the amateur must proceed to notch the
shelves and uprights for the purpose of fitting them
together. In doing this great care is necessary ; and
it will be better to make the notches in the uprights
for the reception of the shelves only % inch deep,
while the notches in the shelves for the reception of
the uprights must be f inch deep, so that the edges of
the shelves may be flush with the outer sides of the
uprights in every case. The deeper the notches are
made in an upright or beam of any kind, the weaker it
is made, and therefore it is desirable to restrict the
depth of the notches in the uprights to £ inch : the
shelf, being broad and substantial, is in no essential
degree weakened by being notched to the extent of
f inch. The short uprights at the sides are mortised
nto the shelves above and below them ; the rails that
cross them transversely are notched into them, and
mortised into the uprights between which they are
introduced. The diagonal pieces must be accurately
cut as regards length, and accurately bevelled and
bradded to the uprights when they have been fitted,
and dropped into their respective places. This must
be done last of all, when all the other parts of the
framework have been fitted together, dropped into
the notches made for them in the shelves, and glued
and bradded.
The central space has now to be enclosed, so as to
form a cupboard. As it has been said, there is no
absolute necessity to fit in a back unless it is desired.
If a back be thought requisite, all that need be done
is to nail a fillet, i inch wide and J inch thick, along
the inner edge of the uprights at the back, and cor-
responding fillets to the lower edge of the topmost
shelf and the upper edge of the middle shelf, so as to
form a rebate all round f- inch deep, into which boards
of this thickness may be dropped ; or, if it be preferred,
the edges of these shelves may be recessed to the
depth of $• inch, either throughout their entire thick-
ness or partially so as to form a rebate in the shelf
itself for the reception of the back. Similarly, fillets
may be nailed round the uprights and the shelves, to
form a rebate on either side of the central space, into
which panes of glass may be dropped to form the sides
of the cupboard, the glass being held in place by slight
beads, corresponding in depth to the fillets within.
In the perspective view, however, and in Fig. 2, which
shows the side elevation of the cabinet, these sides are
shown as being made to correspond with the glazed
doors in front ; and if he prefer to do so, the amateur
may follow this plan. The doors consist of slight
frames I inch in width. They should be about £ inch
in thickness, and grooved along the inner edges or
rebated, as may be preferred, to receive the glass that
forms the panel.
The appearance of the work may be improved by
the judicious use of cabinet hardware, as shown in the
illustration by the hangers by which the cabinet is
suspended against the wall, and the hinge plates and
scutcheon on the doors. The design may be executed
in a variety of ways as far as the colour of the wood
is concerned. It may be made of pear-wood, or any
close-grained wood, or even deal carefully ebonised ;
and the mountings may be in brass or metal plated.
It would present a very handsome appearance if made
entirely of walnut-wood, polished ; or, as shown in the
perspective view, the shelves may be made of light
wood, and the uprights, rails, and diagonals, with the
exception of the two at top, of dark or ebonised wood,
the ornaments at the ends of the uprights and the
spindles of the top rail being also made of light-
coloured wood, pegged and glued into holes sunk for
their reception. If the greatest contrast possible were
shown between the shelves and uprights — as, for
example, between satin-wood and ebony — the framing
of the doors might be made of wood of an inter-
mediate colour. Of whatever wood, however, the
cabinet be made, the amateur must remember that
much of its beauty will depend upon the care with
which it is finished.
With regard to the back, as seen through the glazed
sides and front of the central cupboard, it may be
covered with velvet ; but the colour, whether light or
dark, must be regulated by the colour of the articles
that are to be placed within the cupboard. Thus, for
white or light-coloured china, or for Indian cups and
salvers in brass embossed work, black or ruby velvet
would look well ; but for articles of a dark colour a
light background is desirable.
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
By M. La B. KENNEDY.
I. — How to Copy any Boat.
F the many objects conducive to amuse-
ment in the country, and which are there-
fore coveted by country dwellers, there
are probably none more important than
boats. It is a very small piece of water
indeed which cannot be made to yield some pleasure
with a boat, while a sea is of little use without one.
The great obstacle to obtaining one of these ministers
to our enjoyment is, in most cases, the expense. Well,
I hope to show that the expense need only be very
small indeed, being little more than that of a few
boards and nails ; and that any man, no matter how
rudimentary his carpentering knowledge, can, by a
little patience and perseverance, make as good a boat,
i8o
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
for all practical purposes, as he would pay a long price
for to a professional builder. So now to work.
Firstly, you should have a model : a boat to copy.
You can, of course, vary the details, and I shall
endeavour to give all necessary measurements ; but it
is much more satisfactory to have
something to work from, and I
think there are few persons who
cannot either get hold of a boat
like the one they wish to make,
for half an hour, or discover some-
one else who will do so for them,
and send them the needful parti-
culars.
Suppose the boat in question
is a canoe — the kind on which I may say that I first
tried my measuring method, and the kind, moreover,
which in use probably yields more pleasure than any
other, for not more than two persons at a time.
Buy a few yards
of copper wire,
tolerably strong,
like that used for
bell wire : it will
cost about two-
pence. Provide
yourself with a red
pencil, anewspaper,
and a rule, or, better
still, a measuring tape. A canoe, of course, has both ends
alike. Find, by measurement, the exact centre in length.
Take a piece of wire long enough to go round the out-
side of the boat at this point. Place it round, and
draw it as tight as possible, getting some-
one to hold it so, or, if alone, twisting the
ends together. Now with your finger, or
the end of a penknife, force the wire per-
fectly flat across each board, and into the
joinings between the boards, or the bottom-
boards and keel. Be careful to keep the
general direction of the wire perpendicular
to that of the keel, that is, of the ground
on which the canoe is lying. When the
wire is exactly fitted to the form of the
sides and bottom of the boat, fit it in the
same way to the top, and fasten the ends
so that they cannot slip backward or
forward. Then get someone to hold up
one end of the boat, and slide the wire off very gently.
You will now, if you have performed the operation
neatly, have an exact outline of the broadest part of the
canoe, as in Fig. i : such an outline, in fact, as would be
presented by the outside of the sideboards, were you
to saw the vessel across in the centre, and were the
boards not to start from their places. Lay your wire
I. — OUTLINE OF SECTION OF
IN WIRE.
FIG. 2. — STEM OF BOAT.
A | | A
X I X
down on your newspaper, having spread the latter on
a fiat surface, and carefully and exactly trace out the
pattern with the pencil. Now find by measurement
the half-way point between the centre of the boat and
one end, and take another pattern at this place, in pre-
cisely the same way as before. In
the case of a canoe you will re-
quire no more sections, since it
tapers away evenly to both ends
from the centre.
Now take a piece of paper,
sufficient to cover one " nose " of
the boat, and to reach back on the
side to where the rounded stem or
stern-post ceases, and the appa-
rently level keel begins, i.e., for about two feet. Lay
this paper against the side of the boat, and trace on it
the size and shape of the stern-post, and the depth
and direction of the boards, so far as the paper reaches.
You can easily follow the
joinings of the boards through
the paper. (Fig 2.)
Lastly, find the length of
the canoe along the deck, from
tip to tip, and the length of the
keel proper to its junction with
the stem and stern-posts.
You have now all the
necessary measurements, but
it will be as well to ascertain also the depth inside
from the bottom to a stick laid across the top of the
open, the size of the ribs, etc. ; and, though I shall
endeavour to give all necessary description, to examine
carefully the general shape and lie of the
several parts of the vessel.
For an ordinary boat, differing from a
canoe in not being of the same shape at
both ends, wire measurements should be
taken in other places. The necessary
points are, of course, those of greatest
contraction and expansion, and will,
therefore, vary according to the shape of
the particular boat to be copied ; gene-
rally round the bows, amidships, and at
the place near the stern where the bottom
begins to rise and fine away will suffice,
along with the "cheek" beside the stem-
post, and the actual face of the stern.
Having measured the shape of the boat at these points,
and as many more as may seem necessary, and found
the exact distance between them, we may set to work
with confidence.
Of course it is not necessary to follow one's model
in all particulars, provided relative accuracy be pre-
served. Nothing teaches one so well as past mistakes;
4. — SECTION OF
KEEL.
3. — JOINING OF SIDE
BOARD.
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
and here I may mention a serious error I very nearly
fell into when making my first canoe. The boat I took
my measurements from was 15 feet long over all,
and I wished to make mine only 13. This being
so, I at first thought I should merely have to take one
foot off each end, as it were, so that
instead of leaving 3 feet 6 inches between
each end and the section next it, I should
leave only 2 feet 6 inches, still preserving
the length of 3 feet 6 inches between each
of the smaller sections and the one in
the middle. My mistake here is suffi-
ciently obvious, but somehow it did not
at first strike me, and possibly might
escape others also. In fact,
while I had in my measure-
ments considered the boat
I was copying from as
divided by sections into four
parts, each 3 feet 6 inches
long, I now forgot that each
part was to be a quarter of
the whole length, and was
about to make my divisions, 2 feet 6 inches, 3 feet
6 inches, 3 feet 6 inches, 2 feet 6 inches, instead of
four, each 3 feet 3 inches. I should thus have failed
to preserve the relative slope from the centre to each
end, and constructed a boat very much shorter in the
bows than my model. This will serve as an example
of the way proportion of parts must be preserved.
We have now to prepare wooden sections, round
which the canoe is to be built, from the paper patterns.
I said above that the latter, as traced out from the wire,
presented the appearance of the outside of the sides if
the boat were sawn in two. In other words, if we
draw a smaller figure within our pattern, leaving be-
tween the two all round a space equal to the thickness
of the side boards, we shall have a figure which would
exactly fit inside the canoe at the spot where we took
FIG. 5- — SHAPE OF STERN AND
STERN-POST IN CANOE.
FIG. 6. — JUNCTION OF KEEL WITH STERN AND STERN POST.
B a lower board. Every board has its upper outside
edge bevelled off, so as to fit up against the inside of
the board above when the latter is nailed down on it,
itself uncut. The pattern we have taken by the wire
gives us the line A E C D, but what we want is the line
E F G. We must therefore carefully
draw lines corresponding to E F G,
parallel to the outer lines corresponding
to A B C D, all round our pattern, and
then cut out the smaller shape formed
by the inner lines, keeping safely the
thin strip we take off all round, to show
us afterwards the depth of bevel neces-
sary for each board.
The paper section ought
then exactly to fill the canoe
at the particular place to
which it belongs, but it is
as well to double the paper
'i//)i//mg//l/0g/////i/i» and compare the sides, so
MSuBKwm as to ensure their perfect
equality, a process by which
we may often discover in-
equality in an apparently perfectly even boat.
We have now only to paste the papers carefully on
a board, about a quarter of an inch thick, of some soft
wood not easily split, such as poplar, and cut the wood
to shape exactly by the paper. Our sections, round
which the canoe is to be built, are then complete.
And now what are we to do with them ?
Firstly, we must provide a bench to work on, con-
sisting of a board a little longer than the boat is to be,
and as thick as the keel, placed edgeways, and secured
at either end to some firm support about 3 feet
high, as shown in Fig. 7.
We next take two strips of wood, G, G, the same
thickness as the bench, each about 18 inches long,
and diminishing from an inch deep at one end to
nothing at the other. They are called, I believe,
the pattern. And yet this is not quite so, for there is
one very important thing to remember still, at least in
a canoe or small light boat, which must be made with
great exactness. This is connected with the joining of the
boards (Fig. 3). These meet each other at different angles,
according to their position, but the following will serve
as a general illustration. Here A represents an upper,
gambas, and their use is to give a slight " set up " to
the ends of the canoe. These are now to be nailed
along the bench, one at each end, their thin extremities
pointing inward towards each other, and so far apart
that their thick ends will just be under the junction of
the stem and stern-posts respectively with the keel.
It will at once be seen that the keel, when fastened
182
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
along the bench thus prepared, will have a slight dip
from each end towards the centre.
We now construct our keel. We know the length
of the boat we measured, and have from that deter-
mined on the length of ours, equal or different as the
case may be. Boatmakers generally make their keels
of deal : ash, however, is far better. It is heavier and
harder to work indeed, but its greater strength, spring,
and toughness more than make up for this. Take,
then, a piece of ash of the necessary length, and, in
the case of a canoe, of an inch square. Buy or borrow
a rabbet-plane, one that will remove a certain breadth
of the surface to any required depth. The breadth to
be removed in the case of a keel one inch square will
be one-third of an inch, so that you may thus plane
down one-third on each side, and leave one-third pro-
jecting in the middle. The depth to which you plane
away this breadth on either side should be about two-
thirds of an inch, leaving one-third uncut. A section
of the keel will then present the appearance shown in
Fig. 4. Next gradually fine away the projecting
shoulders, A a, for about 10 inches from each end of the
keel, reducing the breadth to one-third of an inch, as
denoted by the dotted lines.
We have now to make the stem and stern-posts.
Let us take the former for illustration, since they are to
be exactly alike. We have its precise size, so far as is
visible in a complete boat, in the pattern we took of
the " cheek " of the model canoe (Fig. 2) ; but we must
remember that there is a part not visible when the
boat is finished, a part corresponding to the stalk of
the "T" in the keel, and into which the ends of all the
boards fit, as the edge of two of them does into the
"T" in question.
Go to a saw mill and get a piece of oak, or,
for a canoe, two pieces, each about 1 inch thick, 3
inches broad, and 2 feet from end to end, round the
curve. They will be somewhat this shape. Now cut the
outside, ABC, exactly by your pattern (Fig. 5). Round
away the corners of the outside edge, and make the
little nose A D. Then begin at D and draw a line, a b
C, all round, parallel to, and about an inch and a
quarter from the outside, except close to C, where it
slopes down nearer to the outer edge. Take a chisel,
or sharp strong knife, and cut deeper and deeper along
this line, removing the surface towards the inside of
the curve as you go on, until you have cut away one-
third of an inch of thickness on each side, and left
another third still projecting — just as in the keel — but
rather thicker towards the edge than at the dotted line.
We have now to fasten these stem and stern-posts
to the previously prepared keel. Here a little reflec-
tion on the way the bottom board must afterwards fit
n will show that the hollow for the edge of the board
must gradually ascend from the lower side of the keel
to the upper side of the end posts. This was the
object of the already mentioned fining away of the
broad top of the keel. I now give an illustration (Fig. 6),
which will help to explain matters here ; and I would
further advise the amateur builder to cut out one or
two models of these stem and stern joinings from a
turnip or large apple, before he attempts to do it in the
wood, as they are about the most important joinings in
the whole boat, and the most troublesome too. The
dotted line, A B, represents the junction'of the post and
the keel.
To ascertain the precise amount of slope neces-
sary here on the two pieces to be joined, we must
cut one, say the post, first, and then get someone to
hold it to the end of the keel, now temporarily fastened
down along the bench, and elevated at each end by
the gamba. We can then pencil the slope on the keel,
and cut by it. The actual fastening of the two pieces
is effected simply by a couple of screws, or wire nails
well clinched. The holes must be most carefully made,
to avoid splitting : a good way being to bore them with
a fine awl, and enlarge them with a hot iron. Indeed
I may here mention that this method of bartiing holes,
either in the first instance, or to enlarge others already
made, will be found invaluable for an amateur,
especially if short of proper tools. An old poker and
a few skewers are always obtainable, and will accom-
plish a large amount of work. But to return to our
illustration. The shaded part represents that portion
of the wood which has been diminished in thickness
by the rabbet-plane and chisel ; the white part that
which is still its original size ; and the partially shaded
portion, from A to C, the originally projecting edge of
the keel, which has been gradually fined away to the
thickness of the stern-post at A, where they are joined.
The junction itself may be strengthened, if necessary,
by a little piece of iron or tough wood nailed across A
above, cutting a corner in the post for its accommoda-
tion. Now fine away any unnecessarily projecting
pieces, and your stern-post is secure. Next, in the
case of a canoe, do the same with the other end ; the
two end posts being exactly alike both in shape and
mode of junction to the keel.
We now have the keel fastened to the bench
beneath, slightly bent upwards at the ends by the
gambas (G G, Fig. 7), and the stem and stern-posts
firmly secured in their places. Let us next take the
sections we prepared first, and bore a small hole
through each of them, say 8 inches from the bot-
tom. Then secure them to the keel, the large one
in the centre, and the other two in their respective
places, as previously determined on, as at N M, N M.
A small piece must be cut out of the bottom of each,
an inch broad, and a third of an inch deep, to receive
the wide top of the keel ; and they must then be
THE USE OF GAS IN THE AMATEUR'S WORKSHOP.
183
secured in their places in such a way as to admit of
being loosened again ; about the best method being
a large nail driven part of its length through from
either side, and bent down into the keel.
Finally, take a piece of cord, fasten one end to the
stern-post, pass it through the holes in the several
sections, draw it tolerably tight, and tie the other end
to the stem-post. Your skeleton is now complete,
ready to be clothed in the side boards, and presenting
the appearance shown in Fig. 7.
For boats other than canoes some of the foregoing
directions must, of course, be modified, but how and
where will be, I think, sufficiently clear.
Thus, in a boat where the ends are not alike, the
stem-post should be put on, as above directed, at one
end of the keel ; but the flat stern-piece, made like a
section from a pattern, must be attached permanently
to the other, necessarily in a different fashion, and the
sections will now be slightly different in shape, and, as
we have seen, possibly more numerous. Other boats,
again, have a straight stem-post, rising perpendicularly
from the keel, and with no nose on the top. On all
these points let your model (the boat you take as your
copy) be your guide.
I shall proceed in my next paper to give more
particular details for the construction of a canoe, with
measurements, and may afterwards give similar
sketches of other builds of boats, if I have reason to
believe they would be acceptable.
( To be continued?)
THE USE OF GAS IN THE AMATEUR'S
WORKSHOP.
By TBOiLAS FLETCHER.
F all the modern labour-saving inventions,
gas may fairly be classed as one of the
most important. In many cases its use
actually creates special trades, which
depend on the use of heat in various
precise ways to produce marketable results. To the
amateur and experimenter it is of extraordinary value,
as it enables experiments and processes to be tried
with ease, which, without its use would, on a small
scale, be either totally impossible, or so excessively
costly as to be out of the question. The practical
use of gas as a fuel has, in the last few years, gone
through what may be considered a complete revolu-
tion, and it is still in its infancy. The best educated
people are only now beginning to recognize some of
the capabilities and value of gas as a heating agent
for small and precise work, and its adaptation to com-
mercial and scientific uses is as yet of the most
trifling kind as compared with its capabilities. Per-
haps no field, except that of chemistry, offers so many
possible prizes to the experimenter as the utilization
of gaseous fuel for purposes, and to produce results
which at present necessitate highly skilled labour.
Where heat is required to produce certain results, the
proper application of gas, as a fuel, at once dispenses
with costly labour and attention, as its work can be
made entirely automatic. Perhaps no better instance
of this can be brought forward than the making of
steel cards, or combs, for finishing cloth ; the wire for
these being heated to an exact temperature, by pass-
ing through a tube heated by gas, from this through
a vessel of oil to harden, then over a rocking blow-
pipe to soften alternate lengths, to admit of bending
where the wire is fastened in the leather back ; the
whole work being entirely automatic, and requiring
no attention. Without gas, the production of this
card would be practically impossible.
To describe the adaptation of gaseous fuel to pro-
cesses actually in use, would take a volume, and the
best way will simply be to describe, as clearly as pos-
sible, the present methods of obtaining different tem-
peratures to different classes of flames, with their
respective uses ; the adaptation to the wants of the
amateur may be left to his own common sense and
skill. Commencing at the lowest temperatures likely
to be required, the contact of any flame with the sub-
stance to be heated is out of the question, the work
must be done by air, heated by a flame. By this
arrangement, any temperature, however low, may be
obtained.
For exact work and long continued periods, it
must be remembered that the pressure of gas in the
ordinary supply pipes is constantly varying, and the
first step towards precision is to put a pressure regu-
lator on the main. The cost of this is not great, and
even for lighting only the saving of gas will usually
more than pay its cost within twelve months. Having
this, we get an element of precision in all experiments
which is valuable, and yet costs practically less than
nothing. It is of course unnecessary, except for
exact work, and its introduction must be left to the
judgment of the user. For my own work it is rarely
required, but at times it will save its cost in attention
and risk of accidents in a few hours, and its presence
introduces an element of safety and precision in all
experiments, the value of which is of great import-
ance. It is a great advantage to know exactly what
you are doing, and to be able to repeat experiments at
exact temperatures. For this reason, in fitting up
taps for gas, it is better to extend the thumb-piece, by
soldering on it a pointer, which plays over a marked
quadrant or dial-plate. These taps can be bought at
1 84
THE USE OF GAS IN THE AMATEUR'S WORKSHOP.
a cheap rate ; but it is by no means necessary, nor is
it always advisable for any amateur to buy apparatus
which he can arrange by altering or adapting fittings
already in use.
Returning to the question of low temperatures :
suppose it is necessary to dry or warm
some substance — for instance, to dry
a sample of soap to find how much
water, and what an extraordinarily
small quantity of soap goes to the
usual grocer's pound ; or to make
some glue without a proper glue-pot,
the arrangement I use is known as a
low temperature burner, shown in
Fig. i. This is a cylinder of iron,
open top and bottom, with a ring of
small jets of gas inside, burning
with a white flame, this being the
heating a bulk of air. To assist in
temperature, the top of
with iron wire-gauze, and
FIG. I. — LOW TEMPERATURE BURNER,
best flame for
equalizing the
the cylinder is covered
this enables either warm
air or a blue Bunsen flame to be obtained at will,
depending on whether the gas is ignited at the ring
or on the surface of the gauze. The arrangement
engraved is about four inches in diameter, inside the
cylinder, and of a proportionate height, the engraving
being taken from a photograph. A good substitute
may be made by using a sheet iron cylinder rather
deeper, over a common lighting burner, the extra
depth being needed to equalize the heat coming from
a single flame, instead of from a number. The cylin-
der is required to keep drafts away from the flame,
and to prevent unsteadiness and consequent unequal
heating. This arrangement may
be used with perfect success
to do all the work of water
and sand baths. The water-
jacket of a common glue-pot is
not necessary, and I have re-
peatedly heated to boiling point,
and evaporated valuable solu-
tions in common glass tumblers,
cups, or saucers ; the only pre-
caution necessary being to start
at a very low heat, with a small
flame, and gradually increase it
at short intervals, taking care
never to be in a hurry. It is
surprising how continually a gentle warmth is needed
for different purposes, and it is also surprising that
those who need it should give themselves so very
much unnecessary trouble, and do things so badly,
when a simple arrangement like this fills at once
almost every possible requirement. So manageable is
this source of heat, that freshly made samples of gun-
FIG. 2. — SOLID FLAME BURNER
cotton may be dried with perfect safety over the open
flame.
If the gas is lighted on the surface of the gauze a
blue flame is obtained suitable for boiling purposes,
but this character of flame has no great power, and
has been, for quick work, superseded
by the solid flame type of burner.
People often ask what is a solid flame,
and in what way does it differ from
an ordinary one ? When it is de-
monstrated that a common gas light-
ing burner gives a thin fiat flame,
which is actually two flames with a
layer between of unburnt gas, people
begin to think instead of believing
their own eyes. The flame of a com-
mon candle is cold in the centre,
containing nothing but a cold wick and tallow in
the state of vapour, and combustion does not com-
mence until the vapour comes in contact with the air
surrounding it, when a thin film of flame is formed.
In the same way the blue flame of an ordinary
Bunsen burner is hollow and cold in its centre, the
quantity of air which can be safely mixed with the gas
being insufficient to produce a flame except where the
mixture is in contact with the surrounding air. It is a
common experiment to introduce gunpowder to the
centre of a Bunsen flame, and the gunpowder will
remain, if the flame is not blown about, unburnt and
cold for any length of time.
With a solid flame, the conditions are entirely
different ; by a special arrangement the air and gas
are mixed in such proportions as to form an explosive
mixture, which burns instantly
when ignited, and requires no
external air supply. To enable
this mixture to be burnt steadily
and quietly, a perforated dia-
phragm, of such a nature and
construction as to totally stop
the passage of flame, is inter-
posed between the flame and the
mixing chamber. The flame
obtained is of an equal tempera-
ture throughout right to the
centre, and, for its actual power,
is small and insignificant look-
ing.
Such an arrangement as first described will burn,
when lighted over the gauze, perhaps 8 cubic feet per
hour, but a solid flame burner (Fig. 2), with the same
size flame surface, will burn fully three times the
quantity in the same time.
This burner, in a modified form, protected on the
perforated diaphragm with an iron grid, to enable it
THE USE OF GAS IN THE AMATEUR'S WORKSHOP.
185
to stand a chimney pull without getting red hot, is
used for small furnaces for many purposes — in fact,
without protection and without a chimney and fireclay
casing, it may be used for melting zinc, lead, tin, type
metal, etc., in ladles. An arrangement of this kind
is shown here in Fig. 3, but for odd work it is
not necessary, as the ordinary open flame type is
amply powerful. For odd experiments, castings of
zinc, tin or type metal will fill most of the require-
ments of amateurs, and a drawer about 2 feet square,
one or two moulding boxes, and two or three bags of
fine casting sand, such as is used by dentists, and can
be obtained from any of the dealers in dentists'
materials, will render the amateur independent of that
bugbear to most — the difficulty of obtaining castings
quickly. It is very difficult to describe the practical
details of moulding and the exact dampness of the
sand — a few minutes' instruction from a practical
moulder will teach more than hours
of reading. The amateur may rest
assured that the production of
castings is really a very simple
matter, and one which he need not
hesitate to undertake.
Of course he must make his
own patterns, and the general idea
is that they must be made of wood.
This is a great mistake, one of the
most valuable materials for pattern
making is plaster of Paris, mixed
with water to the right consistency,
and either run into a strong paper ringor shaped roughly
to near the required form with a plumber's broad knife.
If it is required to be turned, a disc of rough wood should
be fastened to the face-plate of the lathe, a margin of
strong paper tied round it, and the plaster poured into
the disc. When set it can be turned with ease with
ordinary wood-turning tools. If the plaster has to be
carved by hand, it is easier to cut the pattern roughly
to shape soon after the plaster has set, and then let it
dry for two or three days before finishing. A coat of
shell-lac varnish, or, failing this, a thorough blacklead-
ing will make it leave the sand perfectly clean and
smooth. Many of the fine artistic bronzes, sold at
very high prices, are simply zinc castings, bronzed
after finishing, and except when great strength and
hardness are necessary, zinc or tin will fill every pur-
pose. If brass or iron castings are necessary, the
best arrangement is what is known as the injector
furnace (Fig. 4) ; the casting of steel or copper is, I
think, beyond the province of the amateur, owing to
the practical difficulties in obtaining sound castings
free from blow holes and spongy places.
The use of this furnace necessitates a good foot-
blower ; and, given a good gas supply, there is no
FIG. 3. — LADLE
FURNACE.
difficulty in obtaining a brass or iron casting of 3 or
4 pounds' weight in less than fifteen minutes after the
furnace is lighted. With a boy to blow, a casting
may be made, from the first preparation of the sand,
in under a quarter of an hour at any time. The
FIG. 4. — INJECTOR FURNACE.
special advantage of this furnace is that small castings
are often wanted in a hurry in out-of-the-way country
places where gas is not available ; and as this furnace
works just as well with the vapour of spirit, petroleum,
or gasoline, it is available anywhere at a moment's
FIG. 5. — DRAFT MUFFLE FURNACE.
notice for any breakdown or emergency. The arrange-
ment for using petroleum vapour consists of a box
containing volatile petroleum of any kind, through
which a part of the blast from the foot-blower is sent,
as shown in Fig. 4. There are many gas furnaces
made which require no blast of air, but the tempera-
tures obtained are comparatively low ; and for the
i86
WA YS AND MEANS.
amateur, who hardly knows what he is likely to want,
these are not to be recommended. They are of value
to those who have constant work of one specified
class, but their range is too limited for an average
amateur, who wants to experiment generally on all
creation, and a little more.
Possibly an exception may be made in the way of
porcelain painting, which has to be burnt in at low
temperatures, and with a very steady heat. Several
attempts have been made to produce furnaces fit to
burn in large plates, and which shall be suited for use
in unskilled hands. These have, up to the present,
proved a failure ; they are very costly to make, and
are very liable to damage with unskilled use. Prac-
tically, the size is limited to about six inches square as
a maximum, unless cost is no object.
In burning in tiles, the simplest and cheapest fur-
nace is the one illustrated in Fig. 5. A beginner will
usually crack one or two muffles, and all his tiles or
plates, simply because he is in too great a hurry ; the
gas must be lighted, turned low, and the chimney
entirely removed, the heat being very gradually in-
creased by turning on more gas, and adding first half
of the chimney, and then the other half, taking about
twenty to thirty minutes to get the necessary heat up.
When sufficiently burnt in, the chimney must be
stopped up, the gas turned out, and the whole left until
quite cold. If the operator is in a hurry to admire his
work, this haste ends generally in a smash from sudden
and unequal heating or cooling ; and it pays to find
something to employ one's mind whilst burning a por-
celain, to prevent being in a hurry. Time is necessary,
and a deficiency of this means failure. To say you
would have done it if it had not broken is to encourage
your friends to laugh at you. If a failure is made, put
it in the dust-bin, and say nothing about it, but try
again ; do not amuse your friends with your blunders.
=_=4=~
WAYS AND MEANS.
[The Receipts brought together under this title are gathered
from various sources. They are given here because they are each
and all apparently possessed of value, and likely to be useful to the
Amateur. It is manifestly impossible for the Editor to teat them,
or to have them tested, and he therefore disclaims all responsibility
for their accuracy or otherwise. Amateurs who may try them are
requested to communicate the results arrived at.]
Paraffin to Preserve Eggs. — Endless expe-
dients have been resorted to, says the Scientific
American, so that eggs may retain their freshness ;
unfortunately, in many cases, the methods adopted,
while they prevent decay, injure the taste. Paraffin,
as a thin coating, has been recommended by a French
authority as preferable to all others ; and while the
oil of commerce has a well-known smell, the solid
paraffin, resembling white wax, has no perceptible
odour. One kilogramme (about 35 ounces avoirdu-
pois), is said to be sufficient to coat and effectually
preserve 3000 eggs. Samples thus treated in July
were still heavy and untainted in November and
December. When not so treated eggs lose weight,
and obviously become unsaleable when kept without
any precaution being observed. It is asserted that
eggs subjected to the paraffin treatment presented no
trace of alteration after a lapse of two years.
How to Fix Indian Ink. — The blurring of
Indian ink in working drawings of machinery has
sometimes been the source of much trouble and annoy-
ance, but it can be easily remedied by making use of
the following process. It is a fact well known to
photographers that animal glue, when treated with
bichromate of potash and exposed to the sunlight for
some time, is insoluble in water. It has been found by
analysis that Indian ink contains such animal glue,
and, consequently, if a small quantity of bichromate of
potash be used with it, the lines drawn with such pre-
pared ink will not be affected by water, provided that
they have been exposed to the sunlight for about one
hour. It may be said that Indian ink, if genuine,
ought not to run when a wash of any colour is spread
over it.
Substitute for Plated Metal.— An inexpen-
sive substitute for bell-metal, silver, or electro-plated
metal, used for various purposes in the arts and manu-
factures, is said to be produced as follows : 45 to 60
parts by weight of refined copper, 20 to 30 parts of
zinc, 18 to 25 parts of nickel, and if the castings are
required to be turned, 2 or 3 parts of lead. The pro-
portions can be varied according to the purity of the
metals used, and the colour or quantity of the alloy to
be produced. The copper and nickel are first melted
together in a crucible, when the temperature is allowed
to fall. When the zinc, or zinc and lead, are added,
with a small quantity of potash, soda, and borax, the
whole is covered with finely-powdered charcoal. The
temperature is then rapidly raised, and the whole well
stirred, then skimmed, and immediately poured into
the moulds ; or it may be cast into ingots first, in
which case a greater percentage of zinc is added to
make allowance for waste of metal in remelting.
Articles made from this alloy, it is said, take a brilliant
polish, and in appearance resemble silver or nickel.
Boring Glass. — The following method of piercing
glass for optical and other work is recommended. The
boring instrument is heated to a white heat, and is
then plunged into a mercury bath, by which operation
it acquires an extraordinary durability. By a liberal
application of a solution of camphor in spirit of turpen-
tine to the glass, the instrument will pierce it as easily
as though it were wood.
NOTES OA NOVELTIES.
187
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
ROM time to time I have received letters
from correspondents, advocating the de-
sirability of giving full-sized working-
drawings of the various articles for whose
manufacture instructions are given in the
pages of this Magazine. It is urged by those who ask
for the adoption of this plan of procedure, that ama-
teurs have not sufficient time at their disposal to make
working drawings for themselves, and that in some
cases they are unable to do so.
Now, I am inclined to think that both of these
pleas may be disposed of without very much dim
culty. With regard to the latter, the preparation
of a.working drawing involves nothing more than what
is called " mechanical drawing," which can be easily
executed if the amateur possesses a good drawing-board,
a "f-square, a set-square or two, and a pair of compasses
with pen and pencil point, and another pair, techni-
cally called dividers. These are all the appliances
that are absolutely necessary. As for doing the work
itself, no amateur wood-worker will willingly plead
guilty to being unable to mark out his work on the
wood with rule, square, and carpenter's pencil. In
making a full-sized working drawing, all that has to
be done is to mark out the work on paper instead of
on w-ood, and with appliances that are similar to those
used for the rougher work on wood. There is no need
to turn out a beautifully-finished drawing : all that is
required is a drawing that is mathematically correct ;
and in doing this, as I have just shown, no amateur
ought to find any difficulty.
The former plea as to want of time may be ie-
garded as being even less tenable than that which has
been just disposed of. The preparation of the draw-
ing will add but little to the time that is taken in the
execution of the work, for this will be carried out from
the commencement to the finish all the more rapidly,
because, by making the working drawing, the amateur
has so thoroughly "got into his head" the design and
form of the work in hand, and the dimensions of its
various component parts, that there is no necessity for
him to stop from time to time, when at the bench, to
consider what he has to do next, and, how the part
that he is about to take up may be fitted in every way
to the part that has just been put out of hand, and to
those that have yet to be dealt with.
It is patent that in the pages of the Magazine it is
not possible to give working drawings of any articles,
unless they be very small, of full size ; and that all that
can be done is to draw them to scale. Even in the
Supplements it is difficult to do more than this,
although in the design for the " Alhambra Five o'Clock
Tea-Table " that accompanies this Part, many parts of
the structure are given of full size. To go to the root
of the matter, the difficulty of preparing working draw-
ings of full size from smaller drawings to scale, arises
not so much from want of time for the work, or lack of
ability to draw, as from failure to comprehend and
carry out the system of enlargement. A practised
hand will do this with ease, and any one who is unac-
customed to the work will find but little difficulty if he
divide the illustration to be copied into small squares
according to the scale given, and then copy it on paper
divided into inch squares.
For example, let us suppose that he wishes to
make a full-sized working drawing from a smaller one
on the scale of ii inches to the foot. Now it is plain
that every inch in the full-sized drawing is represented
by \ inch in the smaller drawing, because 1 § inches X
8 = 12 inches, or 1 foot, and all he has to do is to
divide the drawing to scale into squares of \ inch, or,
in other words, cover it with a network of lines at
right angles to each other and \ inch apart. " Yes," says
the Amateur, " but see what a time it takes to do this —
to divide and rule my drawing paper into inch squares,
and the drawing to scale into J- inch squares, and consider
how likely it is that I shall make a mess of the whole
affair and spoil my Amateur Work, Illustrated,
into the bargain." As for spoiling your copy it is in
your power to put that to rights at any time by buying
another, and as for the time involved and the " mess "
that you dread, Messrs. Letts, Son, &=■ Co., Li?nited,
33, Kin.% William Street, E.C. (north end of London
Bridge), have put it in your power to relieve yourself
of all apprehension on this respect.
This firm has produced, and has always on sale,
a complete and comprehensive series of " sectional "
papers and books, specimens of which have been
sent me for notice. The quality of the paper is excel-
lent, being stout and good, and having a surface
equally well adapted for pencil, ink, or colour. Being
ruled va. faint lines, which, however, are strong enough
in tint for all practical purposes, plans can be drawn
on them and coloured, without the ruled lines show-
ing objectionably through the work ; and as a proof of
this, it may be said, that when the work is held up at
the distance of three or four feet from the eye, the
lines are not visible. The sheets are ruled in squares
of to, ts, -h, ts, h h h h h h h f, i, h and 1 inch,
these embracing the usual requirements of surveyors
engineers, and designers. Other sizes of paper than
that usually sold, and sections other than those named
above can be ruled to order. Tracing paper may be
purchased similarly ruled. The ordinary size of the
sectional drawing paper is 22 in. by 17! in., the
tracing paper is 23$ in. by 184 in., but other sizes
may be had to order, as it has been said, and
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
continuous sectional paper ruled in TTS in., and 30 in.
wide. The prices vary according to the section,
but these may be learnt from the little book of
samples which Messrs. Letts, Son & Co., Limited,
will send to any address on receipt of a penny stamp
for postage.
Now let us see how these appliances exactly meet
the wants of the amateur who has no time, as he says,
for making working drawings, but who, to tell the
plain unvarnished truth, rather shirks the trouble of
preparing his paper in event of his being unable to
enlarge from a drawing to scale, without resorting to
this method of procedure. Suppose that he wishes to
make a full-sized working drawing from one on the
scale of 1 i in. to the foot. All that he has to do
is to lay over the drawing to scale tracing paper ruled
to i inch, by which it is at once divided into squares
of this size, and then proceed to enlarge on drawing
paper ruled in I inch squares.
Staining and finishing fret-work and wood-work
that it is found desirable to colour, is a matter that
exercises the mind of many an amateur. I know no
preparation for dyeing wood that will beat " Stephens'
Stains for Wood," manufactured and sold by Mr.
Henry C. Stephens, 191, Aldersgate Street, E.C., and
to be bought also of most oil and colourmen. These
stains are prepared in imitation of oak in three shades,
namely, light, medium, and extra dark. Mahogany,
rosewood, ebony, walnut, wainscot, and satinwood,
and sold in bottles at 6d. and is., and at 8s. per gallon,
except in the case of light oak, which is 4s. per gallon,
and medium oak 6s. per gallon. One gallon of stain
is sufficient for 100 square yards. Care should be
taken to see that the bottles bear the label and seal of
the manufacturer, and are distinguished as STEPHENS'
Stains, as sometimes inferior preparations purport-
ing to be Stephens' Liquid Stains are given to the
buyer in place of the genuine article. If there be a
difficulty in obtaining the stains in a liquid form, the
manufacturer will send dye powders by post suitable
for making all the colours except black and wainscot,
which are only supplied in liquid form. The powder
stains are sold in packets at is., 2s., 4s., and 8s. each,
sufficient to make a pint, quart, half gallon, or gallon of
liquid staining respectively, but these prices do not
include postage. Suitable size and varnish for finish-
ing the work are supplied by the same maker, the
former at is. per pound, the latter at 12s. per gallon.
As many correspondents have put questions respecting
the method to be followed in staining, sizing, and var-
nishing, I append Mr. Stephens' directions for using
his preparations.
"The process consists of three distinct operations,
first, staining j secondly, sixing ; lastly, varnishing,
bees-waxing, or French-polishing. The wood should
be very evenly planed, and knots and nail holes
covered by mixing into a paste a little of the stain
with plaster of Paris, and sappy portions of the wood
damped with water or sized. The stain may then be
laid on plentifully with a brush, along the grain of the
wood. When the wood is thoroughly dry, it must be
twice sized, using each time a very strong solution of
size, and subsequently varnished. The size is to be
dissolved in hot water, in the proportion of one pound
to a gallon of water. It should be applied moderately
warm, namely, about 1500 Fahrenheit. If an interval
of twenty-four hours, or longer, be left after staining
before sizing, the colour is softer and richer. Wood
intended for French-polishing should be sized once
before applying the polish. Gas black need not be
used in finishing off the ebony stain ; the polish can
be applied direct on the stain. Exterior work should
be sized once and varnished twice ; and for rough
work, boiled oil may be used instead of varnish. The
different stains can be mixed together to obtain modi-
fications of their respective colours, and they may be
diluted with water for light shades, or applied twice
for a deeper shade. The dye powders dissolve readily
in hot water, and are to be applied when cold."
Amateurs wishing to learn the effect of these stains,
should send to Mr. Stephens for specimens of deal
stained in the various colours and varnished.
Speaking of stains for wood, I have received from
Mr. Maurice Wilks, Market Place, Burnley, a speci-
men of his " Red Varnish " on white deal. The sample
bottle that, according to his letter, was sent with the
specimen, disappeared in transit, so that I can only
speak from the specimen itself, not having had an
opportunity of testing Mr. Wilks's preparation. He
tells me that this varnish " has been of much service
to those who do fret and other wood-work, acting as it
does both as stain and varnish, and being so easily
applied. It is best to rub a little linseed oil over the
work and allow it to stand a short time before varnish-
ing. It will be found of great use and service to many
who cannot French-polish their work, and this occurs
very frequently in fret-work designs." To judge from
the specimen, what Mr. Wilks says of his varnish
seems to be advanced with good reason. The colour
is rich, and somewhat resembles the ordinary rosewood
stain. The lustre of the polish is apparently dulled by
water, but may be revived again by rubbing with a soft
rag moistened with linseed oil.
Turning to things of the book kind, I have received
from the publishers, Messrs. Abel Heywood and Son,
Oldham Street, Manchester, " The Engineer and
Building Trades Almanack and Artisans' Year Book,
1882." In taking this in exchange for sixpence, the
purchaser, if he does not get the best of the bargain,
most decidedly has good value for his money. In
NOTES ON NO VELTIES.
189
addition to all the information that is usually found in
an Almanack, there is much to interest the amateur in
information, recipes, and processes of various kinds.
America is the land of " big things," and Messrs.
Churchill and Co., Wilson Street, Fimbury, E.C.,
in order to keep up the credit of our cousins over
the water in this direction, send me Part 10 of
" Adams' and Bishop's Fret-Work Designs," which
measures 23^ inches by iSf inches,
and so cannot by any possibility be
recommended as a pocket com-
panion, although for a vade mecum
to the fret-sawyer it is invaluable,
and worth far more than its price,
which is 10s. It contains some well-
designed sheets of letters and
figures, and patterns of all the
separate parts of forty-eight articles
in fret-work, including clock-cases,
brackets of variouskinds and shapes,
shelves, book - racks, cabinets,
wall-pockets, toilet-boxes, inkstands, match-safes, card
and cigar-holders, flower-holders, chandeliers, work-
stands, easels, footstools, and other things too nume-
rous to mention. Full instructions are given for
putting together the pieces of which the different
articles are composed. The only thing to which I
object in these designs is the far too frequent intro-
duction of animals and the human form, about which
a correspondent who impeaches my opinion in this
respect will have something to say in the next Part-
I regret that his letter is " crowded out " in the pre-
sent Part.
Messrs. R. Melhuish and Sons, 85 and 87, Fetter
Lane, E.C., send me their Catalogue, which, with
other illustrated price lists of various kinds of tools
and appliances, is sent to any applicant on receipt of
6d. The catalogue and lists together form a trust-
worthy and complete
guide to the sizes and
prices of the various
tools required by the
amateur. I have received
from this firm speci-
mens of strong handy
knives of Sheffield make.
FIG. 13.— SPRING TAPE MEASURE.
FIG. 14. — PLUMB AND LEVEL.
a useful adjunct to the
amateur's tools for rough work, such as cutting rope,
tarred cord, and doing a variety of things for which he
would not care to use his pocket-knife, nor, indeed,
any edged tool. These knives, which consist of broad
blades riveted into handles of wood or bone, and
which cannot be closed, can be bought at 4d. each,
and, I think, can be sent to any address for 6d.
Intending boat-builders should add one of these to
their stock of tools.
In Fig. 13 is shown a useful little pocket com-
panion in the form of a Spring Measure, which, with
the levels mentioned below, has been sent to me for
notice by Messrs. Melhuish and Sons. It consists of
a linen measuring tape, enclosed in a small brass box
of the size and shape shown in the illustration. The
tape is of linen, and is a yard in length or rather more,
as it is graduated in centimetres and parts of centi-
metres on one side, namely, the side
marked " Metre " in the engraving,
and in inches and eighths of inches
on the side marked " London."
When pulled out the tape remains
stationary. When it is desired to
return it to the case, the end should
be held in the right hand, to prevent
the too sudden recoil of the tape,
which is effected by touching a
button or small boss on one side of
the case. The yard measure costs
2s., but longer tapes or linen or
flexible steel may be had at higher prices.
Lastly, I must speak about the spirit levels to
which I have already alluded. The level illustrated
in Fig. 14, or rather plumb and level, for the two uses
are combined in the one appliance, is 10 inches long,
and ii inches full in width, and 1 J inches deep. It is
brass-plated on top, and the plate is so cut as to show
when the air bubble is exactly in the centre of the
tube, and the instrument in a perfectly level position.
The price is 3s. ad. ; the larger size, 12 inches long,
being 4s. od. It may be used as an ordinary level in
the usual way, or for determining whether any piece
of woodwork, as the architrave of a door or the lintel
of a window, is level and true. To do this, the
observer must bring the brass plate between the eye and
the top line of the object whose accuracy of level it is
sought to determine, and look through the crescent-shap-
ed openings in the sides,
just under the brass plate,
in order to see that the
bubble is in the centre,
and the instrument itself
level. In using it as a
plumb-line the instrument
must be held upright, the hole at one end being upper-
most. When in this position the edge of the brass
plate is used as a plumb ; the bubble in the part of the
tube that appears through the hole showing when the
instrument is perpendicular. A useful little level,
5l inches long, brass mounted, and suitable for using
on a straight edge, may be bought for io£d., or post
free is. These instruments, it may be said, are well
finished and fully warranted. They are of English
make, and are thoroughly good and reliable.
190
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL,
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
rThe Editor reserves to himself the right or re-
fusing a reply to any question that may be frivolous
or Inappropriate, or devoid of general interest.
Correspondents are requested to bear in mind that
their queries will be answered only in the pages of
the Magazine, the information sought being sup-
plied for the benefit of its readers generally as well
as for those who uave a special Interest in ubtaining
it. In no case can any reply be sent by post]
Our Correspondents will notice that an
effort has been made in this Part, as
promised, to provide more efficiently for
replies to the numerous queries that they
propose, by setting the answers in smaller
type. A large space has been devoted to
those who are interested in Organ-build-
ing, and it is hoped that the full and
complete replies that have been given to
those who are seeking information on this
subject, will compensate for any delay
that has arisen in satisfying their inquiries.
Organ Building.
L. M. (Altrincham). — You will have
seen, from replies to other correspondents,
that a second series of articles on Organ-
building is in preparation. A paper from
your pen, detailing your difficulties as an
amateur organ-builder, and how you
managed to overcome them, will be accept-
able at any time.
W. C. {Camden Town). — The second
series of papers on Organ-building will be
commenced in the first part of Vol. II.
It is not possible to give you the informa-
tion you ask for in advance. The cost of
materials, etc., will be carefully supplied
by the writer, who is himself an amateur
organ-builder of considerable experience.
A.J. (Drogheda). — See replies to Du-
BITANS and S. S. If middle " C " is made
to the larger scale mentioned, the sloping
line in the scale must be drawn from
tenor " C " line to that point, and the
pipes will diminish equally. Any wood
that will keep its form and not split of its
own accord will do for the stoppers.
A. W. (Cricklewood). — As regards
your first question see reply to S. S.
(Nottingham). The cap should be of
mahogany slightly thicker than the front
of the pipe. The hollow in it is about
I inch at the bottom for CC, about
\ inch for tenor C, and so on. It runs
away to nothing at the top of the cap, the
windway there being made with a flat file
when the cap is ready to put on. For a
CC pipe the windway is about rV inch.
C. E. (Shepherd's Bush). — Is it neces-
sary to go to the trouble and expense of
constructing a new bellows for youraccor-
deon ? I f it is mounted on a stand so that
the bellows can move freely, a cord could
easily be attached to the back of it and
connected with a pedal to be worked by
the foot. If you cannot do this your best
plan would be to follow exactly the instruc-
tions for making the bellows in the article
on " How to Build a small Organ," malt-
ing it about 1 foot 3 inches by 9 inches, or
larger if you have room. You would
scarcely get enough wind through a
ji inch tube. Make a small wind trunk
about 2 inches by \ inch.
T. M. (Totnes). — The organ bellows
is intended to be blown by the foot, but
only requires one pedal, as it has only
one feeder. The harmonium bellows will
not be suitable for the organ, but the
Open pipes.
Tenor C ^
Middle C
CI
C2
C3
a
FIG. 3. — MODE OF SETTING OUT SCALE
FOR ALL THE PIPES.
Scale, one inch to a foot.
Each section between thick lines to be
divided into 12 equal parts like the
top section.
organ bellows can be made to supply both
instruments. The best way to combine
the two would be to make it a two-manual,
the upper row to act on the organ and
the lower one on the harmonium. Make
the bellows as large as you have room for,
with a wind trunk at each end — one to
supply the organ and the other the har-
monium. You can put two feeders to it
if more convenient to you, but it makes
the tone of the organ rather uneven. A
draw stop should be connected with a
valve in the harmmium wind trunk to let
in the wind or to shut it off as required.
This is necessary as you will find that
harmonium reeds will not keep in tune
with organ pipes, as the changes in the
temperature affect them in opposite ways.
Dubitans. — A jointer plane is the
ordinary long plane used by carpenters
for shooting long joints. A short plane
will not make a good joint. The pipe
foot is about 6 inches long and varies in
size according to the size of the pipe.
See answer to S. S. (Nottingham) as to
sizes of holes through the blocks to re-
ceive the feet. The long line as set out
on page 52 is only 2 feet long, but a com-
plete scale should be 4 feet long. Fig. 3
is a sketch of a complete scale for all
the pipes, which will be useful to many.
The last sentence in the first column, page
52 simply means that, instead of continu-
ing the sloping line right down, a new
slope should be started from Tenor C, so
as to make all the subsequent pipes
slightly larger than they would otherwise
have been. No. 19 in Fig. 5 is an error,
it should be F sharp. The long ribs of
the feeder and reservoir are each 2 feet
5 inches long, and all the ribs are 6 inches
wide and divided down the middle as
shown, thus making each half 3 inches
wide. The end ones are made the same
width, and are as long as the bellows is
wide. You will find it quite easy to put
all the ribs on except the last, which
should be the end one. That, however,
can be managed by inserting a flat ruler
of wood through the spaces at the corners
where the gusset pieces are put on. You
can get the size of the gussets by opening
the bellows and cutting a paper pattern of
the opening space, leaving a margin of an
inch all round for glueing.
J. M. (New Cross). — See replies to
Dubitans, and others. The dimensions
referred to need not be adhered to rigidly,
but should be followed as near as possible.
Bamboo, if easily obtained, would be ser-
viceable for pipe feet. White deal should
not be used for pipes as it is liable to
shakes, etc. The cap, and also the stopper,
should fit perfectly or the tone will be
spoilt. Be sure you do not cut the upper
lips too thin. £ inch slightly rounded on
the outside only will do for CC, if you
want a full round tone. Amateurs spoil
more pipes by thin lips than in any other
way.
J. B. (Kentish Town). — The drawings
of the pipe in Part I. are to a scale of
1 inch to a foot ; those in Part II. are
roughly to a scale of £ inch to a foot, but
are not actually drawn to a scale. The
lengths of the pipes given as 4 feet, 2 feet,
etc. , are exclusive of the block. They are
all slightly longer than the speaking
length to allow for the stopper, and, in
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
191
open pipes, to allow for cutting down to
pitch. The throat should be about f inch
wide for a 4 foot pipe. As to sizes of
holes, etc., see replies to '' S. S." and
Dueitans. None of these dimensions
need be strictly adhered to, but those
given are good working ones.
S. S. (Nottingham). — Full instructions
will be given in the next volume for build-
ing a two-manual organ, with pedals and
swell. With regard to your difficulty in
making the pipes, the block should be
glued between the two sides of the pipe ;
a piece of wood the same width as the
block should then be glued at the top
between the sides, and this will enable you
to keep it perfectly square, and it can be
cut off when the pipe is trimmed down.
The back is then put on, and the front
last of all. The hole through the bottom
of the block should be about 1 inch for
CC ; f inch for tenor C ; J inch for middle
C, and so on, each octave higher being
rather more than half the preceding one.
If there is too much wind, a small plug is
inserted in the foot. Make the height of
the mouth one-fourth of the width, as it
will allow for cutting a trifle higher when
toning. The best wood for the block is
pine, with a piece of mahogany \ nch
thick glued on the front. Buy all your
wood well seasoned, and keep it by you
as long as possible before using. The
higher the mouth is cut, the louder and
coarser is the tone, and the more wind
will be required to blow the pipe.
W. C. S. (Newburgh). — I expect you
have included the block in the length of
the pipe, which would make it too short
to sound C as it should do. There is no
harm in making the speaking length of
the pipes a little longer than given in the
scale, as the stopper can be pushed down
till it gives the correct note. Indeed,
where pipes are brought to the front to
show, it must be done so, in order to
make the two halves correspond in height.
The same remarks apply to open pipes,
which are cut down to proper length after
completion.
W. G. (Keith). — You are quite right
in your supposition, but you had better
set out the scale to full size, and take the
lengths and widths of the pipes from that.
A full scale with mode of setting out is
given in reply to another correspondent.
Remember the stopped pipes only run to
13-inch B ; the rest are open pipes, and
commence at 2-foot C, and run to about
4$ inch, which is the smallest pipe F.
There is only room for one stop on the
organ, and you will have to exercise your
ingenuity in so arranging the 54 pipes
that they may all have room to speak.
In the second series of articles you will
have all the information you require as to
a 4 stop organ ; but it is impossible in
this part of "Ours" to answer all your
queries.
T. R. (Aldershot). — The windway be-
tween the block and cap in CC pipe is
about -Jg inch, and should be gradually
reduced for each succeeding pipe. The
only way to tell when it is right is by try-
ing the pipe on its own sound-board when
the organ is put together. The feet are
generally made all one length, but their
length does not affect the pipe in any
way.
H. G. (Bow). — The pipes for the organ
which will be described in Vol. II. will be
different in scale to those now described,
but every pipe made for the small organ
may be utilised for the larger one.
P. X, M. O. — The \ inch remaining
after you have divided your sound-board
may be utilised in any way you think best.
The CC pipe is 4 feet speaking length,
and the block is 4 inches long, making
4 feet 4 inches.
A. I. H. (Dublin).— See reply to
Dueitans, as to scales. The cost of
the complete organ will depend entirely
on what jou have to pay for materials.
Reckoning a fair price it would be about
^3 1 or. if all wood pipes, and about
^4 ioj. if a metal treble set is purchased.
Tne price does not include case, which,
however, will only be required for the
lower front if the pipes are made to form
the upper case.
M. I. S. (Ireland). — The size of the
throat, the length of the blocks, and the
depth of the hollow in the caps, should
be very gradually diminished from each
successive pipe. The pipe feet should be
glued in the centre of the block. They
may be quite straight or slightly conical,
as you like, and should be all the same
length.
Philharmonic. — The lips of the
pipes are to be chamfered down to a little
less than | inch for CC, and in propor-
tion for the others. The valves should be
j inch larger all round than the holes
which they cover.
Prksto (Glasgow). — Notice reply to
Intended Organ-Builder, and your dif-
ficulty will be at an end. Each pipe from
4 feet to 2 feet long is 2 inches shorter
than the preceding one ; each one from 2
feet to 1 foot, 1 inch shorter ; from 1
foot to six inches, | inch shorter, and so
on. Note, there are 12 pipes in each of
these sections.
S. S. (Darlington). — No advantage
would be gained in making the pipes as
you suggest, and only the larger ones
could be so made as the smaller ones run
very thin. The method given is the one
in general use among organ-builders, and
answers well.
H. C. (Cappoquin). — The organ will be
8 feet 2 inches high, but see in Article
IV. as to mode of making it lower. The
longest pipe is only 4 feet, but being a
stopped pipe it gives the 8 foot tone.
You cannot reduce the lengths of the
pipes as you suggest, for they would not
give the proper note.
Amateur (Burlington Quay). — See
replies to Dueitans, etc. The drawings
you mention are not to scale. Fig. 5 is
only a chromatic scale of notes, from
which no measurements are to be taken.
P. F. J. (Llangotioyd). — White leather
is best for the bellows, as it cannot be too
soft and supple. Tanned leather would
creak .
W. J. V. (Abingdon). — The organ is
as small as it can usefully be made, in-
deed, it would be better if it were made
6 ins. wider, making it 3 ft. 6 ins. wide.
Intended Organ - Builder (Rei-
gate). — Fig. 5 °n'y shows the order of
the notes in the chromatic scale, and no
measurements are to be taken from it.
Several correspondents seem to have
fallen into an error as to this. The dia-
pason or scale for the pipes is Fig. 4.
The two mistakes pointed out are printer's
errors.
Pulsator Organorum writes : May
I be allowed to make a suggestion to
A. W. C. (Camden Town), who, I pre-
sume, writes to ask if the organ described
in Amateur Work, Illustrated, has
pedals or not? I see your answer to
him is that it has none. If A. W. C. is
very anxious to have pedals to his organ,
I think if he adopts the following plan,
which I intend adopting with mine (for I
am one of those who has made the first
pipe successfully, as described in Part I.,
and am busy with the others), he will be
able to practise a little pedalling. I pro-
pose to make the lowest octave (gamut,
12 notes), to be pulled down by pedals.
It can easily be arranged by placing a
little narrow strip of wood under the
notes, called a backfall. Through its
centre a pin should run, and to one end
the wire connecting it with the pedal
should be attached, while the other end is
adjusted under the end of the note, so
that when the pedal key is pressed down
the backfall tips up the end of the note,
and thus makes the pipe speak. If the
writer on the excellent little article "Organ
Building," thinks this little hint worth his
consideration, he will probably, as an
experienced person in such matters, show
how the backfalls, etc., can be arranged.
Amateur Organ-Builder (Litch-
field), A. K. (Soham), E. F. ( Westmin-
ster), and W. O. (Plymouth), will find
that their queries have been already treated
in the replies given above to other corres-
pondents. If there is anything that they
do not perfectly understand they had
better write again.
192
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Galvanic Batteries.
W. J. (Aldershot) and F. D. (Sheer-
ness) ask us to name a respectable firm
where such articles as galvanic batteries
and their parts can be purchased. Mr.
H. J. Dale, of 4, Little Britain, London,
E.C. , will supply amateurs with any gal-
vanic batteries or parts of them. His
prices are as follows .- — Brown Stone ware
outer cells, 6 by 4 inches, od. ; 8 by 6
inches, is. 2d. Porous inner cells, 7 inch,
6d. ; 9 inch, 9d. Carbon plates, 7 by 3
inches, is. 3d. Zinc plates, gd. per lb.
Carbon clamps, 6d. to 9d. Zinc binding-
screws, 6d. to 9d. Sheet copper, is. 6d.
per lb. In ordering the zinc plates for the
Daniell cell, it should be distincdy stated
that the strips of zinc are to go in the
porous cell instead of rods. The porous
pots should be of the white variety.
How to Hoop Tubs.
J. M. , Junk. (Darlington), writes as
follows in reference to A. E. M.'s difficul-
ties in making an iron hoop to fit a cone-
shaped tub: — "Let the accompanying
figure represent in elevation the tub which
requires a new hoop at A E. Supposing
you have got the hoop iron in your work-
shop, proceed to work by first taking the
girth or measurement round the tub at
A B, where you want your hoop to fit.
Then cut from your hoop iron a piece
3 inches longer than the measure round
A B, thus allowing for the overlap, which
is necessary in order to rivet both ends of
the hoop iron together. Then take the
outside diameter at A B, and also the
diameter at the smallest end, or bottom
of the tub, as c D ; and take the length
in inches from A B to c D as E P. When
you have got these measurements, make
a plan on your workshop floor, or any
convenient place, exhibiting a figure of
the tub in elevation, or in section, as it
were, just as shown in the annexed figure.
Produce the lines AC, B D, till they meet
in H. Then from H, as the centre, with
the radius H E, describe an arc as K L.
This is the form in which the hoop ought
to be, in order to fit the tub, and the ends
to overlap properly. To get the hoop in
this shape is very easy. All that is neces-
sary is to put the hoop iron on a flat anvil,
or on anything else having a flat surface
that will answer the purpose, and hammer
one edge of the hoop at the side next E,
which is indicated in the diagram by the
arc K I.. The hoop must be kept flat on
the anvil, and the hammering must be
done from one end to the other, letting
the blows always fall on the same edge.
This makes the side or edge that is ham-
mered larger than the other, and the hoop,
it will be found, will assume the form of
an arc. By trying it on the arc K L, as
chalked on the floor, now and then, and
giving it a little more hammering, if ne-
cessary, it will gradually be brought to
the right shape. Do not hammer too
much at one time, but keep trying it on
the mark until the right degree of curva-
ture is attained. Try this with a piece of
paper and a flower-pot, cutting the paper
into the form of an arc, as shown, with
regard to the tub, by K L. Or, if any
amateur gets a hoop that has been on a
cone-shaped tub, and unrivets it and
straightens it out, he will find it take the
shape of an arc of a greater or smaller
circle, as the case may be."
Light-Keeper, who sends a well-
executed drawing similar to the above
diagram, throws further light on the sub-
ject by showing how, and with what part
of the hammer, the hammering should
be done. He says : " I fear the direction
given to A. E. M. will not enable him to
get rid of the cutting-in and bulging of
HOW TO HOOP A TUB.
which he complains. The hoop will re-
quire to be hammered with the riveting
face of the hammer along the inside of
the upper or ' cutting-in ' edge, striking
in such a manner that the hammer will
mark heavily at the edge, but only from
one- third to half the way across." There-
fore the hoop must be beaten with the
small end of the hammer-head, and the
blows must be delivered at right angles
to the edge of the iron, and not parallel
to it.
W. H. H.'s letter is acknowledged.
The information he supplies has been
given above , as he may see. Any paper
he may send on cooper's work, or any
other subject with which he is practically
acquainted, shall be carefully considered,
with a view to its insertion in Amateur
Work, Illustrated.
A Good Suggestion.
Light-Keeper, whose position and
occupation is suggested by his nom de
flume, referring to various recipes given
in "Ways and Means," says he has no
ready means of getting any such things
but by post He believes that many
could be sent thus, and asks, "How
would it do for you to appoint a respect-
able chemist to Amateur Worts, Illus-
trated, and give him all such receipts,
allowing him to note at the end of each
its cost and postage, if it be practicable
to send it by post. I believe it would
bring him considerable business, and
such information would be very accept-
able to most country readers." If any
chemist likes to take on himself the supply
of appliances for various purposes men-
tioned in the recipes given in "Ways
and Means," he can make known his
intention of doing so in the advertising
pages of this magazine, but it is not pos-
sible to go further than this in the direc-
tion that Light-Keeper suggests. Any
source of* supply of this kind must be
self-appointed, and announced in the
usual manner, although I should not
hesitate to point out any one of whom, to
my knowledge, any preparation men-
tioned in " Ways and Means " could be
obtained, both good and at a reasonable
price, for the benefit of amateurs in
general.
Purchase of Tools, etc.
W. H. R . — The subject of your letter
is under consideration, but it is very
doubtful if the assistance you ask for can
be rendered. With every wish to be of
service to the readers of Amateur Work
Illustrated, you will see, on reflection,
that it is not possible for the Editor of a
magazine to act as an agent for the pur-
chase of second-hand lathes, etc., and
certify that the machine is worth the
money paid for it. Still, I thank you for
your confidence in my judgment, and will
try to hit on a plan to help you and others
in the purchase of reliable second-hand
machinery.
Bookbinding, etc.
P. M. ( Willesden). — Papers on the
art of Bookbinding will be commenced
in an early Part. Instruct'ons for colour-
ing Magic Lantern Slides will also be
given in a future Part, when the mode of
making a good Magic Lantern is de-
scribed.
Questions : their Nature, etc.
G. T. (Clapton). — Questions may be
asked on any subject other than those now
being treated in the magazine, provided
that it is of interest to amateur workers
generally, and bears on work that may be
carried out by amateurs. This part of
the magazine has been set on foot for the
special purpose of helping any " amateur
in a fix," if it is possible to do so.
%* Replies to Communications not
yet answered will appear in Part V.
FIG. I.— END ELEVATION — DOOR OF POTTING SHED.
FIG. 2,—FRi
D
'
J I
i L
X D
FIG. S.— PLAN OF HOUSE, SHOWING
FIG. 4.— SECTION OF POTTING SHED, ETC.
11:..^'^:; . ■i).iiiTiTTm::;>.
Far Description, see Fagc 193.]
WORKING DRAWINGS OF A SMALL GREENHOUSE. SPECIALLY DESIGNED j
PRESENTED WITH PART V. OF '
^>
V-
Dl
/A
j / ■ / i
FIG. 3.— END ELEVATION— DOOR OF GREENHOUSE.
\K
i j
i ! !
1 i :
•_1D
o □
E, APPARATUS FOR HEATING, ETC.
10 II 13 13 l« IS IS 17 ■ |a
FIG. 6.— SECTION OF HOUSE, SHOWING STAGE, JETC.
) CONTRIVED TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF AMATEUR GARDENERS.
\fATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED!'
{Scale, One-third of an Inch to the Foot.
'iruwiNC -T.ICE. ETC
WORKING DRAWINGS OF A SMALL GREENHOUSE. SPECIALLY DESIGNED AND CONTRIVED TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF AMATEUR GARDENERS.
RrDutrlfthx.utPaviM.] PRESENTED WITH PART V. OF "AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED:'
\Scalt, Om-lkird c/ an Jack to lie rxt
A SMALL GREENHOUSE FOR AMATEUR GARDENERS.
193
SMALL GREENHOUSE FOR AMATEUR
GARDENERS.
T is not so very long ago that a "glass-
house " was an object of reverential awe to
the mass of the population, when the tax
on glass made the smallest conservatory
attached to a nobleman's house a thing to
look at and talk about, but which was far beyond
the reach of the average country squire's means. Sub-
sequently, when this tax was removed, greenhouses
began to increase in our gardens, but it is only within
late years that these embellishments, alike to house
and garden, have become as general,
nay, universal, as they now are. I am
not r'luding to the "acres of glass"
which appear in the extensive gardens of
those who can afford them, but rather
to the little glass plant-house, which, built
on to, or apart from, houses of moderate
dimensions, keep the plants alive, and the
house supplied with flowers during the
dreary darkness of our English winter.
One of our best poets has said, and most
justly, " Who loves a garden, loves a
greenhouse too," and he did not mean a
lofty glazed pavilion, where the gardener-
in-chief reigns supreme, and the owner
enters with lowly mien and bated breath,
but a snug little conservatory where one
may pick this, repot that, tie up the other,
grow winter salads, and cultivate one's
own vine. How to build such a snuggery
for himself, at the cost only of the
labour of his hands, his wood, and glass,
is the object of the following paper on
the subject set down from practical expe-
rience, and sure, in intelligent hands, to produce a
result which cannot fail to gratify. Instructions are
given as to heating apparatus, which may or may not
be added at the will of the builder.
Before proceeding to describe the greenhouse it
will be well to say the position best suited for its
erection, is one dry, and exposed on the east, south,
and west sides ; but, if possible, sheltered on the north,
and as the house is mainly constructed of wood, it
should be placed on a bank of earth or masonry 10 inches
or 1 foot higher than the surrounding ground, and some
6 or 8 inches wider than the base of the greenhouse.
The class of greenhouse proposed to be described
is a small span-roofed one, which is preferable, as
being easier to construct than the lean-to, or half-span
ones, and more useful when constructed than one of
the latter would be. And also a span-roofed one,
FIG. 7. — TRANSVERSE SECTION
OF RAFTER OR SASH-BAR.
FULL SIZE.
when made in the way proposed, may be easily moved
at the will of the owner, not being a fixture ; so that
should he desire to change his place of residence, his
greenhouse need not be left behind, but may be taken,
and again secured in another suitable position. It is
for this reason that the posts marked c and D are
mortised in the ground-plate shown A, instead of being
driven in the ground, as they would have been had the
house been intended for a fixture. But as the framing
of it only rests on the surface, it will be necessary to
fasten it down by some means, to prevent it being
moved by high winds, as it otherwise would be. This
will be best done by driving into the ground prepared
for the greenhouse four posts, so that their heads are
level with the surface, each post being
about five inches square, and about two
feet six inches long. These must be
put in such positions that they are
under the ground-plate, which must be
secured to them by four | coach-screws,
screwed through it into the posts. The
best positions for the posts is near the
corners of the house.
A convenient size for the house (includ-
ing the potting shed, which is at the north
end) is about 18 feet long and 8 feet
wide, outside framing. In referring to
the drawings it will be seen there is a
ground-plate running all round the base,
this is lettered A A, and is ij inches deep
and 5 inches wide, and is formed into
a frame 8 feet 1 inch wide and 18 feet
1 inch long. Securely fastened at the
corners, there are four upright posts C,
which are 4 inches square, these are
kept in a vertical position by eight struts
J, which greatly help to stiffen the frame-
work, until the boards are fastened
over it. The space between the end posts is divided on
either side of the house into five equal spaces by four
posts, three of them, D, being 4 inches by 3 inches, and
the fourth marked x, 4 inches by 4 inches. This
latter divides the potting shed from the greenhouse, as
shown in Figs. 2 and 5. These are all 4 feet 9 inches
long, and as they are mortised into the wall-plate at
the top, and the ground-plate at the bottom, each of
which are \\ inches thick, the space between the
wall-plate and ground-plate is 4 feet 6 inches. The
wall-plate B is 4 inches wide. Six other posts D,
7 feet 4 inches long, 3 inches thick, and 4 inches
wide, must be provided. These are all mortised at
one end to the ground-plate, and at the other are
nailed to the rafters E. Of these two at either end
form the door-posts, of which the doorways are 6
feet 3 inches high by 2 feet 3 inches wide. The
i94
A SMALL GREENHOUSE FOR AMATEUR GARDENERS.
rafters, lettered E and F, are nailed at one end on the
wall-plate, and on the other to the ridge-board H,
which is 1 8 feet 3 inches long, 6 inches deep, and
1 inch thick. Those lettered E are 2 inches by 3 inches,
and those lettered F of the form shown (Fig. 7),
which represents the actual size of the section, they are
all 4 feet 9 inches long. These rafters can be pur-
chased of the section shown, and should be all carefully
placed at equal distances (see Fig. 2), when the width
must be measured, and the glass ordered accordingly.
To ventilate the house about 9 inches next to the
ridge-board on one side should be unglazed, and the
space covered with half-inch board, hinged in four lengths
to the ridge-board, and arranged so as to be easily
opened from the inside, as shown at L (Figs. 3 and 6),
and the same must be adopted at the bottom of the
opposite rafters, where four lengths of board M are
hinged to the wall-plate B. The outward thrust of the
rafters over C, x, D, D, D, and C can be counteracted by
pieces of wood used as ties, as shown at G. The house
should be glazed with glass 16 ounces in weight to the
square foot. With regard to doors, the amateur had
better get them made by a carpenter, as to look well
they require good work, and they are not expensive.
The framing of the sides must be covered with i or
-| inch boarding, tarred or painted on the outside, and
the spaces between the inner and outer boards filled
with sawdust, which is a slow conductor of heat.
Perhaps some amateurs will require a little ex-
planation with regard to following the drawings in
cutting the timbers to the necessary length. To de-
scribe the dimensions of every piece of timber used in
the framing would be tedious, and occupy too much
space, and there would be but very few who would
require such minute instructions. If anyone who is in
difficulty on this point will look at the illustrations of
the plan, front, and end elevations and sections of the
house in the Supplement that accompanies this Part,
he will find that they are working drawings, drawn to
scale, and that a scale from which he may ascertain
the dimensions of any part of the house, by aid of a
pair of compasses, is given below the plan of the house
in Fig. 5. The proportion in which the scale is drawn
is one-third of an inch to a foot ; that is to say, every
linear dimension, as shown in the illustrations, is one
thirty-sixth part of its counterpart in the house itself
when built, or of a full-sized working drawing. Now,
although it would be possible to make full sized work-
ing drawings of different parts of the building, it is
neither desirable nor necessary to do so ; but before
setting to work, the amateur is recommended to pre-
pare from the figures working drawings on a larger
scale— say on the scale of an inch to the foot — which
would familiarize him with the different pieces required
for the structure, and their relative positions.
The best material for the construction of the wood-
work of the house will be thoroughly dry, soft deal,
free from knots as much as possible; and it will doubt-
less save the constructor much trouble if he obtains
the different required pieces of the sections shown in
the drawing, only a little larger, as he easily can do
from saw-mills or elsewhere ; so that all he will find
necessary will be to plane them, and follow the draw-
ings in cutting them to the required length, and then
nail, mortise, or screw them together as shown in the
different diagrams.
When all the wood-work has been put together,
and is thoroughly dry, the knots must be carefully
stopped, and the whole framing given one coat of white
lead ; this will make the putty in the glazing hold well.
Then the glass must be put on of the required width,
the length of each piece being from 15 to 18 inches
long, and each overlapping the next to it by about an
inch and a quarter. When this is completed, the
whole of the inside and outside wood should receive
two good coats of paint, of pale stone colour or white ;
and in doing this it is strongly advised that the paint
used should be rather thick, and well rubbed on, a
little only being taken up in the brush at one time.
The subject of heating the greenhouse is such a
very wide one that in this article there is only space to
treat it in a very cursory manner. However, an en-
deavour must be made to tell the amateur as much as
possible about this important matter in a few words.
There are three well-known methods — namely, heat-
ing by brickwork flues, by hot air, and by hot water.
Each of these systems has its admirers, who have
of course, claimed for it the advantages of effective-
ness, economy, and equality of temperature, amongst
other less important ones which want of space will not
allow being here enumerated. The heating by flues
was for many years after the introduction of the others
the most popular, but it now is, and has been for some
time past, rapidly giving place to the hot-water system,
which appears to the writer by far the best arrange-
ment for houses of all sizes.
Referring to the different systems in the above
order, the chief quality which appears to recommend
the use of the old flue method in the small house
which in this article we have endeavoured to show the
amateur how to make, is its cheapness of construction;
but this advantage is more than counterbalanced by
the fact that greenhouses heated by it are liable to
rapid changes of temperature, should the fire (which,
therefore, requires constant attention) become either
too great or too little, and that should the cement in
the joints of the flue crack at all, the house is filled
with a strong odour of sulphur, which is both unplea-
sant to those entering and very injurious to the plants
inside; besides which, there is the inconvenience of the
A SMALL GREENHOUSE FOR AMATEUR GARDENERS.
i95
flues constantly requiring sweeping — an operation
which, should the amateur be obliged to do for him-
self, though not taking long, it is difficult to believe
however enthusiastic a floriculturist he may be, he
would not greatly dislike. However, should any reader
decide, in spite of these objections, to adopt this form
of heating his house, it will be well to say that the
fire-place, which must be built about ten inches below
the level of the flue (and of course is horizontal where
it runs through the house), should be 20 in. long, 10 in.
high, and 95 in. wide, into which space must be built
the fire-bars. The flue should be about 8 inches square
inside, and be fitted with a damper to regulate the
draught and a small wrought-iron or brick chimney
at the other end to carry away the smoke.
With regard to the next system, that of heating by
hot air. It can only be said it seems both expensive
and generally unfit for a small house. The third
method now remains, which, as I said before, appears
best adapted for all sizes of greenhouses, and this
opinion is much strengthened by the numerous boilers
of so many shapes, sizes, and principles, which are to
be seen advertised in even- gardening paper of the
present day. In fact, there are so many good arrange-
ments of boilers, that it can only be said the most
popular seem to be the "horseshoe" and "saddle"
types ; but of the boilers which have come under my
notice of late, those made by Messrs. Franklin Hock-
ing, of Liverpool, seem amongst the best, and to these I
shall again refer a little further on. However, in so small
a boiler, perhaps the best way will be for the amateur
to look through the advertisements in the gardening
papers, and fix on one which the makers will tell him
will do the work he requires, and is at a price he is
prepared to give. As is shown in the sketch, it will be
best for him to select some arrangement in which no
brick work setting is required, as it would be more
easily moved, and would occupy less room than it
would otherwise do. The fuel should be small coke
or gas, the latter has been found very convenient in
small houses, on account of the little attention which
is required in keeping the house at a uniform heat.
However, where this means of heating cannot be
used, as is generally the case in the country, small
coke is the most convenient.
This description of fuel, I should think, would burn
for a considerable time without attention in one of
Messrs. Franklin Hocking's small concentric tubular
boilers, in which the upper part is filled with a con-
siderable quantity of coke at a time, which works
down, and slowly takes the place of that which has
been already burnt.
In the sketches is shown a small circular boiler and
tank and piping (p, x, R;, which are heated by gas, the
fumes of which should be carried away as shown in
the drawings, by a piece of iron stove-pipe, capped by
a conical covering, raised a little distance above the
top of the pipe to prevent the sudden down-rush of
any gust of wind.
For a greenhouse of the size illustrated, the pipes
should be two, or two and a half, inches in diameter.
The stage marked K is 2 feet 5 inches wide, and 2 feet
9 inches or 3 feet high, as will be seen in the drawings.
The most important thing in its construction is that it
should be made that the plants may be as near the
glass as possible, which will prevent their being drawn
into those long, sickly-looking objects one so often sees
in conservatories and greenhouses in which the old-
fashioned step-stage is used. The centre of the house
may be laid with tiles, or thick slates, which will help
to make it more tidy and cleanly.
All minor details which have not been specially
described, will be sufficiently understood on referring
to the drawings, but there is yet one thing to which
the attention of the amateur must be drawn, and
that is the necessity of providing means for carry-
ing off the water that will fall from time to time on
the glass roof when "the clouds drop fatness," in order
to prevent the drip on the earth below, and the dis-
figurement that it causes if it be allowed either to
trickle down the front and back of the house or to fall
and splash against its base. As the house that has
been described has a span roof, and a door at each
end, zinc or iron guttering, supported on brackets,
must be placed immediately under the eaves along the
front and back, and two pipes must be provided to
admit of the exit of the water caught in the gutters.
Had one end of the house been permanently closed,
one exit pipe would have been sufficient, as the gutters
in front and back could have been connected by a
third piece running across the closed end. The next
thing to be considered is the provision of means for
the dispersion or absorption of the rainfall, or, what is
better, for its storage for use in the greenhouse. If it
is not to be saved, the pipes must have their lower
ends set in drain pipes leading to a pit dug in the
earth, and filled to about half or two-thirds its depth
with brickbats covered with brushwood to prevent the
entrance of the mould_ with which it is filled in. I f
the water is to be stored, a brick tank, well cemented
should be made under the potting shed, from which
receptacle the water can be raised when wanted by a
small pump in the shed itself. If the reader will refer
to the paper on " Filtering Cisterns for Rain-Water,"
in page 34, he will find instructions for calculating the
size of the tank required in proportion to the super-
ficial area of the roof. A sliding panel in the partition
between the potting shed and the house, will be found
useful for passing in newly-potted plants, etc., without
carrying them round in the front of the house.
196
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
By E. IF. DENNISS.
I.— Preliminary.— How to Blow a Joint.— Hanging
Gas-Brackets and Pendants.
LTHOUGH the gas-fitter's trade is by
many looked upon as one that is very
mysterious and complicated, still there is
no part of his ordinary work which
cannot be done, and done well, too, by
the amateur. But before attempting any of the prac-
tical work, let us first consider what operations in this
useful art come within his scope.
He will be able, then, to hang chandeliers, and
hall and kitchen pendants, as well as to put up gas-
brackets, and lay on all the necessary pipes, and
connect them with the gas supply of the house ; and
he will also be able to make gas fires, and do any
repairs which may be wanting. But he had better
leave the meter alone, as also the inlet-pipe : this
SPECIAL TOOLS FOR GAS-FITTING. — FIG. I. CUP AND BALL
PLIERS. FIG. 2. COPPER BIT. FIG. 3. SHAVE-HOOK.
latter, indeed, he must not touch, it being the property
of the Gas Company.
Roughly speaking, there are two methods of gas-
fitting : one, in which iron pipes are used, and which
necessitates the insertion of an elbow or other fitting
at every bend, but in which no soldering is required,
as all the parts screw together — this is certainly the
better, though the more expensive method ; the
other, in which composition gas-tubing is used — this
is less troublesome, the pipe being readily bent in the
desired direction : it is also the method almost in-
variably adopted in houses ; and as it is the one in
which the amateur will probably chiefly concern him-
self, it will be first explained.
A few words as to the calculation of sizes of pipes,
fittings, etc., may here not be out of place. The size
of brass tubes is their external diameter ; that of com-
position and iron tubes is their internal diameter. The
sizes are only approximate, and therefore must not be
taken as exact. The sizes of fittings for iron tubes
are the size of the tubes for which they are made.
Thus, a 4-inch socket is one made to unite two pieces
of -inch iron tubing.
The screw-threads for brass fittings are different
A B
FIG. 4. — NOSE-PIECES.
A Elbow Nose-piece. B Straight
Nose-piece.
from those of iron, the latter being larger and bolder
than the former. Where brass fittings are made to
be connected with iron tubes, the brass is cut or
tapped, as it is technically termed, to correspond with
the iron.
Caution. — Never, under
any circumstances what-
ever, search for a leakage
of gas with a light. Over
and over again, explosions
and fires are caused by
this reprehensible prac-
tice. It is easy enough to
trace out the leakage by
the peculiar smell of the escaped gas, and so be able
to rectify it.
The special tools required for gas-fitting are
neither numerous nor expensive. They are a pair of
cup-and-ball pliers (Fig. i), having two places for
gripping various-sized unions, etc. : they cost about
3s. A copper bit (Fig. 2), costing is. 8d. ; a blow-
pipe, 8d. ; a shave-hook (Fig. 3), which is a flat piece
of steel, with sharp edges, at the end of a short rod
set in a wooden handle, and used for scraping lead
pipes before soldering, costing is. ; and a small
plasterer's trowel, costing about is. 6d. If iron tubing
is to be employed, a pair of gas-tongs will be required
for each size of pipe and socket used. These vary in
price, from is. 6d. upwards, according to size. The
manner of using these tools will be described as
occasion for their use arises.
The materials neces-
sary are solder, of which
two kinds must be ob-
tained : one in thick
sticks, called tinman's,
for use with the copper
bit ; and one in thinner
sticks, called blow-pipe
solder, each costing is.
per lb. ; rushes, for use
with the blow-pipe, cost-
ing iod. per lb. ; resin,
4d. ; whitelead, 4d. per
lb. ; and some tallow
or " touch," as it is
always called by London
plumbers.
The first thing the would-be gas-fitter must learn
is how to blow a joint ; that is, to join two pieces of
tubing by means of a blow-pipe and rushes. The
copper bit is never to be used for this purpose, as it
does not give heat enough, and the joints so made are
very easily broken, and, from their untidy appearance,
it is difficult to tell whether they are tight or not.
FIG. 6. — T UNION.
A Screwed together. B Partly
unscrewed. C Part where white-
lead is necessary.
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
197
A little practice is required to blow a continuous
stream of air through a blow-pipe, and to do so a
rather full breath must be taken, and the large end of
the blow-pipe placed between the lips and teeth. The
air must be expelled by means of the muscles of the
cheeks, and not by those of the chest, the supply being
kept up by breathing through the nose. A lighted bunch
of the rushes, about three-quarters of an inch in diame-
ter, wrapped round with brown paper to within I \ inch
with tallow ; having placed the bright end of the latter
piece tightly inside the bell of the former, put some
powdered resin on the joint (this is to cause the solder
to flow easily), then, by means of the blow-'pipe, direct
a small flame against the resin, which will melt and
run round in the channel formed by the junction of
the tubes. The flame is to be directed all round the
pipe, to heat it and render it capable of melting the
solder, which, held in the right hand, must be rubbed
B
V
E
A
-
AT SUPPLY
* B W *
1
E \
/
, ,.,r, „„j
wmmm
\
D
... '
mm
D
FIG. II. — MODE OF HANGING PENDANT.
A A, Joists in section ; B, Piece of wood fixed between A A ; C, Mahogany block ;DD, Ceiling ;
E E, Floor of room above.
\\ f
SUPPL.Y
FIG. 7. — T UNION IN POSITION.
A, T Union; B B, Old
composition tubes ; C,
Pipe to new bracket.
FIG. 12.7-UNION.
A, External thread.
B, Internal thrfcad.
FIG. 8. — FLANGE .FOR
WALL LIGHTS OR
HEAVY BRACKETS.
FIG. 9. — KITCHEN PENDANT.
from the top, and a little spread out, so as to give a
flame about 3 inches high, is held in the left hand,
and the small end of the blow-pipe is placed in the
flame. The effect of the blowing is to drive a small
but very hot flame in the direction required.
To join two pieces of composition tube, open out
the end of one of them, so as to make it funnel-
shaped, and shave it inside, and on the edge of the
bell mouth, with the shave-hook ; one end of the other
piece is then to be scraped bright on the outside for
about half an inch, and well "touched," that is, smeared
FIG. 10. — T PENDANT.
gently against the pipe, blowing softly the while, to
keep up the heat. The solder will now melt and run
round the joint, and adhere at every point it touches.
Continue blowing and moving the flame about, so as
to distribute the heat equally, and make the solder lie
even. Then cease blowing, and as soon as the solder
is set, which will be in a few seconds, and, before it is
cold, wipe it clean with a rag, and the joint will then
be complete. Care must be takea whilst blowing not
to melt the tube itself.
Should one of the parts to be jo -«d be of brass,
/.»; { 2
198
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
the brass must be tinned before attempting to make
the joint. The tinning {i.e., thinly coating with solder)
is accomplished with the aid of the copper bit, which
itself must be tinned first. To do this the bit must be
heated, but not made red hot, and the tip, or nose,
rubbed on a piece of emery cloth to clean it, and im-
mediately placed in some powdered resin on a piece of
tin plate, and a stick of solder rubbed against it, the
effect being to coat the nose of the bit with tin.
To tin brass, file or rub it bright, put some touch
on it, and sprinkle it with resin. Then with the copper
bit well heated, melt some solder on to it and rub it
well on to the brass. The brass will then be tinned,
and ready to receive the solder when blowing the joint.
Being, now acquainted with the manner of making
joints, the aqiateur may proceed to actual gas-fitting;
and we shall commence by showing how to fix a gas-
bracket and connect it with the gas supply.
The first step is to decide upon its position, which
should not be too near the ceiling, nor be so placed
that doors or curtains may come in contact with it.
The next thing to consider is the place at which the
connection with the gas supply is to be made, and in
order to do this satisfactorily, the amateur should make
himself acquainted with the arrangement of the gas-
pipes already laid. It will generally be found that
\vhere;'gas has been laid on to a floor above the base-
ment/that, an iron pipe leads from the meter to the
outside of the back of the house, and thence upwards,
with short iron branches, to each floor to which gas
has been laid on. These branches will be found
between the floor of one room and the ceiling of the
room beneath, composition tubing being used to con-
nect them with the chandeliers, etc.
Should there then be a pipe beneath the floor or
above the ceiling of the room in which it is proposed
to fix the bracket, it is with this with which the con-
nection should usually be made. If, on the other hand,
there should be no such pipe, connection will have to
be made with the iron pipe which comes from the
meter.
For neatness, the pipe supplying the bracket should
be as much concealed as possible, the best way of
doing which being to lead the pipe along a shallow
channel cut in the wall, from the bracket to the floor
or ceiling, according as the connection is to be made
with a pipe above or below the room ; in the former
case passing it behind the skirting, in the other, through
a small hole made in the ceiling, the channel being
afterwards filled in with plaster, and that part of the
wall re-papered. But should there be any objection
to this plan, the pipe must be led upwards to the
ceiling, or upwards and along it and down an angle of
the wall, according as the connection is to be made,
above or beneath ne room.
A
Having procured a sufficiency of pipe (three-eighths
composition tubing being generally used), the next
thing is to open out one end of it, and to blow in {i.e.,
to solder in, as already described) an elbow nose-piece
(Fig. 4), which is a small brass tube (three-eighths)
bent at right angles, having one end tinned, and a
screw-thread cut on the other. Having done this,
proceed to cut the channel in the wall, if that method
is to be adopted, and having laid the pipe in it and
taken it through a small hole chipped through the
ceiling or behind the skirting, as the case may be,
place the nose-piece so that the screwed end may pro-
ject from the wall in the centre of the part to be
covered by the bracket, and over it place a mahogany
block, as in Fig. 5, which is a circular disc of
mahogany, about three-quarters of an inch thick, .
having a hole through the centre, letting the nose-piece
project through as in the cut (Fig. 5), and nail it
to the wall. Then on to the nose-piece, smeared with
white lead, screw the bracket, through the flange of
which drive three £ inch screws. Then lead the
pipe along the channel till it reaches the spot from
which gas is to be obtained, and cut it off where it
meets the old one, and into the end blow the side
branch of a T-union, of which an illustration is given
in Fig. 6. The side branch is the part marked a. The
nut must be unscrewed, and the part A blown on to
the pipe attached to the bracket. This done, unscrew
the part B and cut the old composition tube at the spot
where the connection is to be made. Then into one
end blow the part B, and into the other end the part C,
and having done so, put some white lead on the parts
of the union that meet, and screw them together with
the pliers. Fig. 7 shows the T-union in position.
A few words of explanation are here necessary
regarding the joining of the pipe and fittings. For a
nose-piece, the tube must be opened, etc., and the
nose-piece placed in it, and blown in. For a union, if
the pipe be smaller than the union, let it be pushed
into the latter, and blown on, the edge only of the
union being tinned. If the pipe should be larger, the
outside of the union must be tinned for about half an
inch from the end, and placed in the pipe which has
been opened out, and then blown in.
The connection is now complete, and it is only
necessary to fill up the channel cut in the wall. Hav-
ing procured some plaster, and wetted the wall well
where it is cut, mix up some plaster on a board to
the consistence of thick cream, and press it into the
channel, and level it with the trowel. It will be set
in a few minutes.
Should, as is very likely, the wall not bear nails, a
space smaller than the mahogany block must be cut
out about an inch deep, larger at the back than at the
face of the wall, wetted, and filled with plaster. Then,
LA THE-MAKING FOR AM A TE URS.
199
while the plaster is still soft (about the consistence of
cheese), put the block against it, and drive three thick
ij-inch screws into it, taking care that the heads of
the screws are level with the face of the block. In
this case, the bracket must not be screwed on for half
an hour after this is done.
If it should not be wished to have the pipe buried
in the wall, the mahogany block must have a groove
cut at the back from the centre to the circumference
for the nose-piece to lie in. It is then screwed against
the wall, and the rest of the procedure is the same as
in the other case.
In the case of wall-lights or very heavy brackets,
there is a slight variation from the mode described.
A flange (Fig. 8) is screwed on to the nose-piece, and
fastened by screws to the wall or block, and the bracket
is screwed on to the flange, the heavy bracket being
furnished with a larger screw-thread than the light
ones. This method is also adopted where the screws
in the flange are not to be seen.
Pendants. — The hanging of pendants (Figs. 9, 10)
is very similar to the putting up of brackets, the only
difference being that the pendant hangs from the ceil-
ing, and not from the wall. The mahogany block must
be screwed to a joist if there be one over the spot
from which the pendant is to hang, having first cut
across the lower side of the joist a notch about three-
fourths of an inch deep, to allow room for the elbow-
nose-piece. If there is no joist at this place, a piece of
wood about two inches thick must be fixed between
the two nearest joists over the desired spot, and a
hole made through it over the centre of the block
(Fig. 11). In this case a straight nose-piece must be
soldered into the pipe, and passed through, so that it
may be grasped in the pliers while the pendant is
screwed on to it. The pipe must then be drawn back
again, and the pendant screwed on to the block, the
object of holding the nose-piece in the pliers being to
prevent it being twisted off in screwing on the pendant.
In case there should be no composition tube near
enough to connect it with the bracket, connection must
be made with the iron tube coming from the meter.
The pipe from the bracket or pendant will be taken by
the shortest way up to this iron pipe, into which a hole
slightly smaller than a nose-piece must be drilled with
a hand-brace and drill. In this, hole a screw-thread
must be cut, to correspond with that on the nose-
piece ; this is to be done with what is technically
called a three-eighth taper tap for brass. They cost
is. each. Then procure a union, as in Fig. 12, having
an external thread cut at one end, and ah internal
thread at the other. Unscrew it, and tin the edge of
the latter end, and blow it on to the tube from the
bracket. Then take the taper tap, and place it in the
hole drilled in the pipe, and put the hand-brace on to
it, and with a series of short jerks make the tap cut the
thread inside the hole. Then withdraw the tap, and
screw the external-threaded part of the union into the
hole in the iron pipe, not omitting white lead, taking
care not to injure the screw-threads on the union.
Then screw the parts of the union together, and the
connection will be complete.
The next chapter will treat of the use of gas-tongs,
and of iron tubes and fittings ; also of the hanging of
hall-lights and chandeliers.
(To be continued.)
_=>-=>£<=-=
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
By PATTL N. EASLUCK.
III.— Mandrel Headstoeks.
ROM what has already been printed under
this heading, the amateur will have be-
come acquainted with the names by
which the various parts of the ordinary
foot-lathe are known. A substantial
framework, including the bed and two standards, is an
essential part of a serviceable lathe. Elaboration in
the finish of these parts is by no means necessary, but
absolute truth — that is straightness — in the bed and
firmness in the standards, are necessary qualifications
for producing accurate work. A high-class tool is
requisite for producing high-class work. A tool strictly
adapted to the work it has to perform is most advan-
tageous in use.
Turnery that is made most accurately is produced
on lathes of the highest finish ; cheap work, in which
minute accuracy is not sought for, may be made on
lathes of inferior quality. The imperfections of any
machine generally show on the work it produces, and
for this reason perfection of mechanism is so desirable.
For plain turning the accuracy of the lathe mandrel
is the principal consideration. On this will depend
most of the results ; if the mandrel is faulty true work
cannot be turned on it. In complex turning many
other sources of error are introduced into the lathe,
but in plain work the mandrel is the part on which
nearly all the working qualities depend. Perfect
rigidity and freedom in revolving, combined, are the
essentials. I will therefore now consider the mandrel
headstock in its various forms.
Mandrels are made in several forms. An easy and
very broad distinction may be made between those
running in double bearings and those supported at
the tail end by a centre. The two methods are each
good ; fine quality lathes are made with mandrels fitted
both ways. For some purposes double bearings are
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
FIG. 7.-
necessary, but the single collar and centre are cheaper
to make. Traversing mandrels must have double
bearings. Lathes for screw cutting, and which have a
change-wheel on the tail end of the mandrel, also have
double bearings. For plain turning the single collar is
perhaps to be recom-
mended in preference, if
only for its cheapness,
for it is equally good.
Mandrel bearings
differ much, some are
parallel ; those that are
conical may have the cone
in either direction. When
double cones are used they
are sometimes both taper-
ing the same way, and
sometimes have the ends
reversed. The illustrations
accompanying this chapter
show various forms of
mandrels.
In the earliest man-
drels the bearings were
made cylindrical and parallel, and there was no control
of the mandrel endways. These mandrels were made
especially for cutting screws, and had a longitudinal
motion imparted to them by means of a guide screw,
which formed part of the tail end of the mandrel and
revolved in a fixed piece which served as a nut. This
nut could be lifted in or
lowered out of gear at
pleasure. The bearings
in which these traversing
mandrels worked were
usually made of metal, and
split in the middle hori-
zontally. The headstocks
were wooden, and notches
were cut to receive the
metal bearings. All the
early turning was done on
a centre-lathe, that is, one
having fixed centre-points
like the ordinary watch-
maker's turn-bench. The
mandrel has only com-
paratively recently super-
seded the centre-lathe.
A mandrel headstock
metal is shown by Figs. 7
-ELEVATION OF A BACK-GEAR HEADSTOCK AND
MANDREL.
FIG. 8.— PLAN OF A BACK-GEAR HEADSTOCK AND SPINDLE.
suited for turning heavy
and 8. The first is a side
view, the second a top view of the same headstock.
The drawings were carefully copied from a lathe-head
manufactured by The Britannia Company, Colchester,
and may be considered as accurate. The dimensions
shown make a very strong headstock, one that would
be equal in strength to any work that could be put upon
it. Such a headstock is suited for an engineer's lathe.
At the top of Fig. 7 the mandrel is shown in elevation
apart from the headstock. The cone at the left-hand
end is put on to show its
position on the mandrel.
The screw thread on the
left takes the locking nuts
that confine the longitu-
dinal motion of the man-
drel, technically termed
the " end-play." The
plain part on the extreme
left is so left to receive a
small cog-wheel, if self-
acting screw-cutting mo-
tion is wanted. This cog-
wheel then serves to drive
the train that actuates the
leading screw.
Commencing at the
right-hand end we find
the nose-thread first. This
should always be cut to Whitworth's standard pitch.
Some of the old firms of lathe manufacturers do not
follow this rule, but perpetuate a thread which was
originated in the time when screw-cutting lathes were
not known, and probably the idea of cutting screws,
having an aloquoit number of threads, never occurred
to mechanics. Modern
makers now use Whit-
worth's standard pitches,
and they have many
qualities to recommend
them. One that will be
best appreciated by ama-
teurs, is that the bolts and
nuts fitting the threads
are commonly sold at iron-
mongers. The taps and
other screwing tackle can
also be purchased at all
tool warehouses.
The diameter of the
nose-thread will depend
on the size of the lathe,
that is, the height of
centre. A thread 1 inch in diameter, is correct for a
6 inch centre lathe, this size will be sufficiently strong
to carry any object that the lathe could reasonably be
expected to turn. By proportion, J inch nose-thread
is correct for a 3 inch lathe. This is sufficiently
strong for most purposes, but for a backgear lathe
a I thread would be better. Any intermediate sizes
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
may be proportionate to these. The length of
the nose-thread, that is the amount that it projects
from the collar against which the chucks are screwed,
should be precisely equal to the diameter of the
thread. A nose } inch in diameter should be
j inch long. A length equivalent to the diameter is
sufficient to give ample strength to ensure against
stripping the thread ; any extra length would only
cause the chucks to be at a correspondingly extra
distance from the bearing, and thus introduce a cause
of unsteadiness unnecessarily — chucks should always
be as near to the mandrel bearing as possible. With
this object, chucks should be made as flat as is con-
sistent with their use.
Returning to Fig 7, the illustration shows a
4^ inch headstock. The mandrel measures \i\ inches
from end to end. The
nose-thread is very large
in proportion to the size
of the head. This is to
afford the necessary
strength for carrying
work admitted in a gap
lathe. The nose is \\ in.
in diameter and length ;
for ordinary purposes a
3 inch nose would be
amply strong enough.
The mandrel illustrated
has a conical hole, § inch
diameter, bored in the
centre ; this receives a
centre point. This hole
could not be allowed in a
small nose. The shoulder
behind the thread is i£ in.
in diameter ; it is the
largest part of the mandrel. This allows a bearing
surface f% of an inch broad all round the nose thread.
A good broad surface is always desirable, as affording
a firm basis for the chucks to screw against. The
surface should be perfectly flat and true, and all
chucks should fit it. The lasting truth of the chucks
will depend on their being carefully fitted to shoulder
up.
A cone bearing is immediately behind the shoulder.
This cone tapers from if inch to \\ inch in the
mandrel, from which the drawing is made ; the length
of the cone being if inch. This amount of taper is
very much more than that adopted in ornamental
lathes of the higest class. A cone tapering about l° is
used in these latter.
The mandrel behind the cone is reduced to I inch
in diameter, and turned parallel for a length of 2 inches.
The wheel in front of the pulley has a boss projecting
FIG. 9. — SINGLE-SPEED DOUBLE-BEARING HEADSTOCK.
in the front, and this is bored to fit the mandrel
tightly, so that it has to be driven on. A key is also
fitted to prevent the wheel and mandrel rotating
independently.
Behind the wheel the mandrel is slightly reduced
in diameter and turned parallel to the screwed part
shown behind the left-hand cone. The pulley and
the pinion, cast solid with it, are bored through to fit
on this part of the mandrel, so that they revolve freely
but without shake. In use the pulley is made to
revolve with the fixed wheel by means of a bolt
arrangement sliding radially on the wheel. The
length of the fixed wheel, excluding its boss, together
with the pulley and pinion, should be just enough to
fill the space between the collars in the headstock.
The boss of the wheel should not touch the front of
the headstock, but it may
run quite close.
The cone shown on
the left-hand end is quite
a separate piece. It is
bored to fit the parallel
part of the mandrel
tightly. A key is fitted in
the mandrel which com-
pels the cone to revolve
with the mandrel, but
does not impede the
independent longitudinal
motion of either. This
back cone is very like the
front one, except that it is
only i£ inches long.
The fine thread cut
on the mandrel, just
behind the collar, is to
receive two locking nuts,
with which the distance between the cones is regulated.
The thread must be cut true to allow the front nuts to
bear equally against the back collar, otherwise it might
push it slantways, and cause the mandrel to run un-
equally. A fine thread is desirable, as allowing more
nicety in the adjustment. The thread is about one inch
long, and the two nuts are of equal thickness, that is, half
an inch each. When the mandrel is put in position,
the back cone is brought forward till the mandrel runs
without shake, by screwing up the first nut. This
done the second nut is screwed up and jambed fast
against the first, which is thereby locked so that it will
not be screwed in either direction by the revolutions
of the mandrel.
The plain tail-piece is turned parallel to a diameter
just small enough to clear the thread in the lock nuts.
This tail-piece is useful to receive a wheel for driving
the train of change-wheels of a screw -cutting lathe.
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
The extreme end of the mandrel is turned true and
quite flat, always leaving the drilled centre on which
the mandrel was turned.
The form of the headstock casting and the various
other parts may be seen by inspecting Figs. 7 and 8,
which give two views of the same head. The chief
axis is the mandrel, and that has been minutely
described. The tail end of it is shown against a screw
tail-pin, shown most clearly in Fig. 8. This tail-pin is
intended solely to take the thrust when boring or
otherwise pressing the mandrel from the front end.
Force applied in that direction would cause the front
cone to jamb in the collar and so stop the mandrel.
A direct bearing for this thrust is necessary in all
lathe heads. The tail - pin shown is an effective
arrangement, but others are used. The tail-pin screw
is itself secured by a lock nut.
The lugs shown on Fig. 7 are to go between the
bearers of the bed. The holes in them are tapped to
receive bolts and then fit in the space between the
bearers. By screwing the bolts in or out the lathe
head may be shifted angularwise on the bed, and in
this way the line of centres is adjusted, so that the axis
of the mandrel is made to coincide precisely with the
centre of the poppit barrel.
The small disc in the centre of the casting is only
to add to the strength where the hole for the holding
down bolt is made. For small headstocks one bolt is
sufficient, but large ones generally have two. When a
headstock is fastened to the bed, care must be
exercised to guard against straining it. Frequently
mandrel headstocks are bent by being screwed down
to the bed, and in that case the mandrel cannot work
to advantage.
In Fig. 8 a top view is given. The form 'of the
bracket piece cast on to the backgear horn is here
shown. The spindle at the top represents the spindle
of the backgear wheel and pinion. This spindle is
1 inch in diameter and 10 inches long. It is a plain
parallel cylinder having keys to fix the wheel and
pinion. The two semicircular grooves near the right-
hand end are used to confine the end motion of the
mandrel. A pin passes vertically through the arm, the
hole to receive it being drilled on the diameter of the
bearing. Half the pin projects within the bearing, and
thus fits the semicircular grooves. Neither this pin
nor the hole for it are shown in the illustration. The
spindle moves lengthwise freely, and the semicircular
grooves are so placed that, when the pin is in one, the
wheels are out of gear, as shown. When the spindle
is moved along to the left till the other groove comes
under the pin-hole the wheels are then in gear. The
pin dropped in will keep the spindle in either position,
as required.
With the wheels out of gear, as illustrated, the I
front wheel and the pulley are attached by means of a
sliding bolt and revolve together. In this way the
lathe is precisely like an ordinary single speed
mandrel. To put the backgear in action the front
wheel and the mandrel are disconnected. The back
spindle is slid along to the left to bring the wheels
into gear, then on turning the pulley the mandrel
revolves, slower proportionate to the reduction in the
gearing. In the lathe shown the wheels have 65
teeth and the pinions 20, so that the speed is reduced
to about one-tenth.
A plain double bearing mandrel headstock is
shown at Fig. 9. This is a more simple lathe head
than the one last described. The gear wheels are
absent, and much complication of detail is thereby
avoided. This single speed head is equal to nearly all
the requirements of an amateur turner, but to turn
heavy work of the largest size that the lathe would
carry, backgear is necessary.
The mandrel is shown in elevation in this illustra-
tion, as in Fig. 7. It will be noticed that the two
mandrels are very much alike, the second one, Fig. 9,
being proportionately much shorter. The nose-thread,
the shoulder, and the front cone are as described in
Fig. 7. The plain parallel part, to receive the
pulley, is provided with a key which prevents the
pulley turning without the mandrel ; it is also driven
on tight. The second cone is as described in former
headstock. The fine thread that takes the locking
nuts is also similar. This headstock is not intended
for a screw-cutting lathe, and consequently no mandrel
tail-piece for the necessary cog-wheel is provided.
The arm to take the screw tail-pin is cast on the
headstock, as shown. The tail-pin is screwed through
it, and a lock-nut on the inner side locks the screw at
any position desired. The mandrel is adjusted to run
in its bearings, freely and without shake, by means of
the front lock-nut, the second one is then screwed up
firmly against the first so as to lock each other.
The foregoing descriptions will have made the
construction of lathe headstocks clear to amateurs.
(To be continued.)
^=^=^
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
By GEORGE EDWINSON.
V. — Electro-Plating Trinkets, etc.
ORD PALMERSTON is said to have
defined the word "dirt" as "matter in
the wrong place," and it will be an
advantage to the amateur plater to adopt
his lordship's definition instead of that
commonly received and understood, for he will find
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
203
that many failures in operations connected with the
practice of this art are due to the presence of dirt, or
" matter in the wrong place." To get the best results
from a battery it is necessary that clean metal shall be
in close contact with clean metal in all parts of the
metallic circuit ; to get the best results from a battery
solution or a plating bath it is necessary' to have an
entire absence of all foreign matters and useless salts ;
and, to get the deposited metal to firmly adhere to the
article on which it is deposited, it is absolutely neces-
sary that clean metal shall touch perfectly clean metal.
When silver is properly deposited on a perfectiy clean
surface, say of brass, of German silver, or of copper,
it is afterwards impossible to separate the two metals,
by mechanical means, for the fine particles of the
deposited metal unite themselves to the clean metal of
the article in a manner similar to that of dovetailing.
But when some of the tiny pores of the metallic surface
are filled with some foreign matter, the silver is kept
out, and in some cases a gas is generated in those
pores under the influence of heat subsequently
engendered under the friction necessary for burnish-
ing, and this gas, as it expands, thrusts off the coat of
silver or causes it to rise in blisters. To illustrate the
delicate cleanliness necessary, I may say that even the
touch of an apparently clean dry finger on the prepared
surface will often cause the silver to strip off from that
part under the burnisher.
The plater will have to contend with dirt of two
kinds — viz., animal dirt, such as grease, oil, sweat, etc. ;
and mineral dirt, such as rust, tarnish, stains, etc.
The first class are removable by boiling in the chemi-
cals known as alkalis, the second by immersion in
those known as acids, and by friction with proper
brushes. These brushes form an indispensable
adjunct to the plater's plant, for they are largely
required, both in preparing the articles for the deposit
and finishing them after the silver has been deposited
on them, I will therefore give a few directions for their
manufacture at home.
Scratch-brushes. — The most simple form of these
brushes has been already illustrated and described in
my first article in p. 10. Sketches of other forms are
given here. The essential and common feature of all
may be described in the words of patent agents, as
follows : A bunch, or coil, or hank, or a combination
of bunches in the form of a brush, which may be
either small like a tooth-brush, large and long like a
plate-brush or a carriage-brush, or of a circular form,
of small brass, copper, iron, or any other wire, or of
spun glass, or of some coarse vegetable fibre. The
form and size of brush, and also the material of which
it is composed, are determined by the magnitude and
character of the work to be done with it. Rough,
coarse work may require large brushes of iron or steel
wire, and very delicate work may need brushes of fine
spun glass, but all work likely to be done by the
amateur may be easily performed with small brushes
made of brass wire of the first forms shown at A and B
in Fig. 23. Fine hard-drawn brass wire is the best —
soft wire soon curls up at the points, as shown at C, and
the brush becomes useless until the blunt points have
been cut off with a chisel. This may be done with an
old wood chisel on a block of wood, rest the blunt end
of the wire-brush on the wood and cut off the curled
up ends by giving the chisel a smart blow with a
mallet. The brush may then be mounted on a thin
strip of wood by binding it firmly thereto, as shown
at D. The best wire I have yet seen for scratch-
brushes, and indeed all wire-brushes, is that manu-
factured by Messrs. F. and E. Stanton, of Lewisham,
S.E., and advertised by them as Union Wire. The
price is somewhere about 5s. 6d. and 6s. per lb.
The Scratch-brush Lathe, may be simply a
treadle lathe adapted to receive a circular wire-brush on
its spindle ; this is covered with a hood to prevent splash-
ing of the lubricating liquid, and is fitted with a small
barrel or keg, with a pipe attached to it leading to the
top of the brush. But a machine of more simple
construction and occupying less space in the workshop
than a lathe, may be constructed, as shown at F in the
accompanying illustration. One, of the roughest form,
such as can be made by any person having a few
carpenter's tools and a slight knowledge of their use,
has been sketched, but the idea may be carried out in
a machine of a better form if desired. An iron frame
may be substituted for the wooden frame, an iron
headstock may replace the two blocks of wood which
serve as bearings for the spindle, and an iron treadle
may take the place of that in wood. The main
features of the machine consist of a spindle with a
taper end made to fit the hole in the boss of the cir-
cular wire-brush shown at E ; a hood or guard of
sheet iron to prevent the lubricating liquid from being
flung about the workshop and also to protect the
operator ; a pan or tray to catch the drops of the liquid,
and a reservoir of it above the hood, with a pipe,
regulated by a tap, leading to a point just over the
revolving brush. The lubricating liquid in general use
for finishing articles after they have been plated, is
stale beer, but water with a little pearl-ash dissolved in
it should be used when the scratch-brush is employed
to prepare articles for plating. The pan beneath the
brush should be made to communicate with a vessel to'
hold the waste liquid. The article is held under,-
above, or at the side of the revolving brush, as may
be most convenient.
Preparation of the Articles. — I will suppose,
for the benefit of my readers, that I have a miscellaneous
heap of trinkets before me, composed in the main of
204
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
lockets, brooches, ear-rings, solitaires, sleeve-links,
studs, buttons, etc., in various conditions. Some are
in good condition, that is, they are free from flaws, and
have only a little silver worn off from the edges and
most exposed parts, there are few or no scratches, and
hinges, pins, clasps, etc., are safe ; we will call such as
these first-class goods. Others have all the silver worn
off, and they present a brassy or coppery appearance
they have also a few deep scratches here and there
but the pins, hinges, etc., are on all right ; we will
call these second-class goods. The rest are in a more
or less disreputable condition, some are partly covered
w4th black dirt and green oxide, some have hinges off,
pins gone, or some other casualty, and not a few have
been scratched, cut, or bent out of shape ; we will call
these third-class goods.
To prepare first - class goods it will only be
necessary for the amateur to boil them in a strong
solution of potash for a few minutes, well brush them
with the scratch -brush to clean off all the dirt, again
immerse them for a few minutes in the hot potash
liquid, well rinse them in clean water and transfer
them at once to the plating vat. When they are
nicely coated with silver, which will take about fifteen
minutps, take each article out separately, subject them
to a slight scratch-brushing, to test the silver, pass
fliem through the hot potash liquid and through clean
water again, and put them in the vat to receive their
final coat of silver. Time, one hour.
To prepare second - class goods : Go over the
articles with a fine file to take out the deep scratches
go over these again and take out the file marks
with Water-of-A)'r stone, now polish up and make
smooth with rotten stone. Articles well polished and
prepared will require less labour to finish. Dip next
into the hot potash liquid for a few minutes, rinse in
water, then dip in a mixture of acids prepared as
follows, and contained in a stoneware pot or jar :
Muriatic acid i^ pints, Water | pint, weak aquafortis
\ pint, rinse in water, go lightly in around the hinges,
deep parts, etc., with the scratch-brush, to remove all
traces of oxide, rinse and transfer to plating bath at
once. If it is thought that the articles will be exposed
to subsequent rough usage, or if it is desired to
burnish any part of it, it may be necessary to coat the
metal with a slight film of mercury to ensure perfect
adhesion of the deposited silver. This part of the
process is named "quicking," and the mercury is put
on by simply dipping the article into a solution of
nitrate of mercury prepared as follows : Dilute half an
ounce of aquafortis with three times its bulk of water,
and into this pour a drop of quicksilver, in the course
of a few hours this will dissolve, then drop in a little
more, and in a few days the acid will have dissolved
enough. Then mix the acid with one pint of distilled
water, and call the mixture " quicking solution." We
shall require it further on in the process of plating
spoons, etc., and I shall then only refer to it. After
"quicking," the articles should be polished up with a
clean rag and immersed at once in the vat.
Third-class goods will need more labour to make
them respectable, and it is questionable whether or
not it will pay us to give them our attention. But the
amateur in the art is not moved by such questions,
with him the most difficult task brings to its conqueror
the greatest honour, and he is fain to say at all times,
' Labor omnia vincii." I will therefore guide him in
his labours. All necessary repairs must be done first ;
hinges, clasps, etc., are best hard soldered, but as this
is out of the province of the amateur, it will be well
for him to do the repairs with the best soft solder by ■
the aid of a blow-pipe. I suppose him able to use the
blow-pipe, and able to do a little soldering ; if he has
not attained to such proficiency the job should be
entrusted to the nearest watchmaker and jeweller. At
some future time I may be able to give some directions
for soldering small articles, but I cannot do so here. All
contortions of the design must be bent back into their
proper form with a pair of small pliers. Bulges and
dents in lockets must be punched out with a wooden
punch on the reverse side, the fair side resting on a
piece of soft lead. Scratches must be taken out as in
second-class goods, ugly patches of solder must be
scraped and neatly trimmed with an old knife and a
small file. If the goods have been silvered and the
silver is worn off in patches, the remaining patches of
silver must be dissolved off by immersing the articles in
hot oil of vitriol, gently turning them about therein,
and adding occasionally a pinch or two of saltpetre
until the silver has been loosened.
This process requires great care, and this the amateur
must always bear in mind, for the hot acid is horrid
stuff to have an accident with ; perhaps it will be best to
heat a small enamelled iron saucepan on an iron stand,
over a Bunsen burner or a spirit lamp. The articles
should be moved about and taken out with a bent
copper wire, then swilled well in clean water and
scratch-brushed, if all the silver is not off, give them
another dose of the hot acid as before. They must
now be prepared for the plating vat after the same
manner as the second-class goods ; but to ensure a
perfect adhesion of the silver to the soft soldered parts
it will be necessary to cover those parts with a film of
copper, which may be done in the following manner :
Take a camel's-hair pencil and incorporate a few thin
iron wires among the hairs, dip these in the blue copper
solution in the Daniell cell and draw the pencil over
the soldered parts, it will then be seen that a streak of
copper follows in the track of the pencil and covers the
solder. When the solder has been thus covered, the
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
205
article must be rinsed in water and transferred to the
plating bath.
In preparing articles for the plating vat, observe
the following rules : Attach the slinging wires to the
articles before the final cleansing operation, and do
not touch them with the fingers afterwards. Never
transfer them from the cleansing solution direct to the
plating vat unless specially directed to do so, but rinse
them in clean fresh water. Have the battery ready
and attached to the anode and cathode systems, ready
for work, before you prepare the articles, and thus
subject them to the influence of the current the
moment they are hung in the plating solution. Do
not over-load
the battery
with. goods,
nor expose
more cathode
surface than
the corres-
ponding anode
surface at your
command, nor
attempt to
plate more
than one kind
of metal at the
same time.
The silver
should begin
to go on imme-
diately, and in
a few minutes
entirely cover
the goods with
a silvery white
film. If they
become black
or grey and
slimy, and
the anode shows a corresponding condition, it
indicates that there is a deficiency of free cyanide
in the solution. Remedy : Take out the goods,
add a small piece of cyanide of potassium, stir
up the plating solution, and in half-an-hour's time try
it again. If they become dark and have a hard bur-
nished appearance, the solution is poor in metal and
cyanide, and must be enriched. If they assume a very
white sparkling appearance with a slightly blueish
tinge, the solution carries too much cyanide, but not
enough silver. Remedy : Make some more cyanide
of silver, wash it and add it to the plating solution, the
free cyanide in the plating solution will then dissolve it,
and the solution will become enriched. The quantity
of free cyanide in a solution will gradually diminish
FIG. 23. — SCRATCH-BRUSHES (A, B, C, D, E), AND SCRATCH-BRUSH LATHE (F).
in the course of working, so it will be necessary to
add a small quantity of cyanide of potassium when
the anode becomes dirty and the solution sluggish.
Leaving solutions exposed to the air when not in work
also tends to spoil the free cyanide. Solutions become
poor in metal through bad anodes and a deficiency of
anode surface, and, on the contrary they become too
rich in metal when too much anode surface is exposed
to the solution.
Finishing. — When the articles have been in the
plating solution for a time, varying from one to three
hours, and are deemed to have sufficient silver on them,
unhook the slinging wires from the cathode rod and
hang them
with the arti-
cles on the rim
of the vat ex-
posed to the
solution, but
not to the cur-
rent, for a
minute or two,
then take them
out and well
rinse them in
clean water.
They should
now present a
beautiful
creamy white
rough appear-
ancewhich has
received the
name of
"mat." If it
is intended to
leave them
thus they must
be at once
dried off in hot
boxwood sawdust. If they are to be polished and bur-
nished, the rough appearance must be worked down
with the scratch-brush, and as good a polish as can be
obtained by this processs imparted to them. An oval
wooden tub or an oblong trough with a narrow board
fastened across its length on top, makes an excellent
receptacle for the stale beer used in this part of the
work, whilst the board serves as a platform whereon to
rest the articles during the operation of scratch-brush-
ing them by hand. They must next be rinsed well in
clean water, and dried in hot boxwood sawdust.
When the articles are well dried they may be pol-
ished with plate-powder, or " buffed " on the buffing
wheel of a lathe, or burnished to suit the taste of the
owner. Such articles as trinkets are often sent out
l 3
2o6
VIOLIN MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
finished with the scratch-brush, and a little rubbing in
the sawdust. If they are to be polished, do not use
common whiting nor putty powder, for these are apt
to spoil the appearance of the silver, also avoid
common plate-powder sold in the streets, for many of
them contain mercury and oxide of lead. Use soft
wash-leather and best plate-powder, or a mixture of
equal parts of prepared chalk, carbonate of magnesia,
and jeweller's rouge.
Nearly all the burnishing required on this class of
work may be done with a bodkin or dressmaker's stiletto
well polished. The stale beer used in the process of
scratch-brushing may be used as a lubricant in this
process to prevent the burnisher from roughing the
silver, or soapy water may be used for the purpose. I
shall deal more fully with burnishing in my next
article, so will only say here that all the strokes of the
burnisher must be given in one direction, cross-strokes
spoil the effect, the aim being to produce a smooth
appearance not attainable by mere polishing.
(To be continued.)
VIOLIN MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD H. ALLEN.
IV— The Outline— The Back— The Belly— The
Sides-The Sound-Post— The Bass-Bar.
O trace an independent outline mathemati-
cally on a given, graduated perpendicular
straight line, you must proceed as follows.
And I beg, before commencing the ex-
planation of this operation, which is
illustrated (Fig. 28), to record my indebtedness to Mr-
John Bishop, by whose courtesy I am enabled to repro-
duce this diagram and descriptive letterpress from his
translation of Otto's work on the construction of the
violin : —
Draw a perpendicular line down the middle of the
flat side of the piece of wood intended for the back, of
the exact length required for the body of the instru-
ment, and divide it into 72 equal parts, as shown in
the figure. This must be done with the greatest
accuracy, for on it depends the correctness of the
whole.
Then intersect this perpendicular by 20 horizontal
lines at the points named below.
Line (1) a at the point 8
Line (8) H at the point 27
(2) B
, 14
„ (9) 1
n
28
(3)C
16
„ (10) K
)j
31
(4)D
» 20
» (") L
a
33
(5)e
, 20 1
» (12) M
»>
34
(6)F
, 22
» (13) N
j>
37
(7)0
23
„ (14) 0
si
39
Line (15) Pat the point 40
,, (16) q „ 44J
„ (17) R „ 48
Line (18) S at the point 55
» (19) T » 56
„ (20) V „ 65
This being done, open the compasses to an extent
of 9 parts of the perpendicular, and describe the
two arcs a a from the point b. Then place the
compasses on the point 24, and opening them to b,
draw the curve aba.
Next set off 2 parts c, on each side of the perpen-
dicular, on the horizontal line c. Place the compasses
on the point c, and opening them to a, draw the
curves d d, from a to the horizontal line A.
Now set off one part*?, on each side of the perpen-
dicular on the line B. Place the compasses on these
points, and opening them to the line A, where the
curve d ends, draw the curves f from the line A to
that of D. This completes the draught of the upper
portion of the instrument.
For the middle or narrow portion proceed thus : —
On the horizontal line L set off 11J parts from the
perpendicular to g ; and then 1 1 other parts, from g
to h, from which latter point draw the curve i from
the line L to that of P.
Next set off 23J parts on the line K, from the per-
pendicular to k ; open the compasses to the point
where the curve i intersects the line M, and draw the
curve / from the line M to that of H. The little angle
formed by the curves / and i between the lines L and
M, must be worked off so as to bring the sides into
proper shape.
The lower portion is obtained as follows : — Open
the compasses 1 1 parts, and describe the two arcs v v
from the point r r. Then place the compasses on
the point 35, and opening them to r r, draw the
curve v w v.
Next set off 6 parts x on each side of the perpen-
dicular on the line s. Place the compasses on the
point x, and opening them to v, draw the curves y y
from v to the line v.
Now set off 4 parts z on each side of the perpen-
dicular op the line T. Place the compasses on these
points, and opening them to the line v, where the
curve y ends, draw the curves a a from the line v to
that of R.
For the upper corners, set off 245 parts on the
line G, from the perpendicular to o, and placing the
compasses on this point, open them to the line D,
where the curve f ends, and draw the curve p from
the line D to that of F.
Then on the line I set off 14^ parts from the per-
pendicular to m. Place the compasses on this point,
and opening them to line H where the curve / ends,
draw the curve n from the line H to s.
Now on the line E set off 22 parts from the per-
pendicular to q. Place the compasses on this point,
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS
207
and opening them to where the curve p meets the
line F, draw the curve r from the last-named line
to s. Again place the compasses on the point 20,
and opening them i6| parts mark off the length of the
corners j j.
For the lower corners set off 24 parts on the line Q
from the perpendicular to b b, and, placing the com-
passes on this point, open them to the line R, where
the curve a a ends, and draw the curve c c from the
line R to d d.
Then on the line N set off 16J parts from the per-
pendicular to /. Place the compasses on this point,
and, opening them to where the curve i meets the line P,
draw the curve u from the last-named line to dd.
Lastly, place the compasses on the point 49, and,
opening them 19J parts, mark off the length of the
corners dd,dd.
This completes the entire model, and the belly can
now be marked from the back thus traced.
To obtain the proper rise or height for the back or
belly, take a thin piece of hard wood, about 2 inches
broad, and a little longer than the violin you propose
to make (Fig. 29), and mark it in the middle at the
point A, which must be three " parts " (of the foregoing
scale) distant from the edge, shown here by the dotted
line. Then, placing a large pair of compasses on the
point A, open them 216 parts, or three times the length
of the body of the instrument, and with this radius
describe the arc BAB, which, by being sawed out, will
serve as a guide for the height or rise required.
The small semicircular piece seen at the top of
Figs. 16 and 29 is the " button," which is part of the
back, and made in one piece with it, and is glued on to
the shoulder when the neck is fixed to the body.
The Back and the Belly. — I have before described
the models and the modes of tracing them; it remains
therefore, to notice the relative thicknesses of the
different parts of the back and belly of a properly-
proportioned fiddle. Important as is the selection of
'wood, acoustically good, it must be appreciated at
once, that the tone of the instrument depends quite as
much on the wood being properly cut and apportioned,
as on the wood itself, for it stands to reason, that how-
ever good the material may be, its intrinsic merit must
be absolutely nullified if it fall into the hands of an
unskilful workman. Of course, to lay down hard and
fast rules, to fix the proper amount of wood to be left
in an instrument, either on the back or on the belly,
would be quite impossible, for it must necessarily vary
with the quality of the wood: thus the closer the grain
and the harder the material, the thinner must it be
left ; and the proportions which would be perfect with
one piece of wood, might produce a very unsatisfactory
result with another. It is always, however, better to err
on the side of excess than meanness for the best
authorities allow that an instrument with plenty of
wood left in it has a much finer tone than one which
has been chiselled down to a minimum of thickness ;
and again, instruments which have been spared the
chisel in their infancy, have a much better chance of
maturing to perfection than weaker ones. The great
thing is to avoid extremes, — if too thin, the tone of the
fiddle will be weak and feeble, if too thick the result
will be a sluggish, dull tone ; in fact, the elasticity of the
deal, and the rapidity with which it transmits sound
will be neutralized by the quantity of it, which has to
be put into vibration. To obviate the difficulty of these
variations in the quality of the wood, and the obscurity
which would involve a long verbal description, and
to serve as a guide for the amateur fiddle-maker, I
have obtained through the courtesy of Mr. W. E. Hill,
a back and a belly from well-made violins, which I have
very carefully gauged all over, and made maps of (repro-
duced in Figs. 30 and 31), with imaginary lines on them,
to denote where the thicknesses merge into one another,
as far as it is possible to determine those boundaries;
and, as he has been kind enough to look over these dia-
grams, and has assured me that the proportions are
correct, I present these two diagrams to my readers with
every confidence in their practical value. The thick-
nesses, as they merge into one another are indicated in
fractions of an inch, and may be taken as those of the
average number of violins ; the stronger the wood, of
course, the thinner it will be, but the pioportions
remain the same. The margin beyond the purfling,
which is the extreme edge which overlaps the sides and
in Fig. 30, the button at the top (which in the present
instances had thicknesses of \ of an inch) have no
influence on the vibration of the plates, and are left
to the discretion, art, or instinct of the fiddle-maker;
naturally, a good strong obtuse edge has a tendency to
strengthen the entire instrument. In Fig. 31 it will
be seen that the thicknesses are very uniform, the
semicircular pieces at the top and bottom having the
thickness of ■§-, are merely left to fasten on to the
blocks, and the little piece left thicker (T35) in each of
these semicircles are caused by the rise of the belly.*
The little triangular pieces in the corners (in both
figures) are left thick (|) for the same purpose. In
reality the thickest part of the belly (Fig. 31), it will
be seen, is just over the sound-post, but it is only just
thicker (3V), as will be seen in the figure, and this
slight increase covers a space of about a shilling. Be-
fore dismissing this question of thicknesses, a word about
copies. Of these, there are two sorts: Firstly, the
genuine copy made by the skilful workman, who
recognizes a high original, and tries, not unsucessfully,
* Later on, full-size working diagrams and sections of these
two figures will be given, which will remove any obscurities
which will harass the most careful description.
208
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
to obtain the same results, by making his bran new
fiddle exactly what the masterpieces of the Amati, the
Guarneri, and the Stradivari were when they were bran
new, and leaving time to work its magical improve-
ments. Such were the instruments of Panormo, Lupot,
Vuillaumeand others; and, secondly, the vile imitation
which leaves the workshop dirty, damaged and other-
wise disfigured by artificial age, produced in a few
hours by the artful musical forger. The first are left
properly pro-
portioned, and
with their pro-
per age and
parents re-
corded inside
them; the
second, being
antedated
some centu-
ries, are thin-
ned down to
aid the decep-
tion, and the
time which
should perfect,
only destroys
them. This
was the great
fault ot Peter
■\Vamsley, and
applies to the
forgeries,
more or less
artistic, which
are turned out
every year by
the wholesale
fiddle trade.
" The whole-
sale fiddle
trade," O tem-
pora 1 o mores!
The Sides.
— People are
apt to imagine
which compose
influence on the
other purpose
together.
FIG. 29.— DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING METHOD OF MAKING INDEPENDENT MODEL.
that the six strips of maple wood
the sides of the violin have no
tone, and consequently serve no
than to keep the whole structure
It is true they do not vibrate themselves,
but they help in a great measure to transmit the vibra-
tions of the belly to the back ; and on their proper
measurement and height depends the size of the volume
of air contained in the interior of the instrument ; and
the importance of this point cannot be better expressed
than in the words of M. Fetis, who says : " The
intensity of the sounds rendered by the violin depends
upon the mass of air contained within it, which ought
to be in a certain relation with the other elements,
a relation which it is here the question to determine.
By a series of ingenious experiments, made with an
apparatus which permitted the mass of air in a violin
to be augmented or diminished at pleasure, we are
assured that if the strings are put into vibration while
the mass of air is at a medium, we obtain sounds at
once mellow
and powerful;
if the volume
of air be too
great, the low
notes are weak
and dull, and
the high ones
sharp and
thin; if it be
too little, the
low notes are
coarse, and
those of the
first string lose
their brilli-
ancy. If we
examine the
sound pro-
duced by the
air in the body
of the instru-
ment, when
the tone ren-
dered by the
strings is most
beautiful and
intense, we find
that it keeps
within certain
limits, which
depend on the
form and the
other elements
of the instru-
ment. In trying the mass of air contained in several in-
struments of Stradivarius by means of a wind conductor
formed of a simple brass tube slightly conical and flat at
its larger end, so as to leave only a little slit for the escape
of the air, it was found by placing the flat end of this
apparatus over one of the_/"holes, and blowing through
the other end, that the air always produced a sound
corresponding to 512 vibrations in a second, which was
that of Middle C in the time of Stradivarius, but which
in 1838 (when Savart made his experiments), answered
to B natural (a semi-tone below). Through the exces-
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
209
sive rise in the pitch for about the last eighteen years,
the sound produced by 512 vibrations, is now nearly in
unison with B flat. All the excellent violins of Stradi-
varius and Guarnerius have yielded the same result.
This then is another fact acquired for science : the air
contained in a violin, should produce a sound equal to
512 vibrations in a second, when set in motion by the
apparatus of which we have spoken. If the intona-
tion of the air be higher, the low notes of the instrument
are dry ; if lower, the notes of the first string are
sluggish and dull, and those of the fourth resemble the
notes of a tenor." M. Fetis goes on to say that though
it is not probable that Stradivari made such experi-
ments as this, yet his skilful hand, guided by his
knowledge of his own work, always enabled him, by
the model or arching of his violin, the outline, and the
height of the sides, to produce an identical interior
capacity. In the same way the body of air inside a
violoncello must be equally scientifically proportioned
to the depth of the tone it is destined to produce, and
FIG. 30.— THICKNESS OF BACK IN FRACTIONS OF AN INCH.
FIG. 31. — THICKNESS OF BELLY IN FRACTIONS OF AN INCH.
as the correct capacity would too greatly enlarge the
outline if made in the proportion of a violin, the diffi-
culty is obviated by giving to the instrument an
increased depth. Therefore it is a great pity that many
writers have loosely stated (doubtless with the best
intentions) that " the proportions of the fiddle, the
tenor, the bass, and the double-bass should be all
identical with one another." The measurements, as
nearly as it is possible to set them down, are as follows:
the sides should have a uniform thickness of -^ of an
inch at the most. In the lower bouts they should be
1 5 inches broad, diminishing gradually^ to the upper
bouts, where they should be iT35 broad. With an
ordinary elevation of the model and outline, the above
dimensions will produce 'the desired capacity of air
inside the instrument, especially with the flatter models
like those of Stradivarius and Joseph del Jesu. When
the ouftthe is large, and the arching high, the sides
should be rather shallower, as in the instruments of
Paul Maggini.
210
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
The Blocks. — These are the six pieces of wood which
being fixed at the top, bottom, and corners (f, Fig. 27),
of a violin serve to strengthen the whole structure, and
thereby give a firm base for the vibrations of the back
and belly. They are in all violins made of pine of an
even and not too wide grain, set perpendicularly to the
back and belly, excepting in the instruments of Stradi-
varius, who nearly always used willow for his blocks,
doubtless with the object of producing a greater specific
lightness to his instruments. The top and bottom
blocks should have a length of 2 inches, a breadth of
£ inch, and a height of course identical with that of
the sides. The corner blocks should just fill up the
corners (as in the figure) so as to produce the guitar
shape that the interior of a violin would present if the
corner blocks were removed. The greatest care must be
exercised in fitting the blocks to a fiddle to use the
smallest quantity of glue so as to fix them most closely,
accurately, and immovably to the sides, to avoid the
catastrophe of their coming loose. The tail-pin (q, Fig.
16) is fastened into a hole bored through the middle of
the length, rather below the middle of the height of the
bottom block.
The Side Linings. — These are the twelve strips of
wood which run round the bottom of the sides (d d,
Fig. 27 and section) and connect the blocks with one
another. They are made of the same wood as the blocks,
which they touch, but do not run into them (except
in the cases of Stradivari and Guarneri, who used to
prolong the linings of the centre bouts into the corner
blocks, as shown in the figure). It is needless to say
they run in the direction of the grain of the wood of
which they are made. As shown in the section (Fig. 28),
they are wedge-shaped, being -^ inch in diameter,
where they join the back or belly, and slant down or
up to a fine point. They are ^ of an inch deep, and
serve the purpose of strengthening the sides when the
back and belly are glued on to them, for otherwise the
extreme thinness of the sides (^) would not be enough
to ensure the stability of the juncture. The same
remark applies, as to fitting them very closely and
evenly to the sides, as to the fitting of the blocks.
The Sound-post, with the bass-bar, constitutes the
entire nervous system of the fiddle, and on their proper
construction and position, depends the tone of the
instrument. The sound-post is a little round stick of
fine, even grained pine, varying in length with the
distance from each other of the back and belly of the
fiddle, both of which it must just firmly touch. It
must not be long enough to force the back and belly
apart ever so slightly, and must not be so short as to
fall down when the instrument receives a jerk, or the
strings are let down. It has a diameter of- inch, and
its fibres must form a right angle with, that is, must be
set across, the fibres of the belly. Its exact position '
depends entirely upon the quality and peculiarities of
the fiddle, and must be carefully regulated by an ex-
perienced workman, but it is almost invariably within
5 inch behind the right foot of the bridge, as indicated
at B, in Fig. 27. So important indeed is the action of
this little post on the tone of the instrument, that the
French term for it is "I'ame" (the soul); without it
the tone of a fiddle is harsh and feeble, but with it
the effect again becomes good. M. Savart has made
many most interesting experiments on the functions
and action of the sound-post, amongst which were the
following : He removed the sound-post from a violin,
and applied it outside, and on the top of the belly by
means of two uprights on the corner blocks, and a
crossbar, between which and the belly the sound-post
was set up. Again, fixing this arch to the back of the
instrument ; by cutting a hole in the back, he set the
post up against the belly, without touching the back at
all. Again, removing the sound-post altogether, he
applied a weight to the belly, and in all these three
experiments the same results were produced, as if the
sound-post were there in its normal position. It
was based upon this peculiarity that Hawkins in 1800
patented his violin, in which the back and sides were
replaced by a bar, and a spring in place of the sound-post
produced the same effect (as far as noise was con-
cerned) as if the post had been still there. This and
similar vagaries will be mentioned in a future chapter.
The object of the sound-post is not so much to com-
municate the vibrations of the belly to the back as to
render the two vibrations similar, whilst it communi-
cates them. The succession of shocks given to the
strings by the bow, are communicated to the back by
the sound-post, whilst being placed just behind the
right foot of the bridge it holds it firmly there, whilst
it allows the vibrations of the left foot to be trans-
mitted to the bass-bar beneath it, which directs the
vibrations of the belly. To prove this, if a hole be cut
in the belly, so that the right foot of the bridge rests
on the top of the sound-post without touching the
belly at all, the effect of the post is not neutralized or
destroyed, and the left foot acts upon the bar as usual.
Again, if in another violin the wood is cut out from
under the left foot, so that the left foot cannot com-
municate with the belly, but is independently sup-
ported, and to allow this the bar is shifted to the
middle of the belly, the sound-post being in its normal
position with regard to the right foot of the bridge, the
effect of the sound-post is produced though the effect
of the bar is neutralized.
These, then, are the functions of the sound-post, and
to make it perform those functions properly, the
greatest care should be exercised in determining its
position, and pressure on the back and belly. As I
have said before, the mass of air contained in a fiddle
VIOLIN MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
ought to yield a certain note ; if the post is too short a
lower note will be produced, and the upper notes of
the violin will suffer ; if it is too long the contrary will
happen. In fact, if your sound-post is too short it will
have the same effect as if the back and belly had been
worked too thin, and vice versa.
The Bass-Bar or Sou?id-Ba.r, which is the other
great nervous regulator of a fiddle, is the bar of fine
soft even-grained pine, 10 inches long, which extends
along the belly of the fiddle in a slightly oblique direc-
tion, underneath the left foot of the bridge (a, Fig. 27).
This obliquity of position is often much exaggerated,
on paper, in diagrams, and in the fiddle itself ; the
right deviation measured from the centre join of the
belly is as follows : at the top it is f£ inch from the
centre join, in the centre under the bridge it increases
to f (or 14) inch, at the bottom end it has increased
the distance to -|f, a total deviation of — (= ~) of an
inch throughout its entire length. Its width at the
edge glued to the belly is T35 inch broad, the other edge
is slightly rounded. This last round edge is quite
straight, so that the edge glued to the belly throughout
its entire length takes a concavity regulated by the
longitudinal arching of the belly. Its depth is also, of
course, similarly regulated, but is generally in the best
fiddles f inch in the centre or broadest part. It is set
quite at a right-angle with the belly (vide Fig. 28). The
purely mechanical influence of the bass-bar is interest-
ingly illustrated by the following experiment taken from
Mr. Davidson's work on the Violin. Having procured a
piece of well-seasoned and sonorous pine a belly was
formed out of it in the usual manner, adopting the
plan of thickness according to the method used by
Stradivarius. This plate, when thus finished, the f
holes not as yet cut, gave the note C. Subsequently the
/holes were cut of the usual size and pattern, when the
sound was found to bp lowered half a tone, now being B.
A bass-bar having afterwards been glued on, of a some-
what larger size than commonly employed, the plate
gave the note D, but the bar having been reduced to its
proper dimensions the sound was again lowered, and now
the belly gave the same tone as originally, C. We can
now easily perceive that the bar perfectly compensates
for the difference of tone, arising from the cutting of
the/" holes, but at the same time we can raise or lower
the tone very considerably by altering the dimensions
of the bar ; for the stronger the bar the higher the
tone, the sound lowering as the bar is decreased in
dimensions.
And this brings us to the fact that the original
bass-bars put in by the Italian masters have all
become too weak for the modern high pitch, and
consequently a bar of the dimensions given above (10
inches) must now be substituted for the original one.
The functions of the bass-bar are to transmit to the
entire fiddle the vibrations produced in it by the left
foot of the bridge, and not, as has so often been laid
down, to strengthen the belly, as was unwittingly said
in error in the concluding paragraph of the last
chapter. As Otto justly remarks, " A properly con-
structed fiddle ought to be able to stand screwing
up to pitch without either bass-bar or sound-post,
without giving way." Care must be taken not to
make the bass-bar too long in proportion to the
instrument, or, instead of promoting it will check the
vibration, and render the tone of the fiddle dull. The
same care ought to be taken in the selection of the
wood of which the bar is made, as with the material
for the belly, and for the same reason, it should be
made of the pine, which yields the highest note when
struck or vibrated with a bow.
In answer to numerous inquiries, I have much
pleasure in saying that arrangements have been made
with Mr. Hill, of No. 72, Wardour Street, London,
W., to provide such of the readers of Amateur
Work, Illustrated, as want them, with good old
well-seasoned wood for Violin making, and those tools
which are peculiar to this art. Others, which are
common to all amateur work, can be procured of any
high-class tool manufacturer. As this is not a part of
Mr. Hill's profession of Violin making and repairing,
I beg here to accord him my best thanks, and those
of my readers, for thus far obliging me and them.
These particulars would more properly have belonged
to a later chapter, but the many applications that have
been made for this information have decided me to
insert it here The prices for which Mr. Hill has
undertaken to supply these wants of the amateur
fiddle-maker are as follows : —
Wood. s.
d.
s.d.
s.
d. s. d.
Maple block for neck
Iron for bending
and scroll, from.. 0
6 to 1 6
sides, etc
.. 15 0
Do, with cut scroll. 2
6
6 0
Callipers, for gaug-
Maple for back ... 2
6
10 0
ing thicknesses...
.. 60
Ditto for sides ... 0
6
2 0
Conical tool for
Swiss pine, for bel-
cutting//holes..
.. 36
lies, bass - bar,
Wooden screw vices
sound-post, and
for fixing back
side linings (com-
and belly (each). 0
3 too 6
plete) 1
6
5 0
Steel purfling tool. . 6
0 10 0
Purfling (made by
Tool for clearing
Mr. Hill), per
the purfling . .
20
yard
0 3
Tools for nipping
yyholes(perpair) .
.. 10 0
Tools, etc.
Salisbury glue, per
Sound-post setters
1 0
lb
.. 1 6
All or any of the above will be sent, on receipt of
P.O.O. covering carriage, and made payable to
Mr. W. E. Hill, 72, Wardour Street, Leicester Square.
(To be continued).
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
Wood-Working Machinery for Amateurs.
! By A. J. W. TATLEB, C.E.
I.— Hand-Power Sawing Machinery.
HE chief hard woods that are used in this
country are oak, ash, mahogany, teak,
and elm ; of resinous
woods, the most general
in use are, red pine from
Norway, Sweden, and Russia ; Memel,
Dantzig and
Riga fir from
Russia and
Prussia ; yellow
pine, pitch pine,
and cedar ; nu-
merous other or-
namental woods
are also used
for decorative
purposes.
Though any
detailed account
of the early his-
tory of wood-
working ma-
chinery would,
in the present
papers be im-
possible, it will
not, perhaps, be
out of place be-
fore endeavour-
ing to describe
the various
hand-power ma-
chines suitable
for amateurs for
the conversion
of the above,
to allude briefly
to Sir Samuel Bentham's patents of
1791 and 1793. The specifications of
his inventions indeed comprehend
nearly all that is now known of wood-
converting implements, with the exception of course of
subsequent improvement in their details ; and the
wording of the specifications might, with very slight
alteration, stand for many patents taken out during the
last few years, some of which have been considered a
novelty in this country, as the rolling-wedge in sawing
machines. Mention is also made in these remark-
able specifications, of planing machines with rotary
cutters, to cut on several sides of the wood at once ;
veneer cutting-machine, horizontal, stone saws, mould-
ing and recessing-machine, bevel sawing-machine,
saw-sharpening-machine, tenon-cutting by means of
circular saws, and many kinds of rotary and boring
tools. The band saw was invented in 1808, by
William Newberry, and though it failed at that time,
probably through the impossibility of obtaining blades
so tempered as to withstand the
strains to which they are subjected,
still Newberry's machine possessed
all the elements of practical utility.
From 1635 to
1 702, there lived
a celebrated me-
chanic, named
Doctor Hooke,
who carried out
various experi-
ments with cir-
cular saws, only,
however, for
very small ar-
ticles, such as
cutting the teeth
of clock wheels,
etc. Frame
saws, driven by
water or wind
power, were the
first sawing-
machines for
cutting timber.
In Rees's Cyclo-
paedia it is
stated that the
general use of
these machines
was prohibited
by Parliament,
for fear of
spoiling the
trade of sawyers.
Though thus standing in the way of
private enterprise, Government was
not above using machinery for its own
benefit, for in 1807, Isambard Brunei
and Henry Maudslay were called in to design ma-
chinery for the manufacture of ships' blocks. About
the year 1805, a circular saw for cutting disks, such
as the heads of casks and tubs, was invented by
John Trotter. This saw took the form of a segment
of a hollow sphere.
As the space at our disposal only allows us to
touch upon the most salient features in the early his-
tory of wood-converting machinery, we recommend
NEW HAND-POWER CIKCU
EAR SAW BENCH.
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
213
any of our readers who are desirous of pursuing the
subject further, to read a most exhaustive work by M.
Powis-Bale, C.E., M. Inst. M.E., entitled "Wood-
Working Machinery : its Rise, Progress, and Con-
struction ; " in this work will be found not only the
history of wood-cutting machinery, traced from the
earliest period of recorded time through its incipient
stages of develop-
ment, but also an
elaborate and ex-
haustive descrip-
tion of the devices
which human inge-
nuity has contrived
for the superseding
of manual labour
with rollers. With this bench one man can cut 3
inches deep, at the rate of 10 feet in four minutes, or 2
inches deep, at the rate of 10 feet in two minutes,
this is effecting a saving of more than 1 50 per cent.
over what can be done with a hand saw.
The frame is 4 feet by 2 feet, cast in one piece, and
planed on the top to perfect truth. It is fitted with a
rising and falling
spindle mounted in
a cradle, and raised
or lowered by
means of the lever
shown on the right-
hand side of the
engraving, a self-
acting feed motion
in the conversion
of timber.
Of all the nu-
merous machines
in use for convert-
ing wood, the circu-
lar saw bench is
everywhere in the
most general de-
mand, for whether wood has to be mortised, moulded,
or planed, etc., it must always be first cut up at a
circular saw bench. It is of great importance there-
fore to a buyer, to see that he gets a machine which
will do his work well, not only for a few months, but
for years.
Our illustration, Fig. 1, represents a new improved
hand-power circular saw bench, suitable for amateurs,
it will cut \\ inches deep, and weighs 6cwt, complete
FIG. 2.— HAND-POWER BAND SAWING MACHINE.
worked from the
toothed gearing
used to multiply the
speed of the saw
spindle, and a paral-
lel fence or guide
which is made to
cant, so as to cut
bevels, or it can
be instantly thrown over by merely slacking a
thumb-screw, thus leaving the table clear for cross
cutting, there is also a weight and roller working in a
slot on the table for keeping the timber to the fence.
The speed necessary is obtained, as will be readily
seen from the sketch, by the fly-wheel being arranged
as an internally toothed spur-gear and pinion. If of
the same strength of tooth, this gear is capable of
transmitting greater force, because more teeth are
214
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
engaged than in the ordinary spur-gears, a third spur
or toothed wheel on the spindle carrying the saw gives
the required number of revolutions per minute.
In working the above machine it must be re-
membered that in order to ensure easy working, one of
the first requisites is the employment of good oil. It
is also imperative that the saws should be properly
sharpened, and evenly set; if this should have been
performed carelessly it is impossible to cut either well
or straight. In sharpening and setting saws, great
care should be taken that the teeth on one side have
no more lead than on the other, as, where this is the
case, the timber will either bind [against or leave the
fence, and cut the timber crooked. The saw, when in
its place, should be topped on the teeth with a file, so
as to make it perfectly round. Great care should be
taken to see that the fence plate is perfectly parallel
with the saw, this is managed by four small set screws
which are fitted behind to regulate it.
For tenoning and grooving, it is necessary to take
off the nut from the end of the feed shaft and to
release the small set screw in the wheel, then the
shaft may be drawn out of the way, and tenons may
be cut by passing the timber perpendicularly to the
saw, keeping it close to the fence ; attention must be
paid, when replacing the feed shaft not to screw the nut
too tight, as it would in that case bind. In order to
afford greater facility for tenoning, there are four holes
in the fence plate, to which apiece of plain timber may
be screwed, standing higher than the fence, to place the
timber against while tenoning. For grooving, tenoning,
or rabbeting, the saw may be either raised or lowered
by means of the lever, and swing under the table of
the bench. When the saw is set for cutting, bring
down the feed-wheel on the timber, this is done by
means of the lever standing above the fly-wheel, fasten
the feed motion to its place by means of the wing-nut
and rod attached to the lever, it will then do for the
same thickness for any number of cuts.
With the bench are also supplied two double cog
change-wheels to be used for changing the rate of the
feed motion, according to the thickness of the timber
to be sawn, also six wood rollers and twelve brackets
to be fixed, three at each side of the bench, for the
purpose of running timber to and from the saw.
In the bench table there is a groove cut for the
purpose of guiding a cross-cutting and mitring fence,
with which that kind of work may be done with much
greater accuracy and expedition.
In sawing wood of irregular thickness the feeding
motion should not be screwed down too tightly upon
the wood, for if that should be done the gear may be
strained or broken.
In conclusion it may be remarked that should the
machine not cut evenly it may be attributed to one of
the following causes : the saw not being correctly set,
in which case the timber is certain to run to or from
the fence ; the fence plate not being set parallel to the
saw, on this much depends ; or the small roller in
front of the saw wearing out of truth.
This extremely useful little bench may be purchased
by amateurs in separate parts, and thus afford them
considerable amusement fitting up same, or complete,
in working order, without feed motion and rollers and
carriers for extending the bench, for ,£12. If supplied
with six rollers and carriers for extending the bench,
and two extra change-wheels for feed motion, the price
would be ,£14 10s. For an extra charge often shillings
this bench can be fitted with pulleys, so that it could
be worked either with a small steam or gas engine, or
by hand, as desired.
Fig. 2 illustrates a hand power band sawing-
machine suitable for amateurs, and well adapted for
every variety of work, circular, irregular, angular, and
straight. Band saw-machines are most useful, owing
to the great variety of sawing that can be done with
them ; they also waste very little of the wood, owing
to the small kerf made, which, when working the more
valuable kinds, is no slight advantage.
One of the chief difficulties encountered in band
saws is their frequent breakage, which must be guarded
against by keeping a steady tension on the saw ; this is
performed either by supporting the carriage of the top
wheel by a lever and weight, any desired amount of
tension being brought to bear upon the saw, by shifting
the weight in or out upon the lever, or by an arrange-
ment of a coach or spiral spring, which latter is the
more desirable method.
The machine depicted in the sketch is very strongly
built, the standard or column being one solid casting,
it is remarkably compact and complete in itself, it
occupies but little room, and works by hand with
greater ease than most other hand-machines of its
class, and is peculiarly strong, rigid, and steady in
work. It is fitted with a patent spring tension, an
arrangement in order to allow for the expansion or
contraction of the saw whilst working, and to enable
it to yield freely to any sudden strain to which it may
be subjected. The table is made to swing so that it
can be canted at any angle by means of the quadrant
and hand-screw partially shown underneath the table
in the sketch, for cutting work on the bevel ; it is also
fitted with an angle bracket, which is not shown in the
engraving, to be used when tenoning. The top and
bottom spindles for the saw wheels are bushed with
gun metal. The tension upon the saw blade is regu-
lated by means of the hand-wheel shown behind the
top saw wheel. This band saw is capable of admitting
work 1 1 inches deep.
In working the above machine besides the usual
MODELLING IN CLA Y.
215
attention to keeping the bearings well lubricated,
especial attention must be paid to the tension of the
saw blade, for to its expansion and contraction may
be traced a fruitful source of breakages. This can be
somewhat lessened by lubricating the blade well, and
keeping the leathers on the saw-wheels true, and
also in slackening the tension of the saw im-
mediately after finishing work. The bed plate and
column of the machine should be of sufficient section
and area, and fixed on a foundation of sufficient firm-
ness to prevent any jarr or vibration even when sawing
the heaviest timber, of which the machine is capable.
Saw blades also of a thin gauge will be found to stand
better than stout ones, as they should always bend
easily over the pulleys, for if the angle be too sharp
for the gauge or temper of the saw, they will
inevitably break ; the smaller the diameter of the saw
wheel, so should in ratio the gauge of the saw be re-
duced.
For cutting the harder and closer-grained woods
such as oak, beech, etc., the saw should be increased
one gauge, the teeth should be more upright, and
spaced finer, and the set also should be reduced. For
woods of a woolly fibre, such as English poplar, the
teeth of the saw should be of coarse space and set,
to effect a clearance and overcome its clinging pro-
perties.
The hand band saw-machine as depicted in illus-
tration can either be obtained in parts, or, complete
with angle bracket for tenoning and one f inch saw,
sharpened and set ready for use for j£i2. It can be
fitted with a pair of 6-inch pulleys placed behind the
fly-wheel, so that it can be worked by a small gas or
steam engine, if desired.
{To be continued?)
=~H
MODELLING IN CLAY.
AX INTRODUCTION TO THE ART OF CARVING
IN WOOD.
V.— Examples for Work in Wood and Clay.
O the modeller in clay, examples for prac-
tice other than those which he may
obtain from natural objects will doubt-
less be welcome, and the student in
wood carving who is seeking to acquire
facility and rapidity of execution, and, for this purpose,
has carefully followed the instructions that have
already been given, in all probability feels the need of
additional examples and suggestions suitable for his
requirements, which may serve to supplement those
that have been brought under his notice in previous
chapters. Having the interests and probable desires
of both classes of workers in view, the illustrations
that are now given, are engravings of wood carvings
made by the skilful hands of adepts in the work.
These illustrations, it may be said, are not only
remarkable for beauty and simplicity of treatment,
but they also serve in an especial manner to illustrate
leading features of carved work executed by the
cutting tools only. It will be found that the remarks
that follow assume the form of instructions to those
who can use chisel and gouge rather than directions
for the guidance of the modeller in clay ; but at the
same time it must be urged that while that which is
said applies more particularly to the work of the wood
carver, the modeller may appropriate and apply to his
own case the lessons that it is sought to convey, as
they will tend to show him that what may be done
readily and easily in wood is not always so practicable
in clay, although facility in handling and working in
clay cannot fail to be most valuable to him when he
begins to work in wood, and will render his progress
far more sure and rapid than it would have been
had he begun with the gouge and chisel on the
harder materials by cutting away, instead of taking the
modelling stand and tools and studying the reverse
process of building-up.
In Fig. 22 a panel is shown which, in the original,
is about fourteen inches long and two inches wide.
These, it must be explained, are the dimensions of the
panel itself, and not of the surrounding surface by
which it is framed. It is drawn, therefore, on a scale
of 6 inches to a foot, or very nearly so. It is carved
in pine, and the greatest depth of the background is
scarcely three-eighths of an inch at the deepest point.
None of the work reaches the surface, that is to say,
no part of the pattern in the centre retains the original
height of the plain surface of the piece of wood which
has been thus treated. This surface is shown by that
part of the engraving which surrounds the central
depression, within the bounds of which the carved
work is contained. One excellent lesson that is to be
learnt from this example is that it is unnecessary, in
order to obtain strong contrast, to seek for very high
relief. The method of handling the surfaces, of bring-
ing projecting parts against deep hollows, and of
placing one part over another is sufficient to give all
the contrasts that are shown in the engraving, as well
as in the other illustrations that accompany this chap-
ter, without the need of cutting the wood away to great
depths, this shallow work being even more striking
in the panel itself than it is in the engraving.
With regard to the execution of the carving, all the
stems in this work were first cut rectangular in section,
and then finished with a gouge having a very small
sweep. This mode of cutting, while leaving the
2l6
MODELLING IN CLAY.
about 6 inches to the foot. Depth of
background, about \ inch.
corners sharp so as to catch the light and make strong shadows,
admirably imitates the general effect of the bark. This example,
drawn on a considerably larger scale, will be found to form an
admirable lesson in modelling, giving, as it does, a very pretty theme
for a panel, and at the same time allowing the student an ample
field for displaying his knowledge or his skill of hand. It is, of
course, impossible in an engraving printed in the ordinary way to
give an idea of the beautiful effects obtained by the cutting tool
in the soft wood, and that, too, in the simplest manner and with
little labour.
Fig. 25 represents a small panel in oak, in which the greatest
depth is only \ inch. The panel in the original is of the same width
as that shown in Fig. 22 ; but it is not quite so long. The student
will notice that the lower half of the design is unfinished, showing the
work as it was blocked out. The upper half is complete. The
two little flowers at the bottom are scarcely more than buttons ;
yet they are in
the condition of
half - finished
work, and show
how results are
to be obtained.
All the stems
in the lower
portion are rec-
tangular, and
the forms of
the leaves are
given, and their
outline cor-
rected, but
there is no
attempt made
at the veining.
The stems of
the upper por-
tion are finish-
ed__by cutting a chamfer along their edges, and in the chamfer
making a score, so that the finished work, when closely examined,
appears as though a V-shaped tool had been run along so as to cut
out the corner. In finishing the leaves, one half is made higher
than the other at the centre line ; so that, according as the light
falls, we have the effect of a raised or sunken rib. The smaller ribs
are formed by sharp V-shaped cuts, and by raising the surface on
one side above that of the other. The workman was evidently a
master, for he has made his tool mark useful in indicating curves
on the surfaces. The light veins upon the leaves, and many other
skilful matters of this sort must be seen rather than described ; but
the carver will find out many of them for himself, after a little use of
his tools. One thing must be borne in mind : that in work of this
description sand-paper must not be used. Men are so accustomed
to see dead smooth surfaces on carved furniture, and other work of
the kind, that they have an instinctive tendency towards smoothing
up everything to which they can apply a piece of sand-paper. This
destroys the character of the work, and makes it appear as though
SMALL PANEL OR KOSETTE CARVED IN PINE.
MODELLING IN CLA 1.
217
it were of putty. In the best work the tool marks show, and show
to some purpose.
The original rosette from which Fig. 23 was taken is 5^ inches
square, and die projection of the centre above the background" on
which the smaller rosettes are carved is only & inch. On looking at
it, it is difficult to believe that so good an effect has been obtained
with so small a projection. The leaves radiating from the centre rise,
then, with a long sweep, slope outward, and finally rise again just
inside of the circle. This design, while very easy to make in wood,
would be unnecessarily difficult in clay ; and any attempt to execute
it in this material would probably end in failure, and thus lead to
disappointment. It can be laid out with compasses and lead pencil
upon the surface of the wood, and work commenced at once.
One of the great beauties of this ornament is its suggestiveness.
It is hardly possible to look at it without seeing in the mind each
of the leaves filled with a variety of complicated work, as illustrated
in Fig. 24. If
the student]
who has been
modelling in
clay, and has
not yet com-
menced to use
the cutting
tools, wishes
for some prac-
tice in wood-
carving, he can-
not do better,
after having
had the prac-
tice which has
been indicated
in the previous
papers, than to
take a block
of pine, and,
drawing any one of these designs upon it, attempt to carve it. In
doing this, let the design be first outlined with a narrow chisel, sharp-
ened like a knife blade from both sides. When the outline has
been incised to perhaps the depth of & inch or thereabouts, cutting
away may be begun.
The other steps need not be described here. To any one accus-
tomed to the use of tools, this would be superfluous ; and it is
to those who are already familiar with the handling of wood and the
manipulation of carving tools, that the remarks made in this and the
preceding papers have been directed. The beginner, for whose
instruction they have been also written, may make his essay on
carving from what has been said on this part of the subject. He
may be successful beyond his expectations, but in all probability he
will find that he needs further instruction in the use and manage-
ment of the tools used in wood cutting. These he will gather from
the series of articles on wood carving which have been specially
written to follow these papers on " Modelling in Clay," and which will
be commenced in the next part of Amateur Work, Illustrated.
FIG. 24. — ELABORATION OF LEAVES IN SMALL PANEL.
FIG. 25.— SMALL PANEL CARVED IN OAK.
Scale, about 6 inches to the foot. Greatest
depth of background not more than J inch.
The lower part represents the work blocked
out and in an unfinished state.
2l8
SIMPLE VENEERING WITH THE HAMMER.
SIMPLE VENEERING WITH THE HAMMER.
HE following directions for veneering, if
strictly followed, will insure success in
this important branch of mechanicahvork.
The softest woods should be chosen.
Perhaps the best for the purpose are
those of perfectly straight grain and without a knot ;
of course no one ever veneers over a knot. Hard
wood can be veneered, boxwood with ivory for in-
stance, but wood that will warp and twist, such as
cross-grained mahogany, must be avoided. The veneer
and the wood on which it is to be laid must both be
carefully prepared, the former by taking out all marks
of the saw on both sides with a fine toothing plane,
the latter with a coarser toothing plane. If the veneer
happens to be broken in doing this, it maybe repaired
at once with a bit of stiff paper, glued upon it on the
upper side. The veneer should be cut rather larger
than the surface to be covered ; if much twisted it
may be damped and placed under a board and weight
over night. This saves some trouble, but with veneers
that are cheap it is not worth while taking much
trouble about refractory pieces.
The wood to be veneered must now be sized with
glue. The ordinary glue-pot will supply this by
dipping the brush first into the glue, then into the
boiling water in the outer vessel. This size must be
allowed to dry before the veneer is laid on. We will
suppose now that the veneering process is about to
commence ; the glue in good condition and boiling
hot, the bench cleared, a basin of hot water with the
veneering hammer and a sponge in it, a cloth or two,
and everything in position that one will not interfere
with, or be in the way of another.
First damp with hot water that side of the veneer
which is not to be glued, then glue the other side.
Secondly, go over as quickly as possible the wood
itself, previously toothed and sized. Thirdly, bring the
veneer rapidly to it with the outspread hands, and
taking care that the edges of the veneer overlap a little
all round. Fourthly, grasp the veneering hammer
close to the pene (shaking off the hot water from it)
and the handle pointing away from you. Wriggle it
about, pressing the veneer down stoutly, and squeez-
ing the glue from the middle out at the edges.
If it is a large piece of stuff which is to be ve-
neered, the assistance of a hot iron will be wanted to
make the glue liquid again after it has set ; but do not
let it dry the wood underneath it, or it will burn the
glue and scorch the veneer, ruining the work. Fifthly,
having got out all the glue possible, search the surface
for blisters, which will at once be betrayed by the
sound they give when tapped with the handle of the
hammer : the hot iron must be applied, or the inner
vessel of the glue-pot itself, which often answers the
purpose, and the process with the hammer repeated.
When the hammer is not in the hand, it should be
in the hot water. The whole may now be sponged
over with hot water, and wiped as dry as can be.
And observe, throughout the above process, never
have any slop and wet about the work that you can
avoid. Whenever you use the sponge, squeeze it well
first. Damp and heat are wanted, not wet and heat.
It is a good thing to have the sponge in the left hand
nearly all the time, ready to take up any moisture or
squeezed out glue from the front of the hammer.
So much for laying veneers with the hammer,
which, though a valuable tool, is not much used in the
best cabinet-makers' shops, cauls being adopted in-
stead. Cauls are made of wood, the shape and size
of the surface to be veneered, or, better still, of rolled
zinc plate, and being made very hot before a good
blaze of shavings, they are clamped down on the work
when the veneer is got in its place. The cauls must
previously be soaped, to prevent them sticking to the
veneer. The whole is then left to dry together. The
hammer is quite sufficient, however, in small cabinet
shops, and for amateurs, who will not require to cover
surfaces of any great extent. Veneers 5 feet long and
18 inches wide can be laid with the hammer, without
assistance, and without leaving a blister. Cauls, how-
ever, are very necessary if a double-curved surface
has to be veneered, or a concave surface ; they need
not be used for a simple convex surface. By well
wetting one side of the veneer, it will curl up, and can
be easily laid on such a surface ; but it will be well to
bind the whole round with some soft string, to assist it
in keeping down while drying.
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
V.— Concluding Remarks.
HE drawing which forms the full-page illus-
tration of the present number, gives a
view of the organ with the pipes arranged
as suggested in page 176, and compares
very favourably with the view given in
Fig. 20, which arrangement would need a false front to
hide the pipes. Placing the larger pipes at the front
and sides involves little, if any, more labour in the
grooving, and no more outlay, as the upper case or
false front is dispensed with, and moreover you get
the full power of the pipes.
It does not matter where the holes are bored
through the sound-board, provided they are over the
proper channel, as in this organ there is only one set
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.
2l9
of pipes. The holes may, therefore, be over any part
of the channels that may be most convenient or
nearest to the place to which the pipes are grooved
off. I may also state that Figs. 16 and 17, page 117,
not being to scale, must only be taken as showing the
mode in which pipes are grooved off ; the amateur can
place his pipes in any position that may be most
convenient for speaking.
The design now under consideration may be varied
by making the pipes level at the top, or descending in
very small steps by placing a board cut as in Fig. 21
over the panel above the key-board. If this is done it
is obvious that the pipe feet must be longer for each
pipe up to the centre one. This can be easily
managed by making the feet in the same manner as a
pipe— namely, four sided, and rounded at the bottom
where it goes into the hole in the grooving board.
You can thus make the feet any length you like, and
without the necessity of boring them.
If either of these designs be adopted the cor-
responding pipes on each side should be exactly the
same length. This will not affect the note which they
should sound, as the stopper can be pushed down
until the proper note is obtained.
The decoration of the pipes can be accomplished
by painting in the ground tint and then stencilling in
the ornaments in their proper colours, or in gold size
for gilt work. The stencil-plates can be cut out of
thick cartridge paper.
A hint to those who may not have sufficient skill
to do this, and yet are desirous of decorating the
pipes. At any good paper-hanging warehouse you
can purchase some artistic wall-paper of suitable pat-
terns. This you can either paste on to the pipes as it
is, or you may cut out such portions as you require,
such as the fleur-de-lis — which is generally gilt —
trefoils, rosettes, dots, borders, etc., and then carefully
paste or glue them on to the pipes after they are
painted, or the ground tint in paper pasted on. Of
course it is only the fronts that need decoration.
The case itself may be made of either pine, oak, or
mahogany. If either of the two former materials is
used the framings may be stop-chamfered round the
panels, and the panels themselves filled in diagonally
and V jointed. These framings should all be fixed by
screws or dowels, so that if it is desired to get at any
part of the instrument they may be easily removed.
The cover board for the keys is not shown in the
sketch, but instructions for making that are not needed.
I have noticed that several correspondents wish to
attach pedals to their instrument. It is evident that,
as there are no pedal pipes, the pedals can only act
on the manual keys, and should, therefore, be limited
to an octave and a half, namely CC to F. This, how-
ever, maybe sufficient to satisfy those who are desirous
of having a little pedal practice, and would be useful
where ft is required to use both hands on the upper
part of the manual. I will now endeavour to show
how this may be accomplished.
First make a frame of 1 inch stuff 2 feet 5 J inches
long (outside measure), 22 inches wide, and 4! inches
deep on the front and two sides. The back is a piece
of if stuff 3 inches wide laid flat and tenoned into
the sides. A piece of 2 inch stuff is tenoned into
the sides next the front. A glance at the sketches
Figs. 22 and 23 will make this clear. Now divide
these thick pieces at the front and back into 22 equal
parts by 21 lines, which, starting from the inside of
the frame, will be exactly if inch apart. Draw a line
through the centre of these lines and drive a stout
wire pin into each one except the 6th, 14th, and 20th.
The front row of pins should show i\ above the
cill and the back row 3 inches. Now get out 18
pieces of pine for the pedals -| wide, 1 inch thick, and
22 inches long. Bore a vertical hole through one end
of each of these pieces to fit on the front pins, then
slightly enlarge the hole lengthways at the bottom.
Place this on the front pin and mark where the back
one will come, and bore a similar hole through there ;
the pedal then ought to slip up and down freely on
these pins. On the top of the pedal, where the front
pin comes through, glue a slip of hard wood -J wide,
\ in. thick, and \\ in. long. When this is dry bore a hole
I inch diameter through the side of the pedal so that
there may be as little friction on the pin as possible. Go
through the same process with each of the 18 slips.
Now get out 1 1 slips of mahogany or other hard wood
12 inches long, 1 inch thick, and \ inch wide, and glue
one on to each of the natural keys as shown in Fig.
21. Get out 7 pieces of similar wood 4j inches long,
3 inches high and | thick, and glue them on to the 7
sharp keys. All these slips should be slightly rounded
on the top and front end. The sides of the pedal
frame should be cut out, as shown in Fig. 22. A piece
of I inch board should be prepared for the top at the
front and back. These will be screwed on when all is
finished, that at the back should have holes bored
through to receive the tops of the pins to prevent
them getting turned aside, but the pins should only fit
loosely in this top board, so that it may be removed at
any time if it is required to get at the pedals.
A piece of stout wire bent to form a spring should
be inserted in the cill under each pedal, the under-
side of which should have a shallow groove for the
spring to run in. The top of the back cill and the
underside of the back cover board should have three
or four thicknesses of felt or soft woollen cloth glued
on in order that the action of the pedals may be per-
fectly silent. This felt is shown by the black portions
on Fig. 23.
226
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORG Ah.
In the end of each pedal insert a small eye of whip-
cord. This may be done by boring a small hole
through the pedal and putting a doubled piece of cord
through ; and then driving a well glued wedge between
the cord on the underside of the pedal. This loop,
however, is not required on the pedal if the pedals
are made moveable.
It is a great advantage to have the pedal frame
1 8 levers required. They are to be furnished with a
loop or eye of whipcord on the top, the same as de-
scribed for the ends of the pedals, and should be fixed
in the slots in the back piece in the same way as the
backfalls of the manuals are centred.
Now prepare 18 trackers, which are simply pieces
of pine \ inch wide and \ thick, about 2 feet long.
The best way to make them is to cut them off a board
f
1
FIG. 25. — ENLARGED
VIEW OF TOP OF TRACKER
AND TAPPED WIRE TO
BE BOUND ON IT.
FIG. 24.— CONNECTING ACTION FROM
PEDALS TO MANUAL.
A Lever Frame. B Backfall. C Manual
Key Tail. D Sticker. E Tracker.
Scale, I inch to the foot.
FIG. 21.— ANOTHER ARRANGEMENT OF FRONT PIPES.
Scale, £ inch to the foot.
C?=sg
FIG. 23. — SECTION
OF PEDALS.
FIG. 26.— BELLOWS
REGULATOR.
moveable, as it can be put away when not in use, and
the accumulation of dust and dirt is prevented. If
you desire to do this, you must make a frame like a
in Figs. 23 and 24, as long as the full width of the
organ, viz., 3 feet. The bottom may be of f inch deal,
the front of £ inch mahogany, 3 inches high, and the
back of ii inch pine, 2 inches wide. Both front and
back pieces are to have a slot J inch wide, cut oppo-
site the end of each pedal to receive the levers, which
should be 6 inches long and I thick. There will be
FIG. 22. — view OF pedals. Scale, J inch to the foot.
of the requisite length with a cutting-gauge. Shape
each end to a point, and fasten a piece of tapped wire
in the top, as shown in Fig. 25 ; bind it round with
twine, and then coat the twine over with thin glue.
Fasten a small hook of tinned iron wire into the
bottom in same way. The hook goes into the loop on
the levers or pedal ends, as the case may be, and the
tapped wire goes through the front end of the back-falls,
and is secured there by a leather nut. You must find the
exact length of the tracker by actual measurement.
design for A SMALL ORGAN IN isometrical PERSPECTIVE. Scale, three-quarters of an inch to the foot.
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
Now make iS backfalls, ii inch -wide and J inch
thick, shaped as in B, Fig. 24. The backfall rail is
ii inch thick and z\ inches wide, and is grooved for
the backfalls, which should be fixed in the same way
as the manual backfalls. As the pedals are wider
than the keys, the backfalls will all slope to the left.
The wire should run through them at a point -fths
from the front end, in order that the manual keys may
not be forced up more than f inch. The rail should
be fixed close up under the key-board, to allow the
backfalls room to work over the bellows. A short
sticker, with a wire in each end, is connected with the
manual keys, as shown in the sketch. The holes in
the keys for these wires must be elongated, so that the
keys may act without pulling up the pedal backfalls.
A soft leather or felt button is to be put on each end
of the stickers, to secure silent action.
A different style of regulator will be needed for the
bellows. This is shown in Fig. 26, and has the advan-
tage of not projecting above the bellows. There
should be a regulator on each side.
I need hardly remark, that if pedals are attached
to the organ, it will be necessary to increase the dis-
tance from the floor to the key-board by about 5
inches.
I find that, according to Mr. Willis's last price-list,
a treble set of metal pipes (unvoiced) will cost £2. If
first-class pipes are not required, a cheaper or a
second-hand set might be purchased. It may be use-
ful to many amateurs if I state that leather nuts can
be purchased for is. a hundred; tapped wires, from
2s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. a gross ; and prepared leather, for
about 3s. 6d. a skin, at most organ-builders.
I now conclude this series of papers by wishing
success to every amateur who may endeavour to build
a small organ from the foregoing instructions.
FILTERS :
THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
By ALFRED W. SOWARD.
II. — Simple Filters (continued).
|N accordance with the promise contained
in the concluding paragraph of my first
paper, I proceed to describe the con-
struction of a filter for attachment to an
ordinary tap, of a pocket filter for the
tourist, and of a cask filter for pond or stream use.
4. Filter for Attachment to an Ordinary Tap. —
The water supplied to London and the large provin-
cial towns is in general unexceptionable as to quality.
Nevertheless, it is a precaution worth taking to pass
it before use through some filtering medium. The
forms of filters already described are excellent for this
purpose, but their excellence is gained at the cost of
slowness of action. I therefore now give directions
for making an apparatus to be employed in cases
where economy of time is an object, and where the
water is already fairly pure. Buy a paraffin-lamp
glass of the shape shown in Fig. 10 ; selecting one
whose diameter at A is as nearly as possible that of
the tap to which it is to be adapted. Procure also a
piece about three inches long of black vulcanized
india-rubber tubing of a slightly less diameter (that of
three-quarter inch bore costs eighteen-pence per foot
at Griffin's — see No. 1953 in their list) : also, a piece
of copper gauze, some two or three inches square, and
rather fine in the mesh, which may be bought for about
twopence at a metal shop, or for a rather larger sum
at Griffin's ; also, about a yard of stout copper wire,
and a couple of yards of fine wire of the same metal.
Take the wire gauze, and having rolled it up slip it
into the bulb of the lamp glass. Then, with the aid of
the fingers at one end of the glass and of a stickinserted
at the other end, open out the gauze into a basin, and
fit it into the position shown at C, Fig. 10. Line this
basin with a very thin layer of cotton wool, using no
more than is sufficient to prevent particles of charcoal
from slipping through. Fill up the glass with animal
charcoal that has been previously made red hot
(ignited is the technical expression), as directed in my
first paper, and then allowed to cool. This cooling
should be effected gradually, as otherwise the crucible
is liable to suffer fracture. The crucible, when re-
moved red hot from the fire, should be placed in the
ashes, and the lid permitted to remain on until all is
cool.
Having proceeded thus far, take the filled glass
and over the end a (Fig. 10) slip the piece of india^
rubber tube D, the diameter of which should be such
that a moderate amount of stretching is necessary in
order to effect this, thus ensuring a good tight joint.
To prevent all chance of a leak, the rubber tube
should be tightly bound round with a piece of the thin
copper wire, as at E. The upper end of the tube
should then be slipped over the nose of the supply
tap, and bound to it with the remainder of the thin
wire. On turning the tap the water will issue from
the bottom of the glass F, suffering comparatively
little obstruction from the materials therein.
In this stage the filter might be left ; but before it
can be pronounced quite complete the addition must
be made of a stirrup of stout wire in order to prevent
any risk of the head of water forcing the apparatus
from the tap.
Take a piece of stout copper wire of about four
times the length of the lamp-glass. Straighten it —
which may be done by taking one end in each hand
222
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
"V_^
C\
.-.-I
a, 1
r*\
-G&sl P39-
FIG. 10.— SECTION OF TAP FILTER.
FIG. II. — WIRE STIRRUP FOR TAP FILTER.
FIG. 12. — TAP FILTER COMPLETE.
References— (Fig. 10). A, End of Lamp-glass to be joined to Tap; B, Copper Gauze; C, Cotton Wool; D, India-rubber Tubing;
E, Binding of Copper Wire ; F, End of Glass from wbicb Water issues ; G, Nose of Supply Tap ; H, Charcoal. (Fig. 11). For References
to lettering, see Text. (Fig. 12). Shows method of supporting Filter by Wire Stirrup A ; Bt FlaDge found on most Taps of modern make ;
C, Stout piece of wire bent round Tap, its ends twisted together as shown at D.
and forcibly pulling it backwards and forwards over
the handle of a door or the edge of a bench. Make
a half-loop in the centre, as shown at a (Fig. 1 1
size such as to pass half-way round
the end F (Fig. io), of the glass. Take
a shorter piece of wire and bend it
into the form shown at b (Fig. ii).
Then place the two pieces together
as at c, and twist the ends of the
short piece round the long piece as
at d. Then pass the bottom end of
the glass through the loop thus
formed, and bring the long ends up one on each side,
and with the aid of a pair of pliers secure them to the
tap by a third piece of wire, as shown in Fig. 12.
The apparatus will now be com-
plete, and will appear as represented
in that figure.
For the benefit of those of my
readers who may chance to be
workers in metal, I add a descrip-
tion, with illustrations, for which I
am indebted to the English Mechanic,
of a somewhat similar but much
,-- H
FIG. 13. — JOTT GRANT'S TAP FILTER, VERTI-
CAL SECTION, FRONT VIEW, SHOWING
POSITION FOR UNFILTERED WATER.
A B. Hemispherical Cases containing Movable
Filter C ; D, Tube for passage of Unfiltered
Water ; E E'f Strainers ; H, Screw Coupling.
FIG. 15.— POCKET FILTER, COMPLETE.
A, End in Water ; B, Mouth-pieoe ;
C, Cotton Wool; D, Sand; E, Charcoal.
FIG. 14. — JOTT GRANT S TAP FILTER, VERTI-
CAL SECTION, SIDE VIEW, SHOWING
POSITION FOR FILTERED WATER.
Eeference lettered A to H the same as in Fig. 13.
K, Handle for turning Df the passage for Tin-
filtered Water.
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
223
FIG. 16. — CASK-FILTER IN VERTICAL SECTION.
A, Large Pebbles ; B, Small Pebbles j C, Sand ; D, Char-
coal ; E, Wedges fixing Head ; P, Head of Cask.
more convenient tap-filter, de-
signed and patented by Mr. Jott
Grant, of Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
This filter is of the class
specially adapted for attachment
to an ordinary supply-tap in such
a manner, that either filtered or
unfiltered water may be drawn
as desired. The feature of
novelty is the enclosing of a
hollow globe in a spherical cas-
ing, through which the water
passes. The globe has a tube
through its centre, thus leaving
a free passage for the water
when the globe is turned in the
proper direction. The space
within the globe around the
tube is filled with a filtering
mixture, to which the water has access through
strainers placed in orifices made in the side of the
globe. Fig. 13 is a section of the filter, showing the
hollow tube through which water has a free passage
when it is not desirable to filter it. Fig. 14 is a sec-
tion showing the globe so turned, that the water must
pass through the filtering mixture. A and B represent
two hemispherical cases, which, when secured together,
form a hollow chamber for the reception of the me-
tallic globe. The globe has a tube D passing through
its centre, which allows
a free passage of water
when the globe is
turned to the position
shown in Fig. 13. The
space within the globe
and around the tube D
is filled with charcoal
or some suitable filter-
ing mixture. E and E'
are the two strainers,
which serve to allow
the passage of water
and also to prevent the
charcoal from coming
out When the globe
is turned to the posi-
tion shown in Fig. 14,
it becomes a filter, the
water having to pass
through the filtering
mixture before it can
escape. The neck H
of the filter may be
made with a screw as
shown, or any other pig. 17. — cask-filter in position, showing frame for support at a.
coupling device may be used.
K is a handle which passes
through the shell B into the
globe, and serves to operate the
same.
5. Pocket Filter for Tourists.
— Those of my readers who
indulge in the luxury of pedes-
trian tours, and who know the
difficulty of finding fresh, pure
water during a country ramble,
and the tantalizing sight on a
scorching summer day of a cool,
refreshing rivulet, the water of
which is poison, will require no
apology from me for introducing
to their notice a pocket filter,
the possession of which will
render them independent of the
previously much-sought-for spring. I therefore at once
describe the manner of making it. Purchase a piece,
about five inches long and three-quarters of an inch in
diameter, of soft glass tubing (that known to Messrs.
Griffin as No. 235, size 9, is suitable ; price is. 2d.
per lb.). Remove the rough edges by fusion, in the man-
ner described in the first paper, and fit each end with a
softened cork. Bore the corks, and fit each hole with
a 3-inch piece of soft glass tube, about three-eighths
of an inch in diameter, the edges of which have been
rounded by fusion. To
each piece of glass
tube attach about a
foot of black vulcanized
india-rubber tubing of
a i-inch bore (price at
Griffin's, 6d. per foot).
Into the free end of
each length of tubing
slip a 3-inch piece of
the \ glass tube with
rounded edges. Then
remove one cork, and
proceed to pack the
larger tube with filter-
ing materials, thus : —
Drop in a plug of
cotton-wool, upon this
place 1 inch of sand,
boiled and washed as
previously directed,
then add 3 inches of
animal charcoal, pre-
viously ignited, and
allowed to cool out of
contact with air, press
224
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
the charcoal down with a moderate degree of firmness,
cover with another plug of cotton-wool, and replace
the cork. The filter is now complete, and has the
appearance shown in Fig. 1 5.
When required for use, the end A should be
dropped into the water, and the end B placed in the
mouth, the large tube itself being grasped in the
hand. On applying suction, the water will rise
through the apparatus to the mouth, being deprived
in transit of the greater proportion of its impurities.
6. Cask Filter for Ponds. — I now turn to my
country readers, and to such of them as are unfor-
tunately dependent, either continuously or occasion-
ally, for their water supply upon ponds, stagnant
streams, or such-like doubtful sources, I offer the
following filter, premising that no amount of mere
filtration will suffice to render their water free from all
suspicion.
Take a cask of any convenient size, and remove
its head. Through the bottom bore a number of
holes, each about an inch in diameter, to give the
water access to the interior. Supposing the cask
selected to be about three feet high (if any other size,
the following quantities must be altered in proportion),
cover the bottom to the depth of 2 inches with large
pebbles, then add 2 inches of small pebbles, then
2 inches of coarse sand, next 2 inches of animal
charcoal — previously ignited and allowed to cool —
then another 2 inches of sand, another 2 inches
of charcoal, and another 2 inches of sand, a third
2 inches of charcoal, and a fourth of sand, all
pressed in fairly tight. Then take the head of the
cask, and having bored numerous holes in it, place it
on the surface of the top layer of sand, and fix it in
that position by driving wooden wedges in round its
edge. Coat the outside of the cask with a layer of
tar, to preserve it from rotting.
Next select a convenient position on the margin
of the pond or stream where the water is about a
yard deep. There build a wooden framework at such
a depth beneath the water that the rim of the cask
may project about six inches above the surface, its
bottom resting on the framework clear of all mud,
which would be very liable to clog the holes by which
the water finds entrance. Before finally fixing this
stage in position well tar it.
If the bed of the pond or stream shelves down very
gradually, and sufficient depth of water cannot be
obtained close in shore, the difficulty may be got over
by erecting a wooden causeway from the bank to the
cask.
Place the cask on its stage, and notice that water
gradually issues from the holes in the head, and slowly
rises until it has attained the level of that outside.
This water is in general sufficiently pure for ordinary
purposes, but, as I have already said, and it cannot be
too often repeated, no amount of mere filtration will
render water, reeking with decomposing animal and
vegetable matter, perfectly wholesome. Suspicion will
always attach to it.
Fig. 16 shows the cask filter in section ; Fig. 17,
complete, and mounted on its framework.
In my next paper I shall discuss the very important
subject of the maintenance of charcoal filters.
Article I. — Errata. Page 132, col. 2, line 12, for
burners read burner ; page 133, col. 1, line 18, for this
read their j page 134, col. 1, line 3, for covered read
convex:
Addendum. When the filters there described are
used in very dusty positions it is a measure of reason-
able precaution to provide them with covers, otherwise
it is better, as will appear in the article on maintenance,
to leave them open and freely exposed to currents of
air. A loose piece of paper is to be preferred to a
closely-fitting lid.
( To be continued?)
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
Bj MERrrN KENNEDY.
II. — How to Build a Canoe.
E left the framework of our canoe ready for
the boards. The first important point to
be noticed here is, that from the shape of
a canoe it is impossible for any single
board, except the top one, to reach from
end to end. In other words, each single board, as it
seems at first glance to be, is composed of two pieces.
The division is generally made at two-thirds of the
board's length, and the joining in no two successive
strakes should come together. That is to say, taking
either side of a 15-foot canoe, the joining in the
bottom board should be 10 feet from the stem ; that of
the board next above, 5 feet from the stem ; that of the
third 10 feet, and so on. I have taken 15 feet as the
total length for the sake of clearness, but in point of
fact a 13-foot canoe is sufficient to float anything short
of eighteen or twenty stone.
My last paper, being a general one, did not call for
accurate measurements, but in this I shall give, so far
as possible, an exact description of my own canoe ;
and I can only hope that some of my readers may
enjoy the fruits of their labour as builders as much as
I have done.
To begin with, then, I give an exact representation
of the sections, showing the size of the several parts
which will be found to suit. Fig. 8 represents the
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
225
large section for the centre ; Fig. 9 one of the smaller
ones, which are, of course, exactly alike ; each to be
placed half way between the centre and one end of
the boat, that is, in the case of a 13-foot canoe, 3 feet
3 inches from the centre and either end, respectively.
In Fig. 8, a B = i inch ; B c = 3 inches ; c D = 3^
inches ; D E = 2 inches ; EF = i inch. The breadth
across at M N = 10-i inches; at L o, iSi inches ; at
K P, 22J inches ; at H G, 24 inches ; G H and R Q
each = 4 inches ; and the opening across G R = 16
inches. From these data a section can easily be con-
structed. The total distance between A and F amounts
to 95 inches. Draw a straight line this length ; draw
four others at right angles to it, and each divided
equally by it, the length on either side being known
from that of the whole lines, given above. Then join
the extremities of these lines. In Fig. 9, A B = J of
a inch ; BC = 2j inches ; C D = 2^ inches ; D E =
2 inches ; E F = \h inches; total = 9J ; M N = 8£
inches ; L O = 13^ inches ; K P = 165 inches ; H G =
175- inches; H A Q = 18 inches.
Now as to the boards. About the best material is
yellow pine. The point to be careful of is that the
boards should be free from knots ; indeed, common
deal without knots is preferable to more expensive
wood with them. In any case the expense is small;
my canoe, all complete, cost something under 25s. ;
while a builder's price \vould be at least £\o. The
boards should be of the thickness known as " eight to
the plank," but this size requires neat planing, and
perhaps six to the plank would be a safer kind. A
plank is 3 inches thick. They should be partially
planed first in the board, and then cut to the required
shape.
To find this shape mark with a pencil the heights
of the several boards on the stem and stern-posts,
from the paper pattern. Then fasten a tack or nail in
each of the sections at the points M and N, marking
the lowest corners on the section boards (v Fig. 7, page
181). Tie a string at the lowest marked point on
the stem-post ; pass it on, resting on the three nails at
one side, round the marked point in the stern-post,
and so on, via the nails on the other side, to the
starting point.
It will be as well to press each pair of boards for
a night or so before putting them on. Knock a narrow
slit in a stout bit of wood, or fasten two together. Put
it leaning against a wall, and insert the ends of the
boards into the slit, at right angles to the ground.
Then force the other ends gradually down flat on the
ground, and put a heavy weight on them. You will pro-
bably break a few boards in the process, but better break
them then than have them snap when part of the
canoe. Now take the longer piece of one of the side
boards, the two-thirds part, cut roughly to the required
breadth, and secure one end to the stem-post by a bit
of board doubled and fastened with a nail and string,
which can be shoved on as a pair of clamps, embracing
both post and board. Then get some one to bend the
board into its place, — no easy job, even though already
"pressed," — with one edge, previously slightly bevelled
off, along the keel, in the hollow made for it, and the
other forced up so as to lie along outside the cord
Now take your pencil and trace exactly the lie of the
cord against the board. Remove this part of the
board then, and do the same to the one-third still
wanting to make up the whole board.
Now consider what this line on the cord represents.
A reference to the figure of the junction of board-
edges (Fig. 3, page 1S0) will show that it is the top of
the inside edge. But the board above must fit down
on this edge all along, and therefore, after cutting off
the wood in hand even with the pencil line we must
level off its outside edge to the depth required in this
particular place. The strip of paper cut off round our
paper patterns will at once show the angles at which
the top board should overlap the other at three points,
the points where the sections stand ; indeed, this can
be ascertained from the sections themselves; and by
bevelling away the board at these points to the depth
required to give the angle there, and then drawing a
line from one of the points thus found through the
others, we shall know with quite sufficient accuracy
the line by which we are to bevel all along.
And here I may remark that though, of course, all
the care spent on this part of the boat will be well
repaid, yet one need not be discouraged by apparent
failure, since what appears a very rough piece of work
can often be made to look well by the aid of paint, and
to wear well by the judicious use of nails and tar.
We have now to complete the planing which was
roughly done before ; bevel off the edge by the line
just marked, — and be careful you do not plane off your
pencil marks ; settle the ends of the two pieces that
are to make one board, leaving about three and a-half
inches to overlap ; be sure that the whole board, when
made one, will not be too short for its place, and make
it one by careful nailing with copper nails. Next have
the board held in its place while you mark the rounded
shape to which the ends must be cut to fit into the stem
and stern-posts, and cut them roughly to that shape.
Now secure the board permanently in the centre,
and then, and not till then, trim off both ends exactly.
I say then, and not till then, because, though it is easy
enough to shorten a long board, it is impossible to
lengthen a short one, and the exact necessary length
of the side board of a boat can only be ascertained by
putting it in the very position it is to occupy perma-
nently. The fitting and nailing of the bottom board on
either side is almost the most troublesome part of the
226
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
-=
B
V '
/
l\^-
D
/
/'
E
-p^o
M ' ■
■" M
FIG. 8. — SECTION OF CANOE IN CENTRE
canoe; but here again perfection, though desirable,
is by no means indispensable.
The boards should be fastened with copper nails;
these cost more than iron ones, but they are far
cheaper in the end. Along the keel screws will be
found most useful, especially in drawing keel and board
together, to close an apparently dangerous gap; and
here the value of the
tough ash keel will be
felt. And now, when
you have the two
bottom boards on, the
keel and end posts
no longer liable to be
knocked asunder, but
firm and steady, the
worst is over, and you
may fairly sit down and
congratulate yourself.
We next proceed to shape the second board all
round in exactly the same manner as the last, though
it will be found a much easier task. The nails fasten-
ing two boards together should not be more than four
inches apart, heads out and heads in alternately. Bore
a hole, put in your nail, and bend the point slightly ;
then, getting someone to hold the boards close to-
gether if they incline apart, hit the nail from both
sides at once with a couple of hammers, clinching the
soft copper firmly. The clamps formed of a doubled
board, described above, will be found most useful. It
will be convenient to first fasten the boards to the
sections, but only lightly, so as to be easily detached
again. Indeed, you should always bear in mind that
the fewer holes you make, except, of course, those
which are to be permanently occupied by nails, the
fewer you will have to fill up
again, as all open holes must be
carefully closed with wooden
pegs, driven in and cut off. Each
board should be attached to the
end posts by two screws at either
extremity.
We may now suppose all the
boards in their places except the
top ones. They, and they alone,
can be in one piece, though a
good deal of wood is wasted thereby. Fasten them
firmly, leaving the tops square, and see that the two
tops are level at each end. Next cut a narrow strip
of board, about an inch deep, and nail it all round
inside the top edge of the top board ; it serves to
strengthen the latter, and affords a more substantial
ground to fasten the deck to.
Next come the ribs, and you may now prepare for
some hard work, though not nearly so perplexing as
FIG. 9. — SECTION BETWEEN CENTRE AND END,
much of what is past. One pair of ribs should be put
in the centre, close to the centre section; and then
alternately, at intervals of a foot, a pair of ribs and a
little straight wooden brace. Five pairs of ribs and
four braces will be sufficient. The latter are simply
small straight pieces of wood, about an inch thick,
with a place cut in them for the top of the keel, and
reaching up just to the
second board on either
side. Screw the boards
to them, and screw
them to the keel. The
ribs builders generally
make of oak, but I
found ash quite as
good. Get a dozen
curved pieces cut in a
saw-mill, much the
shape of a J or C,
about two feet long and a third of an inch thick.
The exact shape we have to construct out of
this material varies with its position. That for
the middle will be like the illustration (Fig. 10),
while the nearer we get to the ends, the smaller
and straighter becomes the curve. The tops of all
slope a little upward toward the inside, to support
the rounded deck. Builders make the ribs much
shorter than as represented in the engraving, none of
them crossing the keel. I made mine, by mistake,
span the keel and reach half way across the opposite
bottom board, the two ribs thus overlapping for some
inches. This is, of course, much more troublesome,
but adds immensely to the strength of the boat, and I
have often been glad I made mine so. The ribs must
be sawn out, inch by inch, putting them in their places
now and then to see how they
fit, and trimming and chipping
them till they are right. Be
careful to do the outside of the
curve first. A vice and a lock-
saw are necessary for this work.
Then screw the boards firmly
to the ribs, two screws to each
board.
And now at last our canoe
is independent of the sections,
and we may knock them out. The cross arches
at each end of the well should be put in next ; each
a piece of deal one inch by two, hollowed and
rounded till it forms a curved girder an inch square.
The proper division of a 13-foot canoe is into a
covered part of 5 ft. 2 in. or 5 ft. 3 in. next the stern ;
next, an open space of 4 ft. 2 in. or 4 ft. 3 in. ; and
lastly, a covered prow of 3 ft. 7 in. or 3 ft. 8 in. Ac-
cordingly, we place our girders, one five feet, the other
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
227
nine, from the stern, securing them both very firmly
with screws to the sides, while the one behind the
paddler's back, having to bear a great strain, will also
be the better of some support from the ribs next
behind it.
You may now set the canoe afloat, and if the aper-
tures through which water makes its appearance
number less than a dozen you will be extremely lucky.
Do not keep it long in the water, but press it well
down into it, and mark all the leaks. Then examine
them. Some
1 '
of them can
be reduced by
a nail, others
will need put-
ty. Along the
keel, and in
the seam next
above it, if all
else fails, a
line of tar may
be put with
good effect,
the only dis-
advantage of
this being that
you can never
leave a boat
so treated bot-
tom upward
in the sun.
Reme mber
that all the
inside of the
bottom will
be concealed,
forward and
aft by the
deck, amid-
ships by the
bottom-board;
and so do not
scruple to put plenty of tar on these parts, if neces-
sary. The parts that will probably give most trouble
are our old friends the points of junction of the keel
and the end posts, and, when these have been once
made water-tight, they may be covered outside with tin
or thin lead, — indeed a sheeting of metal a couple of
inches broad, all along the keel, will probably be useful.
Builders put on a regular iron shoeing, rounded on the
outside, which first forms a point on the little nose of
the prow or stern, and then runs on down for a couple
of feet in on the keel. Always remember not to put
tar on putty nor on wet wood ; and if a place pre-
viously tarred will not keep out water, always scrape
FIG. II.— DIAGRAM OF BLADE OF PADDLE.
off the old tar before putting on new. All the upper
seams should be carefully and completely filled with
putty mixed with a little whitelead, wherever they pre-
sent an opening.
You will probably try the boat many times before
you find it water-tight ; it is easy enough to keep out
the wet in a large strong hulk, very difficult in a deli-
cate canoe. When at last you have it staunched, you
may put on the deck. This is generally made of
mahogany or other wood. But I much prefer a cloth
covering, ex-
cept for the
narrow strips
on either side
of the well, 4
inches wide in
the centre — as
we saw in our
section — and
very slight-
ly less, from
the rounded
shape of the
boat, where
secured to the
cross girders
fore and aft.
These strips
should b e
wood, like the
side boards.
For the rest,
coarse lawn,
painted on one
side, and,
when that is
quite dry, on
the other,
looks well, and
is completely
wate rproof.
Do not fasten
it permanently for a few days, as it will stretch at
first. The whole deck, wood or cloth, will of course
be slightly arched by the girders on which it rests.
A long straight stick, the ridge-beam of the roof,
should extend from the centre of each of these girders
into the point of the boat next it ; and it will be a
good plan to support these half way, or a little further
by cross-pieces screwed to the sides and to them.
As the ribs would be rather uncomfortable to sit
on, and you would probably put your heels through
the bottom besides, you must have a bottom-board.
This should be about ten inches wide, and besides
being the length of the well, should reach a few inches
K 2
FIG. 15. — ATTACHMENT OF RUDDER.
228
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
back and forward from it. To support this board, nail
two little strips across the ribs, so placed as to keep it
about an inGh from the top of the keel, on which
another support may be put if necessary.
Next make the backboard. Some people like a
simple piece of board, fastened by a hinge to the
bottom board, and leaning back against the cross-arch
behind. But McGregor's plan, as used in the " Rob
Roy," is much more comfortable, and requires no
cushion, while the other does. It consists of two
strong strips of wood, about eighteen inches long, one
and a half broad_, and fastened parallel to each other
by two cross-pieces, at such a distance as just to leave
room for the backbone to fit comfortably between ;
while the upper cross-piece, larger than the other,
serves as a rest to support the whole affair on the edge
of the deck behind, to which it may be fastened by a
string. Next comes the stretcher, to put the feet
against. Three or four little parallel strips are nailed
to the side deck above, and a brace or rib below, leav-
ing room between each two for an end of the stretcher,
a board, which can thus be placed nearer or further
away at pleasure.
We have now to put the combing (Fig. 8, G and r),
a little wall, as it were, of wood, all round the edge of
the well, on deck. To hide the ends of the side
boards, if the rest of the deck be cloth, the ends of the
fore and aft combing may be prolonged down to the
gunwale on either side, and, if gradually fined down to
the end, will look well. To conceal and help the tacks
holding the cloth round the gunwale, nail two small
strips of wood, about an inch deep, all round outside
the top board, answering to the similar slips put
inside before.
Your canoe is now ready for painting ; or this may
be done before the cover is put on. Builders only
varnish their canoes, and the mahogany looks well
then above the yellow wood. Paint, however, is much
cheaper ; helps the putty to keep out water ; and, above
all, serves to conceal defects which varnish would only
render plainer. Green, with the end-posts, combing,
etc., vermilion, is a pretty colour, and excellent for
shooting or fishing purposes. For the name, secure
some large placards, and cut out the letters you want.
Gum them carefully on the bow before painting, and
when the paint is quite dry, scrape off the paper, and
fill in with another colour.
Double canoes, to carry two persons, are common.
They are longer amidships than single ones, but of
equal beam.
And now, having got our boat, we must consider
the means of propelling it. A paddle is the first
necessary article. Paddles are generally made much
too small. Mine is almost eight feet long, with blades
seven inches broad at the widest place, and eighteen
inches in length ; generally they are about seven feet
long, with fifteen inch blades. Long arms, of course,
like a long paddle, and go much faster with it ; but a
shorter and stouter article is perhaps more suitable for
a long rough journey. For a sailing companion an
old oar blade does well. To make the paddle, procure a
board of the necessary length and breadth, and about
an inch and a half thick, free from knots. Draw the out-
line of a paddle on the wood in pencil (Fig. 1 1). Then,
with a saw, cut along the dotted lines A B and A c,
knock out the piece between, and there will be room
to introduce the point of a small saw, and cut on down
the handle. Then do the other end similarly, scoop
out the blade with a spokeshave, and when made nail
a narrow strip of copper or tin round the point, to pre-
vent splitting. Then buy a couple of india-rubber
rings, and slip them on over the blades, to catch the
drip of the water. A spokeshave and vice are sufficient
to make a paddle, when once sawn out. The canoe
and paddle should weigh about 70 lbs. Next make
an apron. Oiled canvas is the regular material ; but
painted cloth, like the deck, will answer every purpose.
And now for the sails. The ordinary small lug or
sprit sail of a canoe has very little power, and is of no
use at all with any sort of a head wind. An ordinary
canoe will carry safely a much larger sail, as I have,
often proved ; while it can be made to carry three times
the usual amount of canvas by the aid of a false keel,
which also corrects its tendency to make leeway, and
enables it to tack fairly well, and wear splendidly.
The powers of the false keel in these respects is much
increased by the addition of a mizen, stepped about a
foot and a half behind the paddler's back. The rig
I found best is as follows : — mainmast, 6 feet 3 inches
high, with dipping lug, measuring, by Fig. 12, A B, 3 feet
6 inches ; B C, 5 feet ; C D, 2 feet 9 inches ; D, A, 4 feet.
Any strong calico will do for sails. This mast runs
through an iron hoop fastened to the front cross
arch, through the bottom board, and into a step be-
low. In wooden-decked canoes they are generally
stepped further forward. The mizenmast is 4 feet
6 inches long ; sail measuring, by Fig. 13, A B, 3 feet
3 inches ; B C, 3 feet ; C D, 3 feet ; and D a, 2 feet
1 inch ; E is a sheet passing through a ring in the deck
below it, and secured to a small cleat in the well ; and
it is only necessary to regulate the length of this sheet
by the wind at starting, secure it, and then leave the
sail to work itself. Any number of useful cleats may
be made out of a few inches of oak. Cut a piece
about 1 inch by \ by \ ; burn a small hole through the
narrow face to hold a screw, and cut it away to the
shape shown in Fig. 14.
The false keel may be made as follows : — Take a
board an inch thick, five inches deep, and, for a
13-foot canoe, about nine feet long. Leave about
HANGING BOOKSHEI FES, WITH DRA WEE.
229
a third of its length, in the centre, uncut, and then
gradually slope it away, in each direction, to three
inches deep, rounding oft" the last foot each way ; cut
it exactly in two, and join the halves with a strong
hinge, so that it can be doubled up and carried in the
canoe easily. Bore two holes up through it, each
about eighteen inches from one end ; take two stair
rods, or other small stiff pins, long enough to reach
up through the false keel, through the real keel, and
out on the deck ; have a screw made on either end,
with nuts to fit. Be very careful in boring through the
real keel ; a hot iron will be useful here. But the water
would enter through these holes ; make them therefore
slightly larger than the diameter of the rods ; get two
tin pipes which will hold the rods easily, in length
equal to the depth of the canoe ; secure one end of
each in the keel, pouring some tar round it, and the
other in the deck ; lastly, place close to the pipes, be-
tween them and the well, two stout wooden strips,
secured to the deck and the keel ; these will support
the deck and preserve the pipes from being poked by
the paddle when pushed under the deck. You can
then fasten on the false keel by theVods, which run up
through both keels and the deck, and are secured with
nuts at both ends. To keep the keel steady at the
hinge get two little iron braces, which, when put
together on either side of the keel and fastened by a
bolt, will form a Y, the arms fitting to the bottom
board on either side. Finally, weight the keel, so as
to secure steadiness under nearly any amount of sail.
The handiest weight consists of iron bars, weighing
two or three stone, placed one on either side of the
keel, and secured by two bolts, each of which goes
through both bars and keel. If placed in the centre
they will keep the hinge from moving. They should
be on the lower edge of the keel, and can be taken off
easily and put on board, with the doubled-up keel.
And now we have only the helm left. Various
elaborate steering gears for canoes are in use ; the
following is simpler than any I have seen, and better.
The common stern-post being round, a rudder could
not work on it. Either, therefore, leave a few inches
of your stern-post straight, or fasten a piece of wood,
as in Fig. 15, by two pieces of strong wire, each having
a small eye on the head. Then construct the rudder.
About a foot long, and seven or eight inches deep,
tapering down to five or six at the outside, will suit,
with a handle high enough to clear the nose of the
stem-post. Put two wire eyes in it, which will fit
exactly, either inside or outside, those in the stern-
post, so that a single wire pin put through all four will
keep the rudder tight. Then make the yoke, a piece
of wood about six inches long, and set firmly across
the head of the rudder. Next double and twist a piece
of common strong twine — a material which will also do
for all the rigging ; tie one end through a hole in one
end of the yoke, carry the other past the well, outside
the combing, on through a ring or block on the deck
in front of the mainmast, down the other side of the
well, and secure it to the other end of the yoke. Then
take two corks, and fasten them firmly by short strings
to the yoke line, one at each side, just at the spot on
the side deck where the hand naturally falls. You sit
comfortably then, with a cork and the mainsheet in
one hand, and the other cork in the other, and can
steer easily and firmly, without any fear of losing your-
lines. And now our canoe is complete.
(To be continued.)
HANGING BOOKSHELVES, WITH DRAWER.
T is possible — nay, even probable — that
some of the designs for home - made
furniture that have been given in these
pages are of too ambitious a character,
and too complex in construction to suit-
the views and requirements of the amateur of average
skill and ability. Having this in view an attempt is
now made to put any one who is not an adept in the
art of joinery in possession of a design and working
drawings to scale of a piece of furniture which, while it
is useful and handsome in appearance, is simple in
itself and composed of a few parts only, which may be
easily prepared and as easily put together. The
illustrations that are given, consisting of a perspective
view, front and side elevations, and sections of different
parts, exhibit every part of these bookshelves so clearly
that anyone who is disposed to do so may proceed to
make the article without further drawings unless,
indeed, as is advisable for practice' sake and for
obtaining a knowledge of the relative proportions
of all the parts before setting to work on the wood,
the amateur bridles his eagerness to begin so far as to
allow, himself time to make a set of working drawings
for workshop use, either of full size or at least on a
scale of three, if not six inches to the foot.
The design is one that will look well whatever may
be the kind or the colour of the wood in which it is
executed. It may be made in light wood or in dark
wood, in pine, stained and varnished, or French-
polished, or ebonised ; of beech or birch, of oak or of
mahogany. It is especially adapted for oak, as the
methods adopted in its construction is well suited for
this kind of timber, but having regard to the cost of
material the majority of amateurs will make it in pine,
and when they have made it and finished it in this
they may be sure that it will be to their entire
satisfaction.
230
HANGING B00KSHEL VES, WITH DRA WER.
The illustrations, the perspective view alone ex-
cepted, which of necessity is not drawn to scale, are
presented on the scale of I inch to the foot. Every
part of the article when complete is therefore twelve
times the length or breadth, or both, as the case may
be, of its counterpart, as represented in the working
drawings. Bearing this in mind it appears that this
piece of furniture, when made, is 4 feet in height, or
length, and 2 feet 4 inches in breadth, not including
the projecting ends of the shelves, which are passed
through the sides, whose
width at the widest part is
9 inches and at the nar-
rowest 7 inches. For the
sides then, two pieces of
clean pine, if pine be the
material used, will be re-
quired 4 feet long, 8 inches
wide, and 1 inch thick, or
\\ inch thick, as it is desir-
able that the sides should
be an inch in thickness
when reduced by planing.
For the shelves two pieces
will be wanted, 2 feet 8 ins.
long, or a trifle less, 9 inches
wide, and 1 inch thick, or
■J inch, if 1 inch stuff be
considered too stout and
heavy, and two pieces of the
same length and thickness,
but only 7 inches wide,
these latter being for the
two upper shelves, while
the broader pieces are for
the lower shelves. For the
back-piece at the top,
which is "embattled," to
borrow a phrase from her-
aldry, a bit of wood rather
more than 7 inches in width,
and 2 feet 2 inches long, is
required. This should be at
least I inch in thickness, in order to obtain the effect
produced by the ornamentation, in the form of small
battlements ; otherwise a thinner piece would have
served the purpose. For the drawer below the lowest
shelf, provision must be made for the front, ends, bot-
tom, and back — five pieces in all. The front is made
of a piece of pine, 2 feet 2 inches long, 3$ inches wide,
and 1 inch thick, and the sides of two pieces 8 inches
long) 3i inches wide, and f inch thick. These sides
should be dovetailed to the extent of \ inch into the
ends of the front, so that the dovetailing is hidden by
the remaining ^ inch that remains between the dove-
tailing and the surface of the front. The section of
the drawer and its construction is shown in Fig. 5.
In this a groove is shown in the front piece, into
which the edge of the bottom of the drawer is fitted,
and similar grooves are made in the inside of the
side-pieces ; in order to receive the ends of the
bottom, grooves are made in the side-pieces to receive
the back, which is dropped on to the bottom piece,
and into a very shallow groove made for its reception.
In order to effect this the bottom-piece and sides
project slightly beyond the
back of the drawer. When
the pieces have been accu-
rately fitted together, they
must be glued and secured
here and there with a few
fine brads. The drawer
runs upon cleats fastened
to the side-pieces, as may
be seen on examination of
Figs. 3 and 5. In the
figures these cleats are
visible, and will appear to
view j when the piece of
furniture is made ; if this
be considered undesirable
they may be masked by
making them shorter by one
inch, the thickness of the
front of the drawer, and
increasing the width of the
front of the drawer by the
thickness of the cleat. The
bottom part of the front of
the drawer will then butt
against the outer ends of
the cleat when the drawer
is closed. If this plan be
resorted to, care must be
taken to put the groove in
the right place, which will
be done by measuring and
gauging its depth from the
top of the front brace, and not from the bottom. If a
lock-up drawer is required, a neat escutcheon is
placed in the middle of the front, and rings to serve
as handles for pulling the drawer out, at either end,
an arrangement which adds very much to the appear-
ance of the shelves, as may be seen by a comparison
between the front elevation and the perspective view.
Let us now turn to the construction of the book-
shelves, the drawer, which has been sufficiently de-
scribed, being regarded as an adjunct or appendage,
which may be introduced or not at the will of the
maker. It must be said, however, that if the maker
HANGING BOOKSHEL VES, WITH DRA WEE.
231
intends to dispense with the drawer he should add
another shelf, 6 or 7 inches wide, whose under-surface
should be on a level wi;h the circular projection, which
appears in front, just under the drawer. The position
of this shelf is indicated at A, in Fig. 2.
The construction of the bookshelves as
shown in the illustration is such as to admit
of the shelves being taken apart, and packed
in a comparatively small compass for moving.
The three principal shelves are secured by-
dowels and pins, which of course makes it a
simple matter to
take them out. It
is on this account
that the length of
the shelves is
longer than would
be necessary, if
they were mortised
or grooved into
the sides in the
ordinaryway. The
manner in which
the ends of the
shelves are cut is
indicated at B, in
Fig. 2. Mortises
are cut in the
sides for the re-
ception of the
tenons, and again
in the tenons
themselves, to take
the dowels or pins
by which the
shelves and sides
are held together.
These pins are
cut slightly wedge-
shaped, that is to
say a little nar-
rower at the bottom than at the top, just
under the ornamental portion of the pin ;
this not only serves to lock the whole of
the framing more tightly together, but
renders it easier to remove the pins when
the bookshelves are taken to pieces. The
second shelf from the top, and the back-
piece above the topmost shelf are grooved into the
side-pieces, so that they can be easily removed when
taking the shelves apart.
The ornamentation of the external surface of the
side-pieces is effected by incised lines, which may be
gilt if the wood be ebonised. This, however, must
depend on the taste and will of the maker. If stained
FIG. 4. — SECTION
OF TOP.
FIG. 2. — FRONT ELEVATION. FIG. 3.
— SIDE ELEVATION. FIG. 4. — SEC-
TION THROl/CH TOP SHELF. FIG. 5.
—SECTION THROUGH BOTTOM SHELF
AND DRAWER.
All on scale of 1 inch to the foot.
FIG. 5. — SECTION
OF DRAWER.
and varnished it will be better to leave the lines of
the same colour as the rest of the piece of furniture, as
any variation from this — except in the case of ebonising,
which, on account of its sombre appearance, requires
some relief, however slight — detracts from
the general simplicity of its appearance.
The set of bookshelves that has been
described is tolerably massive and heavy, yet
it is supported by a pair of cabinet hangers
as shown in Fig. 3. Now the back piece at
top, it will be remembered, is grooved into
the sides and is
unattached to
sides or topmost
shelf by screws,
nails, or pegs. It
is clear then that
if cabinet hangers
of the ordinary
form were used,
directly the weight
of the shelves is
thrown upon them
the back - piece
would draw from
the sides, or rather
that the shelves
would be drawn
by their own
weight from the
back, and would
fall to the ground.
For this particular
purpose, however,
the hangers used
should be different
in form to the
common cabinet
hangers, because
more strength and
a different mode
of construction is required in a case of
bookshelves such as those now under consi-
deration than would be necessary with an
ordinary hanging cabinet, both for the reason
that has just been stated and on account of
the greater weight likely to be put on them,
which would have to be carried by the
In this particular instance the hanger should
in the form of a T hinge, extending down-
hangers.
be made
ward so that the transverse strap could be securely
screwed to the back edge of the upper shelf, thereby
giving support directly to the framework.
Besides the support given to the shelves by means
of these hangers a cleat or other fastening may be
232
LATHING AND PLASTERING CEILINGS.
placed under the lowest shelf and behind the drawer,
thus in a measure dividing the weight between
different supports. However, with regard to features
of construction of this kind, amateur woodworkers will
be able to decide for themselves, and therefore no
more need be now done than to offer the few
suggestions here contained.
LATHING AND PLASTERING CEILINGS.
||EFORE beginning to lath a ceiling, the
carpenter proves the under-surface of the
joists to which he has to work by apply-
ing a long straight-edge, and makes up
for any slight inequalities in them, when
the work is not to be of a very superior character, by
nailing on laths or strips, so as to bring them as nearly
even as he can. If it be a framed floor with ceiling
joists that the plasterer has to work to, it is tolerably
sure to be straight ; but the carpenter must previously
have tested the lower surfaces of the beams or binders,
to insure their accuracy of level with that of the ceil-
ing joists, unless the ceiling joists have been nailed to
the beams, when nothing of the kind is necessary. If
a ceiling is to be divided into compartments or panels,
the projecting or depending portions must be bracketed
or cradled down to receive the laths. It is an impor-
tant point to be attended to in plastering on laths, and
in ceilings particularly, that the laths should be at-
tached to as small a surface of timber as possible,
because the plastering is not supported or upborne by
its adhesion or attachment to the wood, but by the
keying of the mortar itself, which passes through be-
tween the laths, and bends round over them. If, there-
fore, the laths are in constantly recurring contact with
thick joists and beams, the keying is as constantly
intercepted, and the plastering in all such places must
depend on the portions between them that are properly
keyed.
Under a single floor, it will be seen, in which the
joists are necessarily thick, a narrow fillet should be
nailed along the middle under the whole length of
them, to receive the laths, and keep them at a suffi-
cient distance from the timber to allow the plastering
to key under it ; thus, too, the surface may be made
more perfectly even, as it is in single floors that ine-
qualities mostly occur. This being all arranged, the
plasterer commences lathing. The laths should be
of the stronger sort. Thin, weak laths, if used in a
ceiling, are sure to produce inequalities by sagging
with, or yielding to, the weight attached to them.
One or two weak ones in a ceiling of otherwise strong
laths may be the ruin of the best piece of work.
Laths should be previously sorted, the weak, the
crooked, and knotty, if there be such, being reserved
for inferior work, and the best and strongest selected
for the work of most importance, so that the work-
man shall find none to his hand that is not fit to be
brought in.
Taking a lath that will reach over three or four
openings, the plasterer strikes a nail into it on one of
the intermediate joists, at about 1- inch from the one
before it, and then secures the ends of that, and the
one that it meets of the last row with one nail, leaving
the other end of the lath he has just set, to be secured
in the same manner with that which shall meet it of the
next being in continuation. It is also of importance that
in ceilings, the workman should pay attention to the
bonding of his work. In lathing or quartering par-
titions or battened walls, the bonding is not a
matter of such material consequence as in a ceiling,
because the toothing which the thickness of the lath
itself affords to the plastering, is enough to support it
vertically ; but, nevertheless, the more complete the
keying, even in work of this kind, the better, as the
toothing above will not always protect it from any
exciting cause to fall forward or away from the laths.
The thinner or weaker sort of lath is generally con-
sidered sufficiently strong for partitions.
When the lathing is finished, the work is either
laid or pricked up, according as it is to be finished
with one, two, or three coats. Laying, is a tolerably
thick coat of coarse stuff, or lime and hair, brought to
a tolerably even surface with the trowel only ; for this
the mortar must be well tempered, and of moderate
consistence, thin or moist enough to pass readily
through between the laths, and bend with its own
weight over them, and at the same time stiff enough
to leave no danger that it will fall apart, a contingency,
however, that in practice frequently occurs, in con-
sequence of badly-composed or badly-tempered mor-
tar, unduly close lathing, or sufficient force not
having been used with properly consistent mortar to
force it through and form keys. If the work is to be
of two coats, that is, laid and set, when the laying is
sufficiently dry it is thoroughly swept with a birch
broom to roughen its surface, and then the set, a thin
coat of fine stuff, is put on. This is done with the
common trowel alone, or only assisted by a wetted
hog's-bristle brush, which the workman uses with his
left hand to strike over the surface of the set, while
he presses and smooths it with the trowel in his right.
If the laid work should have become very dry, it must
be slightly moistened before the set is put on, or the
latter, in shrinking, will crack and fall away. This is
generally done by sprinkling or throwing the water
over the surface from the brush.
NOTES ON NO VELTIES.
233
For floated, or three-coat work, the first, or pricking
up, is roughly laid on the laths, the object being to
make the keying complete, and form a layer of mortar
on the laths to which the next coat may attach itself.
It must, of course, be kept of tolerably equal thick-
ness throughout, and should stand about 5 or f inch
on the surface of the laths. When it is finished, and
while the mortar is still quite moist, the plasterer
scratches or scores it all over with the end of a lath
in parallel lines from 3 to 4 inches apart. These
scorings should be made as deep as possible, without
laying bare the laths ; and the rougher their edges
are the better, as the object is to produce a surface to
which the next coat will readily attach itself.
■\Yhen the pricked-up coat is so dry as not to yield
to pressure in the slightest degree, preparations may
be made for the floating. Ledges, or margins of lime
and hair about 6 inches in width, and extending across
the whole breadth of a ceiling, or height of a wall
or partition, must be made in the angles or at the
borders, and at distances of about 4 feet apart through-
out the whole extent. These must be made perfectly
straight with one another, and be proved in every way
by the application of straight-edges. Technically
these ledges are termed screeds. The screeds are
gauges for the rest of the work ; for when they are
ready, and the mortar in them is a little set, the inter-
spaces are filled up flush with them, and a darby float,
or long straight-edge, being made to traverse the
screeds, all the stuff that projects beyond the line is
struck off, and thus the whole is brought to a straight
and perfectly even surface.
To perfect the work the screeds on ceilings should
be levelled, and on walls and partitions plumbed.
When the floating is sufficiently set and nearly dry, it
is brushed with a birch broom as before described, and
the third coat, or set, is put on. This, for a fine ceil-
ing that is to be whitened or coloured, must be of what
plasterers call " putty ; " but if it is to be papered,
ordinary fine stuff, with a little hair in it, will be better.
Walls and partitions that are to be papered are also
faced with fine stuff, or rough stucco, but for paint the
set must be of bastard stucco .trowelled. Lathing,
however, and plastering on laths, as commonly prac-
tised, is at best a very flimsy affair, and greatly requires
improvement. Stronger laths than those commonly
employed, put on further apart, and with headed
wrought nails, and the plastering laid on upon both
sides in upright work, or above and below the ceilings,
two men working against one another at the same
time, will produce work in some degree worthy of the
name. The practice of the French in this respect is
well worthy the consideration, and, to a great extent,
the imitation of plasterers of other countries, whether
amateurs or professionals.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
HAVE received from Mr. A. Lockenby,
of the firm of Messrs. Aitdas and Leggott,
Paragon Street and South Street, Hull
a drawing-board contrived on a new prin-
ciple, which renders it a useful novelty,
and especially calculated to meet the requirements of
amateur draughtsmen. This is as much as to say, of
all amateurs, for eveiy amateur should be capable of
making his own working drawings for original work,
or of copying and enlarging them to such a scale as
may be sufficient for him, if not of full size. Mr.
Lockenby, who is himself a designer, says that he was
led to the invention of the apparatus in order to save
his own time when engaged in designing, and expe-
rience has taught him that it does save a great deal of
time — probably, at least half the time that would
otherwise be spent over a drawing executed on the
ordinary drawing-board, and in the ordinary manner.
Mr. Lockenby's improvement consists in adding to
any ordinary drawing-board a scale at the top and on
the left-hand side, supposing the board to be placed
in front of the draughtsman, and having the T-square
that is used with the board furnished on one edge or
side, or both, if desired, with a scale to correspond
with that on the top of the board. The T-square may
then be applied either way of the board, across or
along. The scales may be of boxwood, let in along
the edges of the board, as specified above, so that the
respective surfaces of the scales and the board are
flush one with another ; or, to economise expense,
they may be of paper, which can be pasted along the
edges of any ordinary board. The paper scales that
are now before me are printed on stout paper, with a
smooth surface, and graduated in inches and eighths
of an inch. Drawing-boards and T-squares, of clean
wood, clamped and beautifully finished, and fitted
with paper scales, are supplied by Mr. Lockenby, of
the following dimensions, and at the subjoined prices :
19 in. by 14 in., 6s. ; 22 in. by 16 in., 6s. 6d. ; 24 in. by
18 in., 7s. ; 32 in. by 24 in., 10s. Postal orders should
be made payable to A. Lockenby, 15, Cavendish
Square, Hull.
The following is the method of applying the paper
scales to any ordinary drawing-board and T-square.
First, have these appliances accurately squared ; then
draw a fine pencil line exactly across the centre of the
board, from side to side, and a similar line at right
angles to it, and also in the centre, from top to bot-
tom. These two lines are to be used as guides in
applying the paper scales, and it is essential that they
be very carefully drawn exactly in the middle of the
length and breadth of the board. Next, having cut
234
A SCALE FOR POLYGONS.
the paper scales to the proper length, paste them on
the board, taking care that the centre of each slip from
which it is graduated in each direction, is applied
immediately over the pencil line drawn on the board.
Care must be taken that the slips are not stretched in
putting on. Good starch paste is the best material
for the purpose, and it will be found a good plan to
paste the edge of the board where the slip is to be,
then lightly paste the back of the slip and imme-
diately apply it, pasting over the surface of it when
it is well rubbed down. When dry, varnish over with
thin varnish supplied for this purpose. The T-square
should then be applied to the board marked with
centre lines to coincide with those on the board, and
paper slips pasted on it in the manner described above.
The slip on the top edge of the blade must agree with
the slip on the top of the board, and the other edge of
the blade must have a slip agreeing with that on the
side of the board, and great care must be taken that
they are not stretched.
A superior and most complete drawing apparatus
on this principle is supplied by Mr. Lockenby. It con-
sists of a drawing-board of best pine, with boxwood
graduated scale on top and side, and one T-square
with boxwood blade, furnished with two mahogany
stocks, one having a double rebate and the other a
single rebate, for allowing set-square to pass, adjusted
with the greatest facility and serving also as a bevel.
To these are added two graduated set-squares. These
are sold at the following prices, according to size of
board — namely, 19 in. by 14 in., 9s. 6d. ; 22 in. by
16 in., 10s. ; 24 in. by 18 in., 1 is. ; and 32 in. by 24 in.,
15s. Considering their quality and utility, these ad-
mirable boards are indeed cheap at the prices asked
for them.
A SCALE FOR POLYGONS.
HE following novel and useful method for
determining the dimensions of regular
polygons, has been given in a recent
number of The Metal Worker. It will
be found to be as useful to the amateur as
to the professional draughtsman, machinist, or pattern-
maker, presenting as it does an easy and ready means
of ascertaining from a scale that may be easily drawn,
the measurements of the dimensions of any regular
polygon, without first constructing the figure in order
to find out what is required by measurements made on
the figure itself.
In Fig. 1 of the accompanying illustrations, the
reader is put in possession of a form of scale that will
give the following dimensions of polygons, which
dimensions may be transferred by the compasses direct
from the scale to the work. These dimensions are : —
1. The length of a side of the polygon ; 2. The dia-
meter across corners, or the diameter of a circle that will
enclose or encompass the polygon. Further, the length
of the side of a square being given, it will show its
diameter across the flats or across the corners ; or any
one dimension of a square being given, its remaining
dimensions may be measured direct from the scale.
The construction of the scale as in Fig. 1, which
is half full size — or in other words on a scale of half an
inch to the inch, or six inches to the foot- — is as follows :
Draw a horizontal straight line O P, as shown in the
figure, and at the point O draw the straight line O B
at right angles to it. Divide these lines into inches
and eighths of an inch, according to scale, and then
draw diagonal straight lines between the correspond-
ing points of division on 0 P, O B. To avoid any mis-
apprehension on the part of the amateur, it will be as
well to point out, that if the figure were drawn of full
size the straight lines OP, OB, would be each three
inches in length, and would then be subdivided actually
into inches and eighths of inches, but being only half
full size, or on a scale of half an inch to the inch, these
subdivisions are represented in Fig. 1 by half inches
and sixteenths of inches. The amateur should con-
struct scales for himself from the figures and instruc-
tions given of full size, and these, as he will readily see,
he may extend to his pleasure, making o P and O B as
long as he likes. Of course, the longer the sides O P
and O B the greater will be the polygons to whose
measurement the scale may be applied.
Next, from the point O draw the following straight
lines : O A at an angle of 55^° to the straight line O P,
to serve for nonagons, or regular polygons having nine
sides ; O C at 52^° to serve for octagons, or polygons
having eight sides ; O D at 49° for heptagons, of
polygons having seven sides ; 0 E at 45° for hexagons,
or polygons having six sides ; and O F at 400 for
pentagons, or polygons having five sides. It may be
added, however, that additional lines may be drawn at
the requisite angle for any other number of sides.
The scale, though capable of extension, is now
complete as far as it goes. All that remains to be done
is to draw a straight line from the point P, at right
angles to O P, or parallel to O B, which is the same
thing, and through the points of subdivision in o B,
to draw straight lines parallel to o P, and meeting the
straight line drawn through P at right angles to O P.
Let us now consider how the scale that has been
thus constructed is to be applied. The point O
represents the centre of the polygon, hence from 0 to
the requisite point of division on O B, represents the
radius of the work. From the line 0 B to the diagonal
line, measured along the necessary horizontal line or
A SCALE FOR POLYGONS.
235
5xa M I '> J& '* 2 ?X 2X ?/'* 3 p
FIG. I. — DIAGRAM SHOWING LENGTH
OF SIDE OF POLYGON.
Scale, 6 inches to the foot.
division, is shown the length of a side of the polygon.
From the point O measured along the line, having the
requisite degrees of angle, or in other words, the
requisite inclination to O P, to the horizontal line
denoting the radius of the work gives the diameter
across corners of the polygon. The diameter across
the flats of a square being given,
its diameter across comers will be
represented by the length of a line
drawn from the necessary point of
division on O B to the corresponding
point of division on O P. A cylindrical
body is to have six sides, its diameter
being 2 inches, what will be the
length of each side ? Now the radius
of the 2-inch circle of the body is I
.nch, hence find the figure 1 on O B,
and measure along the corresponding
horizontal line, the distance from 1 to
the line of 45°, as denoted by the
thickened line in the figure.
Let us take another example. A body has six
sides, each side measuring an inch in length, what is its
diameter across corners ? Find a horizontal line that
measures an inch from its intersection of the straight
line O B to the line of 45°.
The distance along this line
of 450 from its intersection
with the horizontal line to
the point O is one-half the
diameter of the polygon across
corners.
As a third example may
be useful, suppose that it
is desired to ascertain the
diameter across corners, or,
in other words, the diagonal
of a square that measures
or is to measure 3 inches
across the plate. Measure
the distance from the 3 on
the line O P to the 3 on the
line O B, which will give
the required diameter across
corners.
1 his scale, however, lacks FIG_ 2.— diagram showing diameter of circum
one element, in that the scribed circle, etc. Scale, 6 inches to the foot,
diameter across the flats of a regular polygon being
given, it will not give the diameter across the corners.
This, however, may be obtained by a somewhat similar
construction. Thus in Fig. 2 draw the vertical
stiaight line O B, and divide it into inches and eighths
of an inch. From these points of division draw
horizontal lines, and from the point O draw the
following line at the following angles to the horizon-
tal line O P, namely, o G at 75° for dodecagons, or
polygons having twelve sides ; O H at 72° for decagons,
or polygons having ten sides ; O K at 67^° for octagons,
and o L at 60° for hexagons. From the point o to
the numeral denoting the radius of the polygon is the
radius across the flats, while from the point O to the
horizontal line drawn from the numeral
in question is the radius or semi-
f diameter across corners of the polygon.
By way of example let us take
the case of a hexagon which mea-
sures 2 inches across the flats,
what is its diameter measured across
the corners ? Now from O to the hori-
zontal line marked 1 inch, measured
along the line O L, which is the
line of 6o°, as it is drawn at that
inclination to the straight line O P,
is 1 3^- inches, hence the measure-
ment or diameter of the hexagon
across corners is twice that length, or
2-jV inches. The proof of the construction is shown
in the figure, the hexagon and the other polygons
being shown in outline simply for clearness of illus-
tration. The dotted arcs of circles are portions of
the circumferences of circles
inscribed in hexagon, octagon,
and dodecagon of larger di-
mensions. To prevent con-
fusion, the decagon is omitted,
but the amateur can supply
this for himself, in another
figure constructed in the same
way on the same scale or on
full size. The principle has
been fully shown as well as its
application.
It is possible that the ex-
pression "across the flats,"
may have somewhat puzzled
some of the readers of
this paper. This however
simply means from side to
side through the centre, and
is used in contradistinction
to the term across corners.
Thus in reality the distance
or diameter across the flats of a regular polygon is
simply the diameter of a circle inscribed in the polygon,
while the diameter across corners is the diameter of a
circle described about the polygon. In the latter case
the circumference of the circumscribing circle touches
each angle of the polygon ; in the former the circum-
ference of the inscribed circle touches in its central
point each side of the polygon in which it is inscribed.
236
WA YS AND MEANS.
WAYS AND MEANS.
[The Receipts brought together under this title are gathered
from various sources. They are given here because they are each
and all apparently possessed of value, and likely to he useful to the
Amateur. It is manifestly impossible for the Editor to test them,
or to have them tested, and he therefore disclaims all responsibility
for their accuracy or otherwise. Amateurs who may try them are
requested to communicate the results arrived at.]
Carbonised Bran. — This material, when used as
a preservative, promises to revolutionize an important
branch of trade. The inventor, knowing that burnt
flour was good for a burn, was brought to the conclu-
sion that it ought to be as beneficial to injuries to
fruits as to flesh, and tested its efficacy in that respect,
but it did not answer his expectation. He tried chaff,
but found it to be hard ; it broke the skins of fruits,
and did not answer the purpose. At last he tried
bran, with entire success, and supplied his friends with
plump, fresh, luscious grapes for their Christmas
dinners. The theory of the process is that burnt bran,
which is really a charcoal, absorbs the moisture accu-
mulating about fruit, and thus keeps it cool and dry,
under which conditions it will remain fresh for months.
All kinds of grapes, apricots, cherries, figs, tomatoes,
and similar fruits and vegetables have been preserved
and retain their original flavour. The same can be
done with any kind of fruit and vegetable which has a
skin not very porous. Peaches are difficult to handle,
they are so porous, but they can be kept by this pro-
cess for from six weeks to two months. — European
Mail.
How to GET Rid OF Rats.— A writer in the
Scientific American says that he cleared his premises
of these detestable vermin by making whitewash yellow
with copperas, and covering the stones and rafters in
the cellar with it. In every crevice in which a rat
might go, he put the crystals of the copperas, and
scattered in the corners of the floor. The result was a
complete disappearance of rats and mice. Since that
time not a rat or mouse has been seen near the house.
Every spring the cellar is coated with the yellow wash
as a purifier, and as a rat exterminator, and no typhoid,
dysentery, or fever attacks the family. Never allow
rats and mice to be poisoned in the house ; they are
apt to die between the walls, and produce much
annoyance.
Brilliant Red Ink for Draughtsmen. — The
solubility of carmine lake in caustic aqua-ammonia is
attended with this disadvantage— that in consequence
of the alkaline properties of ammonia, the cochineal
pigment will in time form a basic compound, which, in
contact with a steel pen, no longer produces the intense
Ted, but rather a blackish colour. To avoid this evil,
a German paper recommends the following as a good
means of preparing the ink : Triturate 1 gramme of
pure carmine with 15 grammes of acetate ammonia
solution, and an equal quantity of distilled water, in a
porcelain mortar, and allow the whole to stand for
some time. In this way a portion of the alumina
which is combined with the carmine dye is taken up
by the acetic acid of the ammonia salt and separates
as precipitate, while the pure pigment of the cochineal
remains dissolved in the half-saturated ammonia. It
is now filtered, and a few drops of pure white sugar
syrup added, to thicken it. In this way an excellent
red drawing ink is obtained, which holds its colour a
long time. A solution of gum arabic cannot be em-
ployed to thicken this ink, as it still contains some
acetic acid, which would coagulate the bassorine, one
of the natural constituents of gum-arabic.
Cutting Glass with a Hot Iron.— The follow-
ing directions for the old process of cutting glass with
a red-hot iron, are sometimes sold to the unwary as a
great secret. The method is very simple, and to those
who have failed with the recipes usually published
(strings with turpentine and set on fire, friction with
strings, etc.), the results are rather surprising'. There
is no difficulty in cutting off broken flasks so as to
make dishes, or to carry a cut spirally round a long
bottle so as to cut it into the form of a corkscrew ; and
when so cut, glass exhibits considerable elasticity, and
the spiral may be elongated like a ringlet. The pro-
cess, as it has been said, is very simple. The iron rod
(a common poker answers very well) should be some-
what pointed), and the line along which the cut is to
be made should be marked by chalk, or by pasting a
thin strip of paper alongside of it ; then make a file
mark to commence the cut ; apply the hot iron, and a
crack will start, and this crack will follow the iron
wherever the operator chooses to lead it. In this way,
jars are easily made out of old bottles, and broken
vessels of different kinds may be cut up into new
forms. Flat glass may also be cut into the most intri-
cate and elegant forms.
Fusibility of Soft Solders.— The fusibility of
soft solders is increased by adding bismuth to the
composition. An alloy of lead 4 parts, tin 4 parts, and
bismuth 1 part, is easily melted ; but this alloy may
itself be soldered with an alloy of lead 2 parts, of bis-
muth 2 parts, and tin 1 part. By adding mercury, a
still more fusible solder can be made. Equal parts of
lead, bismuth, and mercury, with 2 parts of tin, will
make a composition that melts at 1220 F., or an alloy
of tin 5 parts, lead 3 parts, and bismuth 3 parts, will
melt in boiling water. In mixing these solders, melt
the least fusible metal first in an iron ladle, then add
the others in accordance with their fusibility. To cast
strips of solder, pour the molten metal on a flat surface
of stone or metal, drawing the ladle along the while, to
leave a thread of metal of the desired substance.
WA YS AND MEANS.
237
A Cheap Disinfectant. — Copperas, which is
Very cheap, is an effective disinfectant, and it is doubt-
ful if any of the inventions for disinfecting or deodoriz-
ing sewage have any more virtue. It is, in fact, so cheap
that every householder can afford to use it in liberal
measure. A pound to the gallon of water will dis-
infect any service drain in a short space of time. It
should be used in water-closets and in the kitchen, as
well as in sinks, not only in the hot season, but at all
times of the year.
Old Vulcanized India-rubber. — The following
process has been introduced in Berlin for the recovery
of old vulcanized india-rubber, such as the discarded
buffer rings of railway cars, etc. These are heated in
the presence of steam, the sulphur distils off, and the
rubber melts and flows into hot water, where it collects
at the bottom of the vessel, the steam preventing the
rubber from burning. The effect of this operation is
to considerably alter the properties of the rubber, it
becoming a tolerably fluid, dark mass, which remains
liquid at common temperatures, but drying on expo-
sure to the air, and is impervious to water. Its elas-
ticity is lost, and it is chiefly valuable for preparing
waterproof covering cloths for outdoor service ; also as
a lacquer for various articles of hardware manu-
facture.
Cement for Leather Belts. — For making
cement for leather belts take of common glue and
American isinglass equal parts, and place in a glue-
pot. Add water to cover the whole. Soak 10 hours.
Then bring the mixture to boiling heat, and add pure
tannin, till the whole becomes ropy, or like the white
of eggs. Apply warm. Buff oft the grain of the
leather where it is to be cemented ; rub the joint sur-
faces solidly together ; let it dry a few hours, and it is
ready for use. If properly put together, no rivets will
be needed, as the cement is as strong as the leather.
Sheet Zinc for Ceilings. — Sheet zinc is being
largely used in Germany for ceilings, especially where
the beams for the upper floor are made of iron. The
use of wood is entirely dispensed with, and excellent
decorative effects are produced by stamping, painting,
and gilding or bronzing a portion of the ornaments.
Decoration of Steel and Iron. — The Revue
P oly technique has recently described a new method of
decorating iron and steel by means of copper precipi-
tates, the method used being as follows ; 35 parts of
copper sulphate, or any other copper salt, are dissolved
and treated with an alkaline base, which precipitates
an oxyhydrate. To this precipitate is added a solution
of 150 parts of Rochelle salts, and finally 1000 parts of
water are introduced. When this solution has clarified,
about 60 parts of caustic soda are added. The article
to be coated with copper, is first immersed in an alka-
line bath, and thoroughly cleansed with a stiff brush,
after which it is immersed in the copper solution.
Great care must be exercised in this operation to pre-
vent a too rapid deposition of the copper. When the
solution loses its strength, an additional quantity of
hydrate of copper should be added, . the amount of
which must not, in any case, exceed the figure given
above. By properly regulating the deposit of the
copper, highly artistic effects may be produced, and
different shades of colours obtained, such as red, green,
blue, violet, etc. Such parts as are required without
any copper deposit, are simply covered with a layer of
paraffine or varnish, which is readily removed after
having taken the body from the copper bath.
Preservation of Iron. — In a paper on iron
roofs, recently read before the Society of Engineers,
Mr. A. T. Walmisley described methods to be adopted
for the preservation of iron surfaces. He observed
that all iron exposed to the action of the air is more or
less sensitive to corrosion. Oiling is a much better
protection against the effects of the weather or the
action of steam than painting, but care is needed to
properly clean off the black scale or oxide formed
upon the iron by contact with the air immediately
after leaving the rolls. In Holland great attention is
paid to those details, the specifications of Dutch engi-
neers minutely describing how the iron is to be treated
before the oil and paint are applied. After being pro-
perly cut, punched, or otherwise finished off in the
shops, each piece, before being fastened to any other
piece, is made quite free from rust and scales by im-
mersion in a bath of dilute muriatic acid, and kept
there as long as the inspecting engineer thinks proper.
It is then lifted out by means of iron hooks and
brushed with water, which removes all the black scale.
Immediately afterwards, it is immersed in a bath of
fresh lime water, and then placed in a bath of boiling
water, where it remains until it is about as hot as the
water. The water is renewed directly any traces of
acid are discovered in the water bath. After being
thus washed the iron is removed from the hot-water
bath and allowed to dry, but before becoming quite
dry, and while still warm, it is besmeared abundantly
with hot linseed oil, and it then receives the first coat
of paint. All rivet heads are similarly coated with hot
linseed oil, and painted over after the plates or other
pieces are riveted up. A second coat of paint is given
to the iron before it is placed in contact with other
pieces of different material, and thus all parts are
reached by the painter's brush, care being taken that
the pieces of iron so painted are perfectly dry and that
the weather is dry at the time the second coat is
applied. The paint used consists of lead or iron
minium, well mixed with boiled linseed oil. The iron
minium is cheaper, and is more largely used than the
lead minium.
238
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
[The Editor reserves It himself ihe right or re-
fusing a reply to any question that may be frivolous
or inappropriate, or devoid of general interest.
Correspondents are reqtie&ted to hear in mind to at
their queries will be answered only in the pages of
ihe Magazine, the information sioght being sup-
plied for the benefit of its readers generally an well
as for those who nave a special interestin ob^-aining
it. In no case can any reply be sent by post.]
The Human Figure in Fretwork.
A Practical Man writes, In Part III.
of Amateur Work, Illustrated, I
noticed a comment upon fretwork pat-
terns, denouncing the introduction of
figures of men or animals, unless of
Japanese design. May I be permitted to
express my disagreement upon this point,
as I have designed a great many patterns
for different articles of use and ornament,
both small and large, and have more often
than not been requested (by those who
had never previously had any drawings
from me) to send something in which a
bird or animal is introduced. Undoubtedly
there is a great deal of rubbish in the mar-
ket, representing no regularity or decision
of curve, no particular flower — in fact,
nothing but a series of misshapen points
or bulbs, which, when cut out, are not fit
to be seen ; but where the aspiration has
been greater, and the introduction of an
animal ventured, it is difficult to distin-
guish a pig from a bear; perhaps those
chosen were of some antediluvian order,
at least we can imagine so. My opinion
is that if a graceful but decided curve,
imitative of nature be represented, and
outletting leaves and sprigs arranged to
suit or fill up the design, an appropriate
animal or bird may be introduced without
spoiling the general good effect. For
example, if boughs of oak be chosen, a
squirrel, and, if necessary, a bird or two,
would be very appropriate. Much fret-
work is spoiled by the hurried and com-
paratively disinterested manner in which
it is done, and again by want of talent.
Natural artistic talent is the only medium
for producing high-class workmanship,
and if a pattern of the best design be
incorrectly cut out the effect cannot be
anything but poor. Fretwork is, as styled
in Part V. of "Eveiy Man His Own
Mechanic," "A study of outlines — the
diversification of a flat surface with per-
forations, but flat and without relief,"
therefore the beauty of nature cannot be
obtained half so well by this means as by
carving, but at the same time a silhouettic
appearance of animals and birds is better
than a monopoly of leaves and scrolls.
The human face and figure ought not to
be introduced unless in a comic sketch, as
there cannot be any real expression given.
I cannot understand why the introduction
of figures of men, etc, should be confined
to Japanese designs, as talent is not
confined to any particular nation, and
everyone is privileged to attempt that
which he thinks his ability is able to sur-
mount.
Boot and Shoe Making
J. W. V. B. (Battersea) will find most
of the information that he requires in the
article on " Finishing Boots and Shoes,"
in Part V. of Amateur Work, Illus-
trated, and will need no further answer
to his first four questions. Question 5 is
" How is a raised toe made which will
prevent pressure on the great toenail?"
The boots have to be made on thick toed
lasts, puff toes, as they are termed in the
trade. If the toes of the lasts are not
high enough pieces of leather may be
pegged on the wooden, or cemented upon
the iron, lasts, and pared neatly to the
shape required. Then a small p;ece of
leather, carefully skived, may be put
between the toe of the upper, and the
lining, and las'ed in, this will keep the toe
up when the boot is in wear. Question
6 is, "What is the cause of boots
squeaking, and how can the noise be
prevented?" The creaking arises from the
grating of the inner surfaces of the sole
and inner sole, shank, etc. , together. It may
be prevented by placing a strip of cloth
between the surfaces while the boot is
being made. There is no need to apolo-
gise for asking a number of questions; we
are very pleased to receive them and to
give the information whenever possible.
A. W. {Dalston), and J. J. (New-
castle), both enquire whether there is any
way of making boots and shoes on the
pegging system without the worker occu-
pying a sitting position. The question of
retaining the upright position in hand-
sewing, pegging, finishing, and repairing,
has been much discussed in the trade,
and many attempts have been made to
devise apparatus for the assistance of the
worker, but nearly all have been either
costly or faulty, frequently both. Latterly,
however, John Keats, the Edison of the
shoe trade, has brought out a little
machine for the purpose, which promises
to enable the shoemaker to stand while at
work, and is at the same time inexpensive.
It would be impossible in this column to
describe his invention, it may, however,
be sufficient to say that it bears no slight
resemblance to the human arm, wrist, and
hand, and its base being affixed to a
bench, it is capable of firmly holding the
boot in any position. The writer wit-
nessed its working some weeks since, and
noted that its action was all that could be
desired. It may be obtained through the
last makers or leather sellers, and costs 18s.
Galvanic Batteries.
A. Reeves, asks whether or not the
new storage battery, invented by Mr. H.
Sutton, of Ballarat, would be more con-
s'ant and powerful than the Daniell bat-
tery, and supersede it in the work of
electro-plaMng. — You mistake the func-
tions and uses of the storage battery. It
is not a generator of electricity per se, but
a reservoir of chemical energy capable of
development in the form of electricity.
The energy with which it is stored, must
first be put into it by the agency of elec-
tricity from another battery or from a
dynamo-electric machine. Of course, it
is at present premature to say what kind
of work may, or may not, be done by the
current from a discharging "Sutton Stor-
age Battery,'' but it will be well to ask
ourselves — Will it pay to make a Bunsen
battery to charge a Sutton battery and
use the discharging current in electro-
plating ? I think not, and therefore advise
you to retain the well-proved, constant,
and cheaper Daniell battery.
H. W. L. (Battersea). — The copper
cylinder for a Daniell battery must not be
soldered, nor have a bottom to it, but
merely "sprung" together, or rather bent
until the two edges nearly meet. The
term "carbon clamp" does not mean
that the "clamp" is to be made of carbon,
it merely specifies a kind of brass binding
screw used, principally, as a clamp for
carbons. The carbon used for battery
plates is obtained from gas works, where
it forms on the retorts during the distilla-
tion of coal; you will not require it for the
Daniell battery. The same battery will
serve your purpose for electro-gilding,
but you will require a vat of special con-
struction, this will receive consideration
when the articles on Electro-Plating are
concluded. Many thanks for your kind
interest, and offers of assistance.
E. L. O. C. (Norwood) asks, whether
or not he can use a powerful two-cell Smee
battery for electro-plating. — You will
please understand that power or force in
the general acceptation of the term, i.e.,
such electric force as would be required to
ring a bell or work an induction coil, is not
required for the work of electro-plating.
It is therefore quite possible that one ot
your Smee cells will prove powerful enough
to do all your electro-plating work. The
main feature to be observed is to provide
an amount of zinc surface in the battery
equal to, or slightly in excess of, the total
surface of goods to be plated at once in
the bath. If there is not enough zinc in
one cell, connect the two cells thus— the
two silver plates to one wire, the zincs to
the other wire. See that the silver plates
are nicely platinised, and the zincs well
amalgamated, and do not use a very strong
battery acid.
Summer House.
W. B. R. {Forest Gate). — A paper on
building a summer-house is in preparation,
and will be given shortly.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
239
Sand in Filter.
F. A. B. {Hammersmith). — Any kind
of coarse sand will do, so long as it is
well boiled, to remove soluble matter. As
to the charcoal, see more explicit di-
rections in Article II. in this Part.
Solutions for Plating-.
J. H. Sawden. — In making the double
cyanide of silver plating solution by
dissolving oxide of silver in a solution of
cyanide of potassium, it is necessary to
add rather more than one-fifth of the latter
to form "free cyanide," after all the silver
oxide has been dissolved. Such a solution
will require more cyanide of potassium to
form free cyanide than one made by
dissolving the cyanide of silver in a
solution of cyanide of potassium. But
the appearance of the anode whilst
working the solution does not by itself
indicate the quantity of free cyanide in
the plating bath. The film mentioned
by you may be due to deficient battery
power, or to stagnation of the plating
liquid, or to the class of goods being
plated, for the anode will sometimes coat
itself with a film when pewter is being
plated, and also when the solution is
undisturbed. If the goods plate all right
do not add more cyanide, but keep the
goods or the anode in motion.
Anode. — The two recipes sent by you
are very old ones, and only a slight ad-
vance on the processes of simple plating.
When solutions are made direct from
chloride of silver, they contain chloride of
potash, and some become worked out,
but those made from cyanide of silver
will give good results for many years
with proper care. Gold or silver solu-
tions, made up with ammoniates of those
metals are liable to be a source of danger
to amateurs, from the possibility of a little
of the ammoniite (fulminate) drying on
the filter, or any of the vessels. As
nitrate of silver and ter-chloride of gold
can now be purchased at reasonable
prices from all chemists, we cannot advise
amateurs to make those salts themselves.
Tne old practice of immersing strips of
zinc in contact with the articles in the
plating solution was a very wasteful one,
since it tended to exhaust the solution of
precious metal, and soon rendered it unfit
for working, when it had to be thrown
away and a new one made. In answer to
your queries: (r.) One pint would only
serve the purpose of very small articles,
such as pins, studs, lockets, or up to a
teaspoon. If you intend to enter the
t-ade, you should get a bell-glass as
shown on page 97, to hold from ij
to 2 gallons of solution. Methods for
ascertaining the quantity of metal put on
the articles will be given. (2.) Those
are trade marks not constant to all
houses. (7.) This will receive attention
in articles on electro-gilding. (4.) Esti-
mate the zinc surface in the battery to be
slightly in excess of that of the total
surface to be plated at once in the vat.
(5). Instructions in electro-gilding, and
also in nickel-plating, will be given, but it
is not possible to promise them at any
certain date. Whilst endeavouring to give
readers interested in electrical work some-
thing on the subject in each part, the wants
of others must also be supplied. Thanks
for your " hearty commendation."
Repairing Clocks.
J. F. B. W. H.— It is difficult to under-
stand what you mean by the "balance "
of your clock. When technical terms are
used they should be selected with the
greatest caution by inexperienced people.
Had you described the part minutely no
doubt it could have been identified, but
your clock has no balance, and theiefore
it is quite useless to give you advice on
such things. The thin steel spring at the
top end of the pendulum rod is called the
"suspension spring." It is generally
made from a piece of watch mainspring,
but in American clocks the pendulum rod
is rolled to a thin ribbon at the end, and
this forms the suspension spring. If your
clock is an American you had best
procure a pendulum rod from any dealer
in watch and clock materials. If an
English clock use a piece of a broken
mainspring as nearly the size of the
old suspension spring as you can get it.
Any watchmaker's shop will furnish you
with a broken mainspring, probably for
the mere asking for it. Break off a piece
the length of the old suspension, soften
the extreme ends by heating them to
redness, and punch a hole in each to
receive the pins. The old suspension
spring is taken out by withdrawing the
pins, the new spring put in its place and
secured by the same pins, which are
reinstated. This is the way in which a
new suspension spring is put in. If you
have not the necessary tools a better plan
would be to take the old pendulum and
the top piece of the broken spring to a
working watchmaker who would put in
a new suspension spring for about six-
pence. The pendulum then has only to
be hung in its place, and the clock set
going. If you do not fully understand
these directions and wish for more, please
state distinctly the kind of clock you have
to repair.
Jhotograpby.
T. J. (Aberdare). — (1.) A tinted back-
ground may be made by tightly stretching
over a wooden frame apiece of calico and
laying on a coat of size and afterwards an
even tint of colour mixed with size. Melt
(say) two-pennyworth of size in an iron
pail and add to it whiting and burnt
umber previously mixed in water to the
consistency of thick paste. Mix thoroughly.
Lay this down with a large broad brush
so that an even surface is secured. The
most satisfactory background you can
have, however, is one of brown cloth, as
supplied by the stock dealers. ( 2. ) Pro-
bably oce of Ross' Universal Lenses
will meet your requirements. Send to
them and to Messrs. Dalmeyer for cata
logues.from which you may make selection.
Reversing Leading Screw in Screw-
Cutting Lathe.
J. M. (Daisy Bank). — The arrangement
for reversing the leading screw of a screw-
cutting lathe, which is briefly mentioned
in p. 66, can only be fully explained b)
an illustration. This may be given at a
future time; your suggestion that it n.igl.t
be used for the return motion in cutting
odd pitches, would not be practicable.
The whole principle of the reversing
consists in bringing an extra wheel into
gear. By introducing a wheel which can
be added to the train or taken out of gear,
the last wheel may be made to travel in
either direction at pleasure. This extra
wheel is fitted on to a swing plate, it is
always in gear, that is, it always turns
when the train is in motion, but sometimes
it runs idle, and sometimes, when going in
the contrary direction, it forms part of the
train. With respect to the question on
cutting a sunflower in the lathe, the sub-
ject must be deferred till a suitable oppor-
tunity presents itself for dealing with it at
greater length. This, I hope, will not be
long delayed.
Instruction in Carpentry, etc.
Amatore (i) will find explanations of
technical expressions commonly used in
carpentry and joinery, the description and
uses of the various tools and appliances,
and the method of making mortises and
tenons, and grooving wood, in "Every
Man His Own Mechanic," by the Editor
of this Magazine, published by Messrs.
Ward, Lock, & Co. (2. ) The arcs of
wood forming the cappings for the spindles
of galleries at the sides of the wall-cabinet
should be cut out of a solid piece of wood.
Wood may be bent to this form, but it
must first be steamed. The holes for the
reception of the spindles are not large
enough to weaken the wood ; the diameter
of the piece inserted should be less than
that of the thickest part of the spindle
itself. (3. ) Instructions for making a car-
penter's bench will be found in "Every
Man His Own Mechanic."
Doll's House.
J. H. (Blackpool). — Your request for
instructions in building a doll's house has
not been forgotten. A paper will shortly
be given, showing how to do this in such
a manner as to present a handsome ex.
tenor and an interior that can be got at
with ease.
240
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Fret-sawing Machine.
G. W. B. — Your interesting descrip-
tion of a machine for fret-sawing shall
find a place in Part VI. Kindly describe
the means you adopt for preventing fret
saws from running, as it may be useful to
many readers of this Magazine.
D. J. B. writes in reference to the
''Simple Fret-Sawing Machine" described
in Part I. — "I do not agree with the
wooden spring that raises the saw after
being lowered by the treadle. I propose
the following method : — Fasten a cord to
the top of the inner frame to pass over
the top of the outer frame (where a wheel
might be placed that it may work more
freely), and then down to the treadle. By
this means the saw would work with more
regularity. It is also much more simple,
as the spring is liable to be made too
powerful. With mine the inner frame is
raised by the treadle, and brought down
by its own weight, or by weights that may
be added." This suggestion deserves the
attention of amateurs who are making a
fret - sawing machine on the lines laid
down in the article alluded to above.
Embossing Glass.
F. V. H. (Buxted). — Your essay in
embossing glass has failed apparently
through your having neglected to protect
the portions of the glass that were to be
left clear from the action of the fluoric
acid, or liquid for etching on glass. The
parts to be left clear must be protected by
Brunswick black, before the glass is sub-
jected to the action of the acid. If you
desire to give a frosted appearance to the
clear parts, rub them with a flat piece of
marble moistened with fine emery and
water. The only other methods of putting
patterns on glass are those followed by
glass-cutters and engravers on glass, and
this is done by the action of sand, and by
wheels of different kinds.
Newton's Grinding Rest.
R. A. L. should write to Messrs.
Churchill & Co., 28, Wilson Street,
Finsbury, about this American tool. I
know that this firm intends to keep it in
stock for the benefit of English amateurs,
but I do not know whether or not it is on
sale there yet.
G. C. (Leigh). — Your letter has been
read witii much interest. Any informa-
tion you may require on any branch of
amateur work shall be supplied, if pos-
sible, and I shall be glad to have any
papers from you on subjects of general
interest.
Purchase of Tools.
O. D. C. (Newbury). — I well know
from experience how difficult it is to pro-
cure exactly the kind of tool that one may
require in small country towns. You can
gain all the information you require with
respect to the sizes and prices of tools
in the catalogues sent out by Messrs.
Churchill & Co., and Messrs. R. Melhuish
& Sons, many of whose specialities are
mentioned from time to time in " Notes
on Novelties." The description of a
pneumatic air call-bell, and how to make
it, shall be given shortly.
G. W. (North Mars ton), and W. F.
(Wisbech), are informed that the cheap
Bow-saw (not Fret-saw) called "The
Holborn," can be procured at the price
named, of Messrs. R. Melhuish & Sons,
85 and 87, Fetter Lane, E. C„ who keep
them in stock.
House Building.
Nemo. — There is no reason whatever
why you should not make your doors, and
sash frames, and sashes, before you begin
to build your house; but before beginning,
have complete working drawings of your
house made to scale in plan, elevation,
and section. The size of your doors and
windows will then be settled, and you can
then go to work on them. I shall be
happy to supply you with any information
you may require on the construction of
staircases, from a general point of view.
Interior Decoration.
Pharmaceutist asks advice respect-
ing the decoration of a chemist's shop.
It is difficult to prescribe in such a case as
this without seeing the patient, or in other
words, without knowing the extent of
surface to be covered, and the amount of
light that comes through the window,
whether strong or otherwise. If you paint
the pillars in shades of chocolate, or warm
and light red tints, let the wall be of a
light neutral tint or French grey, relieved
with a little chocolate or red stencilling.
Let the under partof the shelves be of the
same tint, and relieve the mahogany
cornice with gold beading. There is no
objection to the inscription on the maho-
gany cornice in gold with a little relief.
Do not have too many colours, but deal
rather with shades of one or two colours
in order to procure an agreeable variety.
Manipulation of Coloured Glass.
B. E. A. (Dei izes) .—If you read the
article entitled " A New Style ot Stained
Glass Window" a second time, you will
see that the writer, like yourself, said that
it would not be possible for amateurs to
follow out the method proposed in the
American publication that was quoted, and
suggested an easier method of making
coloured windows in which they would
find no difficulty. Your suggestions with
regard to Electrotyping, etc., shall be
given in Part VI .
Exchanges.
G. C. (Liverpool) wishes to offer a
good Microscope in exchange for W. R.'s
portable Photographic Apparatus men-
tioned in Part II., page 93. Will W. R.
write if he is willing to entertain the offer?
Making Liquid Glue.
W. O. P. (Swansea), in reference to
this subject says : "I have found the
following mode of preparation far simpler '
than those given by you. Ordinary glue
is heated with just sufficient water to form
a viscid paste, which is then transferred
to a wide-mouthed bottle, and treated
with strong acetic acid until the solution
becomes sufficiently limpid to flow easily.
It is then ready for use, and it is only
necessary to bind the cemented pieces
with cord overnight to have a firm and
sound joint. I have in my possession a
gold pin to which I fastened a stone with
this glue seven years ago, and it is still as
firm as a rock, though only attached to
the plain surface, and not supported by
any setting whatever.'' W. O. P. is
thanked for his valuable communication.
Filtering Rain- Water.
M. P. R. — The writer of the papers
on the Construction and Management of
Filters will attend to your request for
instructions on the mode of filtering rain-
water. It does not seem practicable,
however, to filter rain-water and render
it ready for use in its short and speedy
transit from the down-pipe to the cisttrn
or water-barrel, in which it is stored.
Cleaning Marble.
M. P. R. — Marble may be cleaned by
adding quicklime to very strong soap lees
until the mixture is of the consistency of
new milk or thin cream. Smear the
marble thickly with this, and wipe it off
after a lapse of twenty-four hours ; after
which the marble should be rubbed with
a mixture of fine putty powder and olive
oil.
Boat Building.
Q J. H. (Keswick) will have seen from
the first of a series of articles that appear-
ed in Part IV. that his wishes in this
direction have been anticipated.
Liquid Cement.
J. M. (Portland) writes to say that
the liquid cement made from isinglass and
whiskey will not do to join leather that
will have to stand pressure.
Small Printing Press.
W. F. (Wisbech) is recommended to
apply to Mr. Squintani, whose advertise-
ment will be found on the wrapper of this
Magazine.
Second-hand Lathe.
W. H. R. wishes to purchase a good
second-hand Lathe, with %\ inch or 4 inch
centre, on which he can spend about
£7 10s. Can any amateur or maker offer
him one that is worth having for tlis
amount ?
Bookbinding.
W. C. (Alfreton). — A series of articles
on Bookbinding will be commenced in an
early Part, perhaps in Part VI.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
241
Sharpening Surgical Instruments.
H. D. G. ^Xorivich) writes : In answer
to E. P. C.'s question, I am in the habit of
using scalpels, knives, and razors for
microscopic sections and other fine work.
I sharpen them on a hone, a dark green
Welsh stone, with water, and finish on a
strop. A fair test of sharpness is to split
a hair, held on the thumb nail of the left
hand, for a short distance without tearing.
The instruments are always cleaned with
spirits of wine and stropped before they
are put away, should they become rusty
(from dissecting marine animals) or
gapped (from cutting sections of very hard
or gritty tissues), I then send them to be
ground.
R. B. W. gives the following informa-
tion on this subject for the benefit of
E. P. C. : The sharpening of surgical
instruments by that I mean the grinding,
polishing, etc., is a job such as few
amateurs would attempt. It requires a
very experienced workman to do them
properly. The principal difficulty is the
liability of the blade to become heated on
some of the many wheels, and so lose its
temper, and therefore becoming useless.
There is also very great manual dexterity
required to keep the proper outline of the
edge during grinding. Setting them on
an oil-stone may, however, be done, by
using a little care. Any stone with a very
fine cut may be used, many workmen use
a German hone (used also for razors),
others use a Grecian. Curved blades are
set on a half-round stone. The ordinary
test for sharpness is to try if it will raise
the skin on the side of the hand, by which
you can instantly tell whether the edge is
correct or not.
Repairing Bottle Jack.
T. C. B. — Probably you are wrong in
supposing that a spiral spring is missing
from your bottle jack. These machines
are not usually so provided. See the
answer to T. Worth, and if you do not
get from it the information you seek write
again.
T. Worth.— All the pieces of thread
in the bottle jack should be precisely equal
in length so that the weight suspended is
equally distributed amongst them. The
impetus of the turning joint causes it to
rotate for a considerable number of
turns after the mechanism has ceased to
act. These extra turns of the joint twist
the threads which again untwist when the
reverse motion is set up. A careful in-
spection of your jack would probably show
that the part which should revolve with
the joint is stopped by friction. The
threads alone should bear the weight
though the hook to which they are at-
tached may appear to an inexperienced
eye to have a bearing in the case of the
jack.
Making Musical Instruments.
J. L. B. R. asks for instructions for
making a harp. I fear this is altogether
out of the province of amateur work.
C. S. W. (Sunderland).— AX present
we are dealing with Organ-building and
Violin-making. Papers will shortly be
given on building a harmonium. It re-
mains to be seen how far it is practicable
to give instructions for making a piano ;
but if it can be done, it shall be done at
some future time.
H. W. C. (Glasgow) wishes for instruc-
tions on making a dulcimer. Can any of
my readers handle this subject ?
Organ-Building.
C. J. H. (Keswick) must be content to
wait until the second series of papers on
Organ-building is commenced.
W. C. (Al/reton). — The entire cost of
materials required for building the small
organ shall, if possible, be given in
Part VI.
W. F. — Your inquiry with regard to
the size of the organ described in the
papers on this subject has been practi-
cally answered in the articles themselves.
Papers on building a harmonium will be
commenced in Part VI. or VII.
F. C. N. (Sydenham Hill). — You are
quite right as to the tables and bearers.
Organ- Grinder (Carn/orth) .— The
scale for widths and depths of the pipes
must be strictly adhered to, but if you
have only made one or two of the largest
pipes they will do. The length of the
block is not so material, provided it is
long enough— say 4 inches for C C, and
3 inches for Tenor C. Brads or sprigs
may be used to secure the joints in the
larger pipes, but be very careful not to
split the wood. The cap should fit per-
fectly at the sides without requiring
leather, as you say was needed to make
yours air-tight.
G. B. (Helensburgh). — The cause of
your trouble is bad wood or inferior
glue, perhaps both. I may say, once for
all, that every material used in organ
building must be the best of its kind. It
is worse than useless trying to make pipes,
etc.,' of unseasoned or inferior wood.
Grooving the pipes together is not neces-
sary. A few brads may be used in the
larger ones. The method given is the
one in general use, and answers well if
properly done.
C. A. H. (Camberwell). — Harmonium
reeds will not keep in tune with organ-
pipes. What sharpens the reeds flattens
the pipes, and vice versa.
J. P. L. (Tenby).— Don't be disheart-
ened. The length of the blocks is not a
material point. If your pipes sound all
right, let them be ; if not, then cut the
throat a little larger with a chisel. You
must not expect to get the same fulness
of tone from a stopped pipe as you get
from an open one, the fact is they are not
half so loud. This is the reason the
treble must be made of small scale and
voiced very softly.
MusiCUS (Northampton). — See replies
to others. The pipes would speak quite
readily as the grooving is very short.
Blowhard.— You will find it very
expensive to buy all metal pipes for your
organ. It is not usual for the stopt
diapason to go below Tenor C in metal.
Write to some organ-builder for a price
list of pipes. You can arrange your pipes
chromatically in two rows as you propose,
but you will need a sound-board about
five feet long to do it. Just set it out full
size, on a board, after you have obtained
your pipes, and then you will see how
much room they will take.
P. O. (Corry). — The best French or
Scotch glue should be used both for the
leather and the wood. Avoid cheap dark
glue. It should be light and clear, and
not .used too thick. Melt it in the
ordinary way in a glue-pot, and use it
fresh. Add more glue and water wrhen
you put it away, and it will .be ready for
use when required.
Asbestos in Laboratories, etc.
H. B. (Dorchester). — You will doubt-
less obtain the information you require on
this subject by writing to Messrs. Witty
and Wyatt, 9, Fenchurch Street, London,
E.C., agents for H. W.Johns' Asbestos
materials, manufactured in New York.
Construction of Facetisescope.
I. M. (Sligo). — Facetiaescopes, with
all the necessary appliances, are sold at
is. each If you had the instruction in
making this toy — it is nothing better —that
you ask for, it would cost you much more
than the amount charged for it to make
it, and, in addition to this, there are cer-
tain appliances that you could not possibly
prepare unless you are a photographer,
amateur or professional.
Apiarian Appliances,
Scotus. — Your wishes on this point
have been anticipated in some degree by
the description of a model hive in Part
III, Any information that may be
gathered from time to time on improve-
ments in these appliances shall be given, if
possible.
Preparation of Floor for Dancing.
H. G. K. (Belsize Square). — Rope
dancers chalk their shoes to keep them
from slipping, and by analogy it might
be desirable to chalk the floor of a room
in order to render it fit for dancing.
Forty or fifty years ago, ball-rooms in the
country were sometimes adorned in this
manner, a pattern being traced on the
floor in white, black, and coloured
chalks. Of course, it was soon damaged
by the feet and skirts of the dancers.
242
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL,
Straightening Warped Boards.
Willing to Help says that the best
way he has found of straightening a
warped board is to water the earthen
floor of an out-building, and then lay the
board on it, concave side downwards.
The damp fills the pores again, and
brings it perfectly straight. He has tried
this out-of-doors, but it will not answer,
owing, he believes, to the dew falling
on the upper side.
Floor Staining.
W. G. {Richmond) kindly corrects an
error in the article on this subject, in page
106. The text says, "The sizing takes
rather longer than the varnish to dry ; "
it should read, "rather longer than the
staining to dry." He further says: "I
find it a good plan to size the work twice,
as it makes the vamish hold out so much
more."
Aquariums.
S. G. ( Woodhouse). — You will find the
date of issue on each Part of this Maga-
zine, instructions for makingan Aquarium
will be given in due course.
Information Wanted.
R. A. L. writes: "I have bought a
shooting-board similar to the one described
in 'Notes on Novelties,' in Part III.,
but I am at a loss how to use it for
bevelling four square ; perhaps some one
who has used it will help me out of the
difficulty. "
Snaresbrook wishes to know what
kind of glue is used by carriage makers to
fasten cloth to the frames of the windows.
C. de H. {Preston) wishes to meet with
a work which treats on working in tortoise
(turtle) shell. Can any of the readers of
this Magazine supply the information
asked for ?
P. I. B. ( Han ley) has " taken transfers
on satin, and other materials, and they
look very nice until they are dry, when
they peel off." He wishes to be informed
of some method for preventing this.
A. Jack asks : Can any of the readers
of Amateur Work, Illustrated,
kindly oblige with a good idea how to
make and fix a secret spring on a clothes
box, so that it will not open without
touching the spring, although it has been
unlocked ? The touch-spring must not be
discernible from the outside, and as little
as possible on the inside.
T. B. B. wishes to have a recipe for a
paste for mounting tracings on cartridge-
paper and calico, and to be informed of
the best method of doing this.
D. K. (Liverpool) wishes to gather
from our readers some information re-
specting the way in which the American
Rogers' Fret Machine does its work. He
finds the oscillation very great, and ex-
periences much difficulty in turning the
saw in the work.
Mounts for Drawings.
Amateur. — Instructions on cutting
mounts for drawings shall be given in due
course of time as opportunity offers. On
writing again at any time, kindly adopt a
more distinctive nom-de-plume than that
you have now taken. We are all ' ' ama-
teurs."
Wooden Tool Holder.
T. H. H. writes : — The tool-holder
figured on page 21 of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, is so similar to one I have
in use, that I take the liberty of sending
you a rough sketch of it. The holder is
constructed entirely of oak, 1 inch by ij
inches, screwed firmly together, extreme
length 12 inches, length of opening, 3
inches. This I find a very convenient
y
w
WOODEN tool-holder.
size; but, of course, the amateur can
make it to suit his own requirements. It
answers admirably, and has saved me a
very great amount of labour.
Miscellaneous.
P. I. B. (Hanley).— The author of the
papers on Photography is prevented by
serious illness from continuing his papers
at present, and answering your query
respecting varnish for photo-negatives.
H. C. E. K. {Gallon Krynell).—See
"Notes on Novelties," Part IV., in which
mention is made of Stephens' stains, and
how to apply them to finishing fretwork.
A. A. (Bristol.) — Information on the
manufacture of sparrow-nets, clap-nets,
and trammels, will not be out of place in
this magazine. A paper or two on the
subject shall be given in due time. Can
any reader supply them, with the neces-
sary diagrams?
A. Jack (Leitk). — Papers on up-
holstery suitable for amateurs will be
given in the pages of this Magazine, but
the demands on our space are so great
that it is difficult to assign any certain
time at present for their appearance.
R. H. ( Wandsworth).— I fear it will
be difficult to give information on the
subject you mention, more elementary in
its character than that which is supplied
in " Every Man His Own Mechanic,"
but if you will mention any difficulty that
you meet with in any practical work, the
special instruction you are in need of
shall be supplied if possible.
E. W. W. (Leeds).— If it be possible to
do so, an article shall be given shortly
on the method of making rubber stamps.
Your first query relating to the method of
cleaning a certain article of dress is one
which cannot be conveniently answered
in the pages of this Magazine.
C. J. D. (Hornsey). — See the preceding
reply to E. W. W. on this subject.
Inceptor.— " The Illustrated Archi-
tectural Engineering and Mechanical
Drawing Book," published at 2s. by
Messrs. Ward, Lock, & Co., will, I think,
be just the book you require. Papers on
the application of electricity to produce
motive power will be given in due course.
W. (Shepherd 's Bush). — When oppor-
tunity offers, instructions and suggestions
on building ferneries in gardens and
conservatories will be given.
Dew. — Special papers on "Frame
Making," including Oxford frames, with
particulars respecting tools and ap-
pliances and cost of materials, will be
given, but when, it is not possible to say.
A. E. W. (Ogmore Vale). — Papers on
" Brazing and Soldering " will be given
in the present volume, and an endeavour
shall be made to supply information on
the other subjects you mention, as soon as
possible. The second series of papers on
" Organ Building" will appear in Vol. II.
F. E. K. (Grosvenor Road). — See the
preceding answer. The organ to be de-
scribed will be a larger and more powerful
instrument in every way.
C. A. S. (Dover).— See reply to A. E.
W. just above for your query with re-
ference to " Brazing and Soldering."
The construction of a telephone may be
described in a future Part.
I. H. S. (Bridlington Quay).— The
Auto-Pneumatic Fountain is expensive, it
is true, and beyond the reach of many.
To make a founlain, the reservoir, which
is the source of supply, must be consider-
ably higher than the mouth of the pipe
from which the jet issues. Instructions
for making aquariums will be given in
future numbers. All suggestions of this
nature are noted in order that the desired
information may be supplied when it is
possible to do so.
*»* Replies to and communications
from the following correspondents are
unavoidably held over to appear in Part
VI. Although the utmost has been done
in the present part to deal with as many
queries as possible, the pressure on our
space is so great that, in spite of an
addition of four pages to the present part,
it has been found impossible to satisfy all.
E. B. (Dublin), B. E. A. (Devizes),
G. W. B. (St. Malo), W. M. (Blackburn),
A Practical Tinplate Worker,
G. I. W. (Plymouth), A. N. (Uckfield),
and many others, for whose initials, etc.,
there is no room.
PRESENTED WITH PART VI. OF
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v,tt
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£«»»'
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Fio. Bi.— DETAILS OF ETAQERE (*« Fin. 8 at A B 0).
i. 6.— MINIATURE BCBEEH FOB HEABTH.
Sail. 1 iuku V> /tot.
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Fio. 10.— FEAMEWOBK Of WOOD FOB
CHIMNEY BOABD, PANELLED FOE
RECEPTION OF PICTURES.
Fie. 9.— DESIGN FOR OHIMNET BOABD.
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mm
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Fio. 8.— ETAGBBE-TO STAND IN FRONT OF GRATE.
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1.— FAN SCREEN FOR GRATE
Fio. 6.— SUPPORTS OF FAS I
LENGTHENED AND H.
8UPPOBT A CURTAIN.
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LOCK. * CO.. WARWICK HOUBC. flAUBBURT
Fio. 4.— OBOSfl
PLEOES FOB
SUPPOBT6
Fio. 7.-FLOWEB STAND TO FIT OPENING OF GRATE.
w......„ SUGGEST10NS F0R THE EMBELLISHMENT OF THE FIRE GRATE IN SUMMER, b, j, w. oLEcm-wmn.
Fio. 8.— STANDARD FOR FAN.
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A SIMPLE SYSTEM OF FLOOR DECORATION.
243
A SIMPLE SYSTEM OF FLOOR DECORATION.
By MARK MALLETT.
T page 106 were given some useful hints
on staining and polishing floors. For
those who desire a uniform colour and
glossy surface, no better directions could
be desired. Under certain circumstances
— as, for instance, when skins and rugs can be freely
scattered about it — a floor so treated is admirable.
But there are other circumstances, under which some-
thing more could be wished, and when such a floor
will be foimd to lie open to two objections : firstly,
My first plan was simply to enlarge the strip all
round to a uniform width of 2 feet 6 inches. The
former work had been done by brushing-in hot boiled
oil, and afterwards polishing with beeswax and tur-
pentine. I did mine in the same manner.
To a certain extent, what I had done was satis-
factory. The dark edging made a good ground on
which to range my old oak furniture ; but the sharp
straight line dividing the dark from the light parts of
the floor was not pleasing. Something more was
needed to satisfy the eye.
Within the dark edging, I now marked out the
ornamental border, 14 inches wide, shown in Fig. 1.
But to make this dark enough, and durable enough to
FIG. I. FIG. 2.
TWO DESIGNS FOR SIMPLE BORDERS IN THE STYLE OF PARQUETRY FOR FLOOR DECORATION.
. forr
had
that it is too slippery to be walked on with comfort ;
and secondly, that the, uniform dark colour is not
sufficiently pleasing to the eye. My present object is
to show how, without destroying a firm foothold, an
effect somewhat akin to that of expensive parquetry
may be obtained by means of staining, at the cost of a
few hours' labour and a few pence.
The circumstances under which the idea ot this
mode of decoration forced itself upon me, so to speak,
were these : Some eight years since, I wished to con-
vert to my own particular uses a room in which a
former tenant had laid down a square of carpet, and
had polished the surrounding strip of bare floor. The
for was oak, and I had no intention of hiding it by a
sScond carpet ; but the polished strip, wider on two
sides than on the others, was most unsightly.
resist the scrubbing-brush and soap which it would
have to bear, in common with the unpolished middle
of the room, I knew that something more would be
needed than mere oil and polish. I remembered that
iron, acting on the tannin contained in oak, will turn
that material to a dark colour, which wears away only
with the grain of the wood. A handful of rusty nails,
left for a few days in a pint of vinegar, gave me the
required solution of iron. With this, and a small
brush, I went over the pattern, and could thus get as
deep a shade as I desired. My one difficulty in
applying it arose from the fluid having a tendency to
" run " in the direction of the grain, and thus to cause
a blurred edge ; but this I soon overcame by keeping
a piece of blotting-paper beside me, with which to
take off any superfluous mois'. ..re. When the stain
244
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
had had time to dry, I finished by going over the
pattern with varnish.
The effect of this border, simply as leading the
eye gradually from the dark to the light parts of the
floor, was very good. More than this, it added in a
striking manner to the general effect of the room.
After the wear of eight years, it still looks as well as
ever.
The floor thus treated was, as I have said, made
of oak ; floors formed of other woods will require
somewhat different treatment. Rarely in town, but
not unfrequently in the country, we find elm floors.
The grain of elm is often of great beauty, if properly
brought out. I find that a strong decoction of log-
wood, applied hot, will do this, if the wood is after-
wards rubbed with boiled oil, and finally polished or
varnished. For colouring the pattern on elm, as this
needs to be darker than the broad edging, a very little
of the iron solution may be mixed with the logwood
stain. Much must not be added, or a jet black will
be the result.
In far the greater number of modern houses, how-
ever, the floors are of deal ; and for this material the
amateur cannot do better than buy some one of the
prepared wood-stains sold by the colourman. He can
get whatever depth of shade he requires, but he will
do well to remember that it is advisable to keep the
ornamental border somewhat darker than the broad
stained surface outside it.
For general directions as to applying stains, and
also as to finishing stained work, the article above
referred to (see p. 106) may be read with advantage.
It will be well to bear in mind that between the pro-
cesses of staining, oiling, and polishing, sufficient time
for drying must be allowed, and that oil takes much
longer to dry than stain. Varnish will not lie evenly,
or set properly over imperfectly dried oil. My advice
is, however, not to varnish on those woods which
require oiling, viz., oak and elm, but to polish them
with beeswax and turpentine. This remark does not
apply to the ornamental border on these woods ; this
must always be varnished, and not oiled.
No absolute rule for the width of the stained
edging with its ornamental border can be laid down.
It must be more or less as the room is larger or
smaller, and to some extent it must be influenced by
the width of the boards ; for, as shown in the illustra-
tions, it will be well as far as possible to accommodate
the decoration to the lines of the floor. A good
medium width is 2 ft. 3 in. for the dark edging, and
1 ft. 2 in. for the ornamental border. It is well to have
the stained part wide enough to receive such articles
of furniture as are usually ranged round the walls, and
not so wide as to make those parts of the room slip-
per)' on which people require to walk much.
In the illustration, two designs for this work are
given. Both are very simple, and by no means impos-
ing on paper. But it must be remembered that with
the materials before us, intricate patterns would not
be practicable, and, moreover, that the floor is not the
place for elaborate ornament. As a part of the room
on which the eye frequently rests without effort, the
floor ought not to be left undecorated by those who
study good taste, but to tread excessive and delicate
ornament under foot does not suit our sense of the
fitness of things. These designs are such as can easily
be set out with the compasses and straight- edge, and
no great artistic skill will be required to invent others
equally applicable.
In conclusion, I may observe that as this kind of
floor decoration extends but little to those parts of the
room where the traffic is greatest, it is not so liable to
grow shabby from wearing away in places as the stain-
ing which extends over the whole apartment. If,
however, the work should become a little dulled here
and there, it may be freshened-up by rubbing over
with a little linseed oil ; or, if necessary, it may be
re-varnished or re-polished, as the case may be. At
a doorway, or a much-frequented window, it will of
course be well to protect the work with, say, a piece
of harmoniously-coloured Indian matting, or some
similar covering.
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
By the Author of "Art of Bookbinding."
I.— The History of the Art.
OOKBINDING is the art of connecting
together in a durable form and conve-
nient manner the several parts of a book.
If one thinks for a moment, the word
"bookbinding" has great depth of mean-
ing. It is older than that of printing. It carries us
back into past centuries, long, long before Christ,
when books — if I may so call them — were only pieces
of baked clay, with cuneiform characters, and the
bindings or coverings of the same substance, enclosed
in yet another, each covering having the same sym-
bols, so that if the one got broken, there was still
another to protect the enclosed book. A specimen of
such a so-called binding may be seen in the Assyrian
Collection at the British Museum. Leaden tablets,
with inscribed hieroglyphics, were fastened together
with rings — the tablets answering for the books, the
rings for the bindings.
A glance at the continuous roll epoch. We find
these mostly among the Greeks and Romans, after
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
245
the Christian era, who gained their knowledge from
the Egyptians. Such a roll (Egyptian) is now in the
British Museum : it was discovered at Memphis, and
is said to be some two thousand years old. I believe
the first mention of glue in regard to bookbinding is
in the Greek tradition that the Athenians erected a
statue to a certain Phillatius, who invented a particu-
lar kind of glue for fastening the leaves of papyrus
together. We have every reason to believe that the
first paper for the purpose of writing upon is the
papyrus of the Egyptians. The stems of the P. anti-
quontm, which are often 8 to 10 feet long, are soft and
green, externally like the common rush ; the interior
consisting of a compact cellular tissue or pith. At
the bottom of each stem the portion immersed in the
FIG. I. — BIBLE CHAINED TO LECTERN.
mud and water is whiter and more compact, and
under the outer skin a number of thin pellicles lie one
above the other. These were removed, and laid side-
by-side, with their edges overlapping each other, and
crossways upon these was placed one or more similar
layers, until the sheet was sufficiently thick ; pressure
was then applied for a time, and afterwards the sheets
were dried in the sun. The width of such sheets, of
course, depended upon the length of the portion of
papyrus, but they could be made any length by joining
a number of the material. The scapus, or roll, usu-
ally consisted of about twenty of them.
Some very interesting papyri are those found in
Pompeii and Herculaneum, showing the condition
and arrangement of a Roman library. They are from
8£ to I2f inches wide, rolled up in a cylindrical roll
upon a stick, or inner roll, having a stud at the end.
They had their titles written on a strip, in red letters.
Books prized for their rarity, sacred character, or
costliness, would be kept in a round box or case, so
that the appearance of a library or bookseller's shop
seemed to be a collection of canisters.
About the twelfth century books were no longer
used as rolls, but cut into square pages, thus making
a back, and covering the whole as a protection, in a
most simple form ; the only object being to keep the
several leaves in connected sequence. I believe the
most ancient form of books, formed of separate leaves,
will be found in the sacred books of Ceylon, which
were formed of palm-leaves, written on with a metal
style, and the binding was merely a silken string, tied
through one end so loosely as to admit of each leaf
being laid down flat when turned over. When the
mode of preserving MSS. on animal membrane or
vellum, in separate leaves, came into use, the binding
was at first only a simple piece of leather, wrapped
round the book, and tied with a thong. These books
were not kept on their edges, but were laid down flat .
on the shelves, and had small cedar tablets hanging
from them, upon which their titles were inscribed.
The next step one may notice is the parchment
books, bound, or rather fastened strongly at their
backs, with heavy wooden boards for the sides, and
simply a piece of leather up the back, leaving the
boards exposed, and, for a further protection, or rather
prevention of the leather coming away, nailed on the
board at the edge.
Parchment, one of the oldest inventions of writing
material, was known at least as early as 500 years
B.C. The manufactory rose to a great importance
in Rome about a century B.C., and soon became the
chief material for writing on ; its use spread all over
Europe, and retained its pre-eminence until the in-
vention of paper from rags. The earliest date I can
find mentioned of paper made artificially is from a
manuscript on cotton paper, written during the ninth
century. A manuscript on cotton paper, bearing the
date 1050, is in the National Library in Paris ; and
another in the Emperor's Library in Vienna, date
1095.
The " Byzantine coatings " first placed bookbind-
ing as an art, in the sixth century (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5).
They are of metal, gold, silver, or copper gilt, and
sometimes enriched with precious stones. We find,
however, that the binder could not claim his work as
art work, for he only had the fastening of the leaves
and the adjusting of the wooden boards as his portion
of the work, the goldsmith being called upon to beautify
the external ornamentation, as the artist was to adorn
the interior. These valuable bindings had necessarily
a second coat, to protect the first from injury, it being
either of soft leather, silk, or other material : these
246
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
were made by the bookbinder after the goldsmith had
finished his work. The monks, during this century,
took advantage of the immense thickness of the
wooden boards, and frequently hollowed them out to
secrete their relics in the cavities. Bookbinding was
then confined entirely to the
monks, who were the literati
of the period. Then the art
was neglected for some cen-
turies, owing to the plunder and
pillage that overran Europe, and
books were destroyed to get at
the jewels that were supposed
to be hidden, and were hidden,
in many cases, in the different
parts of the covering, so that
few now remain to show how
bookbinding was then accom-
plished, and to what extent.
The Middle Age now asks
our attention for a moment. It
is scarcely possible for us to
form a correct idea of the value
put upon books, even of the
common order, or of the pro-
digious care which was taken of
them during this epoch. Books
were frequently chained to the reading-desk or shelves
(Fig. 1), to preserve them from embezzlement. Such
a chained book may be seen at the present moment,
I believe, in the church at Minster, Kent.
We also find that samples of binding, brought from
the East by the Crusaders, were of the finest finish ;
and the monks, who still held the art of bookbinding
in their hands, improved by these Eastern specimens.
Each one devoted himself to a different branch : one
planed and cut the oaken boards to a proper size ;
another stretched, prepared, and coloured the leather,
dividing the work into branches, as it is now. When
we think how rude the implements then in use were,
FIG. IO. — EXAMPLES OF ROGER PAYNE'S DESIGNS
We next notice that the art of printing gave new
life to our trade. As books increased, so bookbinding
had more attention paid to it. The printer, who was
generally the binder, had to discard the binding to
give more time to the printing. So bookbinding
became a separate branch.
We notice, too, that about
this time the oaken boards
diminishing, and millboards in-
troduced in their stead. These
millboards, or, more properly
speaking, pasteboards, were
made by the binder, who pasted
sheet upon sheet, until he had
the required thickness. We have
every reason to regret that this
was ever done, as a great many
books, after they had served
their purpose, were destroyed
to use the paper for the purpose
of making such boards.
The art improved so much,
that in the sixteenth century
some of the finest samples of
bookbinding were executed.
The most delicate tools were
used, the art encouraged by
noble families, who directed the binder in any
special manner. The names of Maioli and Grolier
may be mentioned as instances. The former used
bold designs, which the latter improved upon. His
designs consisted of bold gold lines, arranged
geometrically with great accuracy, crossing one
another, and intermixed with small leaves or sprays.
These were in outline, or filled up with closely-worked
lines. Not, however, satisfied with these traceries,
he embellished them still more by staining and
painting them black, green, and white, so that
they formed bands interlacing each other in a
most graceful manner. Figs. 7 and 8 are Grolier
FIG. 9. — EXAMPLE OF BORDER IN BINDINGS IN HARLEIAN LIBRARY.
it is surprising how well the work was done, the task
being one of great difficulty.
The general bindings of the day, however, were
quite plain ; with, perhaps, some heavy design (Fig. 6)
on the sides, stamped on the leather, generally in
keeping with the contents of the book, and in many
instances using the blocks that embellished the text.
blocks : it will be seen how these lines entwine
and how the small tools are shaded with lines. Book-
binding has never had, not even at the present day,
better samples of work done as during the sixteenth
century : it is true we are more accurate in our finish-
ing, by reason that we correct our designs on paper
first, and then work through the paper on to the
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
247
leather ; but there is every reason to believe that, in
the sixteenth century, the work was done entirely free
hand, if I may so call it ; a line being worked or
marked down „^ . — . , ,
the board, and
the whole of the
tools worked
from the line or
guide, judging
the distance and
exact spot to be
worked by the
aid of the eye.
All books, it must be understood,
were not bound in so costly a manner,
for we find pigskin, vellum, calf, and
embroidery in use. Calf was especially
preferred, on account of its peculiar
FIGS. 2, 3.— EXAMPLES OF ORNAMENTS
IN ANCIENT MONASTIC BINDING.
was very fond of such worked covers, frequently
working them herself. Such a worked covered book
by her is now to be seen in the Bodleian Library.
— , The seven-
teenth century
gave us some
very good men,
who executed
some very fine
samples of bind-
ing. The names
of Du Sveil
(1673) and Le
Gascon (1620)
are known for the delicacy and extreme
minuteness of finishing. Taking new
ideas from the Italian school, their work
more resembled fine lace- work of intricate
design, with harmonizing flowers and
FIG. 7. —ORNAMENT USED BY GROLIER.
softness, smooth surface, and great apti-
tude for receiving impressions from all
kinds of tools. I might call the amateur's
attention to embroidery, and, if he so
chooses, bind any special book, and cover
it with a worked fig. 6. — design stamped on old leather binding.
cover. I have
lately bound
several books
in such worked
covers, and the
effect is very
genial, especial-
ly when worked
in some of the
fancy stitches
now used. I think a very profitable field could be true and square, and we find the backs were more
free. This tightness in the back is the fault, if it be
one, in all the old books — in fact, it is done at the
present time" in France ; it has the benefit of holding
HGS. 4, 5. — EXAMPLES OF ORNAMENT"lN ANCIENT'MONASTIC BINDING.
FIG. 8.— ORNAMENT USED BY GROLIER.
other objects, by which they obtained a
considerable variety of artistic character.
A change, however, took place ; the
bindings became quite plain, with only a
line round the edge of the boards, and a
coat-of-arms or
some badge in
M^ the centre. To-
wards the end
of the seven-
teenth century
bookbindingbe-
gan to improve
with regard to
the forwarding.
The joints were
opened, if properly introduced into the trade, to the
great benefit of many ladies who wish for employ-
ment I should here mention that Queen Elizabeth
248
FRENCH POLISHING AND SPIRIT VARNISHING.
the book together for any length of period, and to its
use we may be thankful, for it has preserved many a
book and binding to the present day ; but the con-
tents cannot be read but with great difficulty, because
the book will not open to the back.
The names of Derome, Roger Payne, Elliott, and
Chapman (the last two bound the books in the
Harleian Library for the Earl of Oxford, at a cost of
,£18,000), and others, may be mentioned as binders
of the eighteenth century. The books of the Harleian
Library were nearly all in red morocco, with a broad
tooled border and centre panel : the annexed wood-
cut, Fig. 9, gives a fair idea of the tools used.
A few words about Roger Payne may be of some
interest to my readers. This unfortunate but clever
workman is looked upon as the father of the craft in
this country. It was his misfortune to be a great
drunkard, but, notwithstanding all his irregular habits,
his name ought to be respected for the work he exe-
cuted. He generally used small tools, and by com-
bining them formed a variety of beautiful designs.
He cut most of these tools himself, either because he
could not find a tool-cutter of sufficient skill, or that
he found it difficult to pay the cost. His taste may
be seen from the illustrations shown in Fig. 10.
Much has been done during the present century to
advance the art of binding by the exhibitions and
advancement of science. Coloured or fancy calf has
now taken the place of the hand coloured. Coloured
cloth now takes the place of the old paper boards, so
much so that this portion of the trade alone monopo-
lizes nearly three-fourths of the workmen and females
employed in binding. When the rolling machine was
first introduced the trade thought that it would cause
many hands to be thrown out of employment ; now
every binder has a rolling machine — in fact, could not
do without one. So it is with the rest of the cloth
work (publishers' work), a machine has been intro-
duced for every portion of the work, even folding and
sewing. Many substitutes have been introduced for
leather, and I am sorry to say that a great deal of this
imitation leather is pushed upon the public as real
leather and sold as such — in fact, very often the book-
sellers themselves don't know when they touch leather
or counterfeit.
It is not my intention in these papers to speak
about the publishers' work, except that by means o^
machinery an edition of some thousands may be turned
out in a few days from any large binder's shop. My
idea is to put the amateur in the way of binding any
volumes he may wish, and show him how he may bind
such volumes in a suitable and strong form, or at least
show him how books should be bound, so that he may
distinguish a properly-bound book from some of the
worthless rubbish that now floods the market. I have
refrained from any notice or criticism of any binders
of the present day. Should any question be put to me
by any reader of this journal I shall do my best to
answer, providing it does not draw or have reference
to any personal controversy.
Being an amateur myself, always pleased to re-
ceive instructions concerning my own hobby (every
one has a hobby of some kind, if he be at all active), I
write these lines purely for the benefit of amateur
binders.
( To be continued?)
FRENCH POLISHING AND SPIRIT
VARNISHING.
By J. B. BEARD, Junr.
HE materials required for French polishing
are some French polish, & pint, costing
about 9d. ; methylated spirit, \ pint, 4id. ;
glass paper, No. o and 1, half a dozen
sheets of each, and some finely-ground
pumice-stone, for rubbing down purposes, 6d. ; some
pore-filling material, a 21b. tin, costing 2s. 4d. ; and some
wadding, or flannel, and clean old linen cloth for rubbers.
The first thing necessary to produce a satisfactory
polish is to have a smooth even surface on which to
apply it. Not only can a better polish be obtained,
but it saves much time and labour in polishing, and
also greatly contributes to the closing of the pores of
the wood. This is obtained by well and carefully
rubbing down the article to be polished with fine glass
paper till it is made as smooth as possible. In paper-
ing a flat surface a cork rubber should be used, as by
its use a more even surface is obtained.
Having made the article as smooth as possible,
and having well dusted it, the next thing to do, if the
wood is open grained, is to fill it, as until the pores of
the wood are full a nice even and unbroken polish
cannot be obtained. There are several ways of and
several compounds used for doing this, but having tried
the American wood-filler, noticed under " Ways and
Means "in Part I. of Amateur Work, Illustrated,
and found it indeed " excellent," I should advise the
polisher to get some, the smallest quantity made up
being 2lbs., costing 2s. 4d. Directions are given with
it as to how it is to be used, but I have more success-
fully filled the pores, and with less trouble, by applying
it and rubbing it in with a piece of rag.
Having satisfactorily filled the pores and made the
surface perfectly clean, the polishing may be com-
menced. The polish is applied with a rubber, made
either of wadding or flannel of a size to suit the work
in hand, and as solid as possible. Apply the rubber
to the mouth of the bottle containing polish, not
FRENCH F0LISH1NG AND SPIRIT VARNISHING.
249
making too wet, cover with a piece of linen rag, and
apply a spot or so of linseed oil to the face. Rub this
very lightly on to the wood in the running direction
of the grain, two or three times backwards and for-
wards, and afterwards across the grain, with a semi-
circular motion, until the rubber becomes dry.
Repeat this until a good body of polish is obtained,
and then put by for a period of twelve hours or so,
that the polish may sink and harden. This having
been done, rub it well down with No. 1 glass paper
until the surface is nice and even, and again put aside
for an hour or two. The reason for this is that if
polishing were commenced immediately after rubbing
down it would in a short time after the polishing
was finished, be covered with scratch marks, though
imperceptible at the time of polishing.
Having, then, let the work stand after rubbing
down, proceed to repolish, only after applying the
rubber in the running direction of the grain as before,
use a circular instead of semicircular motion. Having
allowed this coat sufficient time to harden rub it down
this time with finely-ground pumice-stone and water,
using a piece of flannel, or, better still, leather. It
will be better if the polish is thinned a little this time
before applying, therefore put a little in another bottle
and add about one fourth of its quantity of methylated
spirit. Apply the polish as before, and when finish-
ing rub a little longer and quicker than usual, pressing
a little on the rubber, and finally rubbing in the
running direction of the grain until all moisture and
greasy marks have disappeared. The work havirg
stood for three or four hours — although this is nc t
absolutely necessary— it is ready for spiriting off
For this purpose make a new rubber and apply a
little spirit, care being taken that it is only a little,
cover with a piece of clean rag, put a spot of linseed
oil on the face, and apply this very lightly and rather
quickly. Great care must be taken that the rubber is
not allowed to stick for an instant or the work will be
sure to be spoiled, and have to be done all over again.
In case the amateur should not care to expend so
much labour and time over the polishing process
proper, the following is a quicker way by which he
may obtain a nice polish. Having smoothed and
filled the grain of the wood as before directed, give
the work two coats of spirit varnish. After the
second coat of varnish use polish as before directed,
for the last coat. Having spirited the work off it will
have just as good an appearance as if wholly polished.
It need scarcely be said that the process in rubbing
down and allowing hardening periods between each
coat must be the same as if wholly polished.
Before attempting to polish any article I should
advise the amateur to try his hand on a piece of
plain wood about a foot square, or larger, as by this
means if he is not at first successful in getting a nice
polish he can clean it off and try again until he succeeds ;
thus avoiding the risk of spoiling any article by clean-
ing the polish off, should he at once try on that. He
will also, when polishing the article, be able to do it
much easier and better through having, in polishing
thejplain board, found out many little things that are not
(jearnFby^capable of explanation, and that can only be,
practice, which alone can make a successful poITirler.
The polisher should carefully adhere to the follow-
ing rules : —
Always make the work as smooth as possible, and
dust well before applying polish.
Be careful that the superfluous paste is well cleaned
off after filling the pores and before it gets dry.
In rubbing down rub lightly and evenly, and avoid
scratching.
Do not use too much oil, and- cover the rubber
with a clean part of the rag at each wetting.
Do not make the rubber too wet or it will cause
roughness and streaky marks.
Avoid pressing heavily on the rubber when it is
first wet.
Go evenly all over the surface, and do not rub one
part moie than another.
A few words will not be out of place as to repolish-
ing old work. First, then, all parts that can should
be separated for convenience. Having done this, if
the old polish is rough or rusty, scour well with finest
emery flour and spirit of turpentine. Then rub the
face of the work over with a little linseed oil, as this
causes the new polish to unite better with the old.
If there are any dents or scratches coat them two
or three times with thick spirit varnish, and then rub
down with No. o glass paper till level with the surface.
Polishing may now be commenced.
Spirit varnish is laid on with sable or camel-hair
brushes of a size to suit the work in hand. The rules
for varnishing are exactly the same as for polishing
as regards smoothness, pore filling, hardening, and
sinking periods and rubbings down.
In applying the varnish for first and second coat-
ings, the tool may be worked across the grain, but for
the third and finishing coats it must be worked with
the grain. The work will, when finished, have a nearer
appearance to polish if the varnish be moderately
thinned with French polish, say three parts varnish
to one of polish.
Spirit varnish should be applied lightly and quickly,
as it sets and gets hard very quickly, and on this
account the same part should never be gone over twice
while wet, or it will cause roughness.
Polish rubbers, and varnish brushes after being
rinsed in spirit, should be kept in an air-tight box,
such as a tin biscuit-box, that they may be kept soft.
250 A FE IV WORDS ON THE USE OF HAND-TURNING TOOLS FOR METAL.
A FEW WORDS ON THE USE OF HAND-
TURNING TOOLS FOR METAL.
By J. LTJKIN.
o
QUESTION came to me from an ama-
teur friend recently, about the use of
certain slide-rest tools, which had some-
what baffled him, by refusing to perform
their wonted task. That task, it so
happened, was one which a hand-tool would have
executed with equal precision, and with greater speed.
This led to a consideration of the very general desire
among amateurs, to do everything with the fixed tools
of the slide-rest, whether exactly suitable or no. The
ambition to have a slide-rest is always excited by an
inspection of one in actual use by an adept. It
appears so precisely the self-acting mechanical hand,
which will prove a willing and skilful servant, that no
amateur is satisfied until he has obtained this addi-
tion to his lathe, especially as it can now be purchased
so cheaply.
But as the use of the planer has sadly diminished
the number of skilful filers, so is the slide-rest diminish-
ing the number of skilful turners able to use those hand-
tools which, a few years ago, met all requirements.
An amateur will frequently take a quarter of an hour
to rig up and set a tool to work in the slide-rest, in
order to execute some trifling job which the graver
would complete in ten minutes. Having a slide-rest,
it is believed that it must necessarily do any job of
turning, better than a hand-tool, and that to use the
latter, would be going back a step in the noble art of
turning. But in point of fact, the contrary is the case,
inasmuch as there are fewer who can use a hand-tool
satisfactorily. But I may as well in this place meet
the objection, that when a slide-rest is in place on the
bed of the lathe, it appears an unnecessary trouble
to remove it to substitute a hand-rest. In many cases
this need not be done. Some rests will take an ordi-
nary T in place of the usual tool-holder, but when
this is not the case, it is easy to clamp a bar of iron in
the tool-holder, and use it as a temporary support to
the hand tool. I have often turned round a slide-rest
tool that I have been using, and made its shank serve
in this way, in order to get into some awkward corner
with a hand-tool, that would otherwise have required
a special slide-rest tool to be ground and fitted up for
the purpose. In ordinary cases, however, a proper
hand-rest is not only far better, but is frequently a
matter of necessity, as the tool-holder of the slide-rest
is often in the way of the hand, and restricts the posi-
tijn of the turning tool.
The three principal tools for hand-turning, are the
graver, the triangular tool, and the hook or heel tool ; all
alike suitable for iron or steel, and the round end, flat,
and square tools for brass. With these alone, a great
deal of good work can be done. It is, moreover, not
so easy as it appears, to set slide-rest tools in working
order. There are two essentials to be met — the cut-
ting edge and the position of the same in respect of
the work. You may have a tool beautifully ground,
yet fail to make it cut, owing to its not being properly
placed. Now a hand-tool may have its position altered
and amended in a second, by a slight motion of
the wrist, and any such error of position rectified, but
to alter the angle at which a slide-rest tool meets the
work, entails very often re-grinding it, after which it
may still fail, and have again to be taken to the stone.
A young hand has often to do this, and as, in all pro-
bability, he is doubtful where the fault lies, he is quite
as likely to make matters worse instead of better, till
by sheer luck he surmounts the difficulty. As an
introduction, therefore, to the use of slide-rest tools,
as well as for their own sake, the hand-tools ought to
be first mastered, and the position noted in which
they work best. Then, when the slide-rest tool is set
up, the eye will, by experience, detect any defect in
the position which the cutting edge occupies in respect
of the work.
The graver, as well as the triangular tool (usually
a saw file with the teeth ground off), has cutting edges
of 6o°, if the tool is ground at an angle of 45° {i.e., the
angle of a mitred joint). A keener or blunter pair of
edges, on the contrary, may be obtained at pleasure,
by grinding at a greater or less angle, but 45 ° is the
usual one. A casual glance by one unused to such
matters would probably fail to see any similarity in the
edges of the two tools named, simply because one of
them cuts at the end and the other at the sides ; yet
for all that, the cutting edges are precisely alike, and to
be effectual, must be similarly presented to the work.
The turning required, if on the outside of the piece
of metal, is for the most part face work, i.e., the tool is so
held as to attack the face or end of the piece, and not
the cylindrical surface, which is the chief difference
between turning wood and metal. A shallow shoulder
is formed by the first touch of the tool, which shoulder is
cut gradually away as the graver is carried towards the
left hand. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate this, as effected by
the graver and triangular tool respectively. The proper
work of the latter is to face up flat surfaces, or to
hollow out work, and the graver is the orthodox and
best tool for work outside a cylinder. Nothing sur-
prises a novice more than the slight exertion necessary
to keep a graver or triangular tool in cut if it is once
held exactly as it ought to be. Accustomed to con-
sider metal, especially iron or steel, as an intractable
substance to deal with, it is a pleasant surprise to find
it so amenable to the action of a sharp tool, and that,
A FE W WORDS ON THE USE OF HAND-L URNING TOOLS FOR METAL. 251
in spite of its work, the latter retains its edge unim-
paired so long. But this arises solely from the fact
that, if held as it should be, a metal-turning tool has a
very strong edge well supported ; but if held badly, so
as to scrape, this edge has no support, and is soon
ground down or broken off.
As the action of the tool is to cut the face of the
little shoulder which it forms, it is evident that only
the extreme point of the graver touches the cylinder,
which remains as the new surface, and that this will
not, therefore, be left smooth, but covered from end to
end with minute grooves, each representing a section
of the shaving which has been removed. The graver
has then to be used more in chisel fashion, the full
breadth of its edge being now in contact with the
high enough to bring the tool, if held horizontally, a
little above the level of centres, so that the handle is
the highest part when the edge is brought down to its
proper position. One angle of the tool will rest upon
and take a firm bearing upon the T, slightly indenting
it, and as this becomes the fulcrum, and the hand is
grasping the long end of the lever, the strain produced
by the cut will not be much felt, The graver is not
slid along the rest, like a gouge or chisel, but made to
turn on the rest as on a pivot, taking a semicircular
sweep, or nearly so ; and when it is out of cut, it is
advanced to a new position, and this movement
repeated till the whole has been gone over, and a
tolerably level surface obtained.
Suppose the tool nicely ground, all depends on the
EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF HAND-TURNING TOOLS FOR METALS.
cylinder, so as to remove the ridges, and bring the
work to something like a finished surface. The final
touch is, however, generally given with a file, applied
while the work revolves. Such is the general action
of the two tools mentioned. Now let us examine the
difficulties which an unpractised hand will probably
meet with. These were thus spoken of by a friend of
the writer's, who proposed to do a little work of the
kind: "Oh, I must use a slide-rest; hand-tools slip
about so, they tire one to death, and never seem to
cut." Lay the graver on the T-rest, holding the handle
(which ought to be of fair size, and preferably not of
hard wood) in the right hand, with a good grip.
Then, with the fingers of the left hand, grip the
pedestal of the rest and bring the thumb over the tool,
and it will be as firm as a rock, yet capable of the
motion necessary. The rest is generally placed
angle made by the face of the graver with the surface
to which it is applied. The proper way is to place its
sloping face flat against the end of the bar to be
turned, and then just ease it off so as not to rub when
the edge begins to cut. Thus held, it is in position to
take off a very thin shaving, which it will do easily
and cleanly. A few experiments made by varying the
angle at which the edge meets the work, will soon teach
the learner how to get the best effects, and how to
obtain at pleasure thick or thin shavings. One fact
he will soon learn to appreciate, namely, the advantage
of a small clearance angle — i.e., the clearance below
the edge by which the face is prevented from rubbing.
The graver is a right or left tool, and will work on
either face of a shoulder, or round a beading, or into a
hollow, and may be considered, for outside work, a
universal tool. It may be also used with the bevel
L 2
252 A FE IV WORDS ON THE USE OF HAND-TURNING TOOLS FOR METAL.
upwards, because the angle of the edge is the same in
that case as before ; but, in so using it, it is not so
easy to give it a good bearing on the rest. It is, how-
ever, the way it is often used upon work of small
diameter. I spoke casually of the handle. In the case
of hand-tools for metal, where a good grip is essentia',
the handles should be large, and of beech or ash, which
hold the tang more firmly than hard wood, on account
of their greater elasticity. No workman cares for
smart handles.
The triangular tool, whether of the orthodox
pattern, as purchased at the tool shops, or made of a
worn-out three-square file, has three cutting edges,
each of 6o°, and each is curved lengthwise, so that
the edges form part of a large circle, and are more or
less convex. This is a royal hand-tool for facing up
the ends of bars, or the side faces of shoulders, or hol-
lowing out work. It is held like the graver, a little
under-hand — i.e., the handle is highest generally.
Thus the strain of the cut is counteracted by pulling
down the handle, the rest forming, as before, the
fulcrum. The same rule about the clearance angle
also obtains as with a graver, but with this tool it is
easy to take a broader shaving. A triangular tool
will of course turn up a cylinder, but is not so con-
venient as the graver, and is more suited for
mere face-work and for inside turning. In using
it for the latter purpose, the amount of clearance
attainable will depend on the inside diameter of
the work, but the least that can be managed will
prove the best. The difficulty is not with shallow
work, especially if it is large enough to admit one end
of the T of the rest inside it to support the tool,
but deep work is barely possible, and never attempted
with hand-tools, but is drilled or bored with a boring-
bar or tool held in the slide-rest.
In boring out such a job as an iron cup chuck by
hand, only a narrow shaving is taken at a time, and
the tool is very gradually advanced, partly by pushing
it forward bodily, and partly by causing the tool to
rotate a little, horizontally, on the rest, the rounded or
convex outline enabling successive portions of the
edge to come into cut. A tool is more quickly blunted
in boring, because it is difficult so to manage it as to
keep its point under the hard skin of the casting. It
is a good plan to lay an old file flat on the rest and let
it scrape off what it will of this skin, and then to take
the triangular tool over it. Any attempt to use the
full length of edge, or even an inch of it in this way,
will only fail. The work must be done step by step,
in successive rings, so to speak, of about tV to f in.
wide. When all the rough part is gone, the whole
may be levelled by a wider series of shavings, but let !
them be quite thin — i.e., work with a small clearance j
angle. Now I do not for a moment pretend to advise '
anyone who has, and can use effectively, the inside
tools fitted to his slide-rest, to substitute a hand-tool
for a real job of boring, but many a job occurs when
the hand-rest is mounted in place, and for which it is
not worth while to set up the slide-rest — and a hand-
tool is then the proper one to use. I also should use
it for such a job as boring out iron or steel rings, of
perhaps, half-an-inch in width, which is just the work
a triangular tool will do rapidly and well ; and if I am
about to turn up a cylinder with the normal slide-rest
tools, I almost invariably true up its end first with
this hand-tool. I also use it under bolt heads, and on
the face of the latter, to save changing tools in the
slide-rest.
It will be noticed in Figs. I and 2, that the rest is
not that commonly used in turning wood, but has a
rectangular flat top. The ordinary rest would be
seriously damaged by the indentations caused by the
angle of the tool cutting into and notching it. If it
is, however, used, it will be necessary to repair such
damages with a file before it is again used for wood
turning, or (specially) for screw-chasing. In most
cases one of the forms represented in perspective, by
Fig. 3 or 4, will be found most convenient as a general
rest for metal turning, especially if the hook or heel
tool is to be used. Its triangular shape allows it to be
adjusted very close to the work, even when this is very
short, or when it has awkward hollows, into which
the tool has to penetrate.
The hook tool, Fig. 5, represented in profile, is the
most powerful of hand-tools for roughing-down work.
Its proper position is with the front face almost tan-
gential, as shown by the dotted line A B. It will cut,
if placed as represented, but not so well, as the ten-
dency will be to take too deep a cut, and the edge, in
such a position, is too weak to stand much strain.
As a general rule, all cutting tools should have this
tangential position, whether they are engaged on wood
or metal. On this depends, in fact, the excellence of
the work produced.
The edge of the hook tool for roughing is rounded
as C, Fig. 7, the straight edged one D being the finish-
ing tool. The latter is also used to get into sharp
angles, and for other purposes. Both are bevelled
from the inside. With these it is evidently a matter
of necessity to use a flat-topped rest for the heel to
act upon, and. as the heel tools are long in the shank,
and fitted into long handles, any amount of leverage
is obtainable, and large chips and shavings can be
removed. These tools are, nevertheless, very manage-
able, and capable of delicate work as well as deep
cutting. To rough down a bar with one, begin at the
angle facing the tool round a little towards the left,
and as the cut is in progress cause the end of the
tool to take a semicircular sweep. It will thus cut
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
253
with something like the action of the graver, and when
the edge ceases to cut, the heel must be shifted and
another sweeping cut taken. The reason for not
attacking at once the cylindrical surface which has to
be reduced, is that the hard outer skin would have to
be brought too much into direct contact with the
cutting edge, which would thereby be ground off and
blunted rapidly. By commencing at the angle and
working as directed, this is avoided, and the tool is
caused to act upon the clean metal, which is of a
much softer nature, does not blunt the tool for a long
time, and is quite easy to cut, except in the case of
some particularly coarse castings, which defy almost
all ordinary tool edges. It is questionable whether
it is ever worth while to work upon metal of this
class, which ought to be at once relegated to the
scrap-heap, and its place supplied by castings of better
quality.
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD HERON-ALLEN.
V— The// Holes— The Neck and Scroll— The
Bridge— The Purfling— Ornamentation .
E have now discussed the interior construc-
tion and parts of the violin, it now
remains therefore, to consider those
parts of the instrument which meet the
eye, and which, whilst serving each its
allotted purpose in the building up of the perfect whole,
and in producing the perfect result, tend to give the
fiddle that graceful appearance and elegance of detail
which at once strikes the most casual observer.
The f f Holes, or Sound Holes. — For the model or
outline of these there exists no rule. As will be seen
from the Figs. 17 to 25, from the earliest days of fiddle-
making each maker of any originality has designed,
and to a great extent invariably kept to, his own par-
ticular form of /hole, so that the amateur or beginner
has only to devolve his own idea, or follow the pattern
of one of his great ancestors in fiddle-making. In
striking a new outline certain rules below set forth
must be followed, for the reasons there given, but
before considering the/ hole from its scientific aspect,
I will shortly enumerate a couple of perfect methods
for copying the/holes of any given fiddle. (1.) Having
got the instrument of which you desire to copy the /
hole, place over either of the / holes a piece of soft
white paper. Then, holding the paper firmly to prevent
it slipping, with one hand, with an old dirty glove, or
with the slightly dirtied finger of the other hand, rub
the paper just over the/hole strongly, and the outline
will appear on the paper in the same manner as
impressions of fretwork, etc., are obtained with a heel-
ball. I find that my gloves or fingers, when at work,
are always dirty enough for this purpose. (2.) To
obtain the exact outline and position in the belly
of any pair of/ holes, as in Fig. 32, the following
excellent method is given by MM. Maugin et Maigne.
Having detached the belly of the instrument you wish
to reproduce in facsimile, take a piece of strong parch-
ment large enough to cover the portion of the belly
indicated in the Fig. Take any large piece of cloth
and folding it several times place it on the table.
Stretch the parchment over this cushion, and press the
belly upside down into the cushion covered with
parchment, and with a finely-pointed pencil draw the
interior outlines of the //holes and the exterior out-
line of the belly, as shown in the figure, and there you
have Fig. 32 complete. This parchment outline may
either be kept in a portfolio for future use, or trans-
ferred to a thin leaf of wood (TVinch thick), which is
more durable but not so convenient to work with. The
interior of the// holes and the exterior of the outline
are to be very carefully cut out. Now as regards the
//"holes with respect to their influence on the entire
fiddle and its tone. As M. Fetis justly remarks, it
would be a great mistake to suppose that the position
and form of the// holes are arbitrary. The position
of these//holes, their form, the minutest details of
their cutting, are such essential points that no alteration
whatever can be made in them without injuring the
quality of the tone, and for this reason, that the fj
holes influence to a powerful degree the sound of the
mass of air contained within the body of the instru-
ment. If they are too small, or if one be covered up,
the sound of the contained air becomes lower, if they
are cut too large it rises. The //holes must therefore
be regulated by the size of the fiddle, and the propor-
tion of the ff holes must be so adjusted that the
contained mass of air renders the requisite 512 vibra-
tions. If they be too large the tone of the violin
becomes harsh and shrill, and when too small they
make it more woolly or viola-like. Savart has
observed that the //holes in some of the larger violins
of Maggini are too large, consequently that the note
given by the mass of air in the interior is heightened,
and the tone is thereby impaired, but time has in a
great measure repaired this defect, at any rate it is one
that I have never noticed. After all, what can be more
consummately graceful than the// holes of Stradivari
or Santo Seraphin, and why should we try to improve
upon them ?
The Neck and Scroll {or Hand). — On the proper
proportion of this part of the instrument depends its
entire "personal appearance," quite as much as on an
elegant outline ; however graceful may be your fiddle,
254
VlO LIN-MA KING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
a weak or uncouth scroll will
utterly mar its symmetry, and
besides this it has considerable
influence on the tone of a fiddle,
according to the nature and
quality of the wood, which must
be neither too hard nor too soft,
because it is one of the channels
by which the vibrations of the
string are conveyed to the body
of the instrument (the bridge
being the other). And again it
has to bear the entire strain of
the four united strings, and if
not of good seasoned wood and
properly proportioned, this com-
paratively gigantic pull would
twist it out of shape. Great
care must therefore be taken to
make it in proper proportions,
angles, and curves, and above
all to set it upon the violin pro-
perly, that is, that it be in a line
with the centre join of the in-
strument, that it be so fixed that
the finger-board shall have the
proper rise, proportioned to the
instrument, and that when you
look at the fiddle edgeways,
holding it perfectly upright, the
eye of the scroll is in a line with
W
fig. 33.
FRONT VIEW.
-THE NECK AND SCROLL.
For
explanation of lettering, etc., see text under
this heading.
the edge of tk9-H£&ck. The
proper proportions, as shown
in Fig. 33, are given below, as
taken from a very perfect neck
and scroll kindly placed at my
service by Mr. W. E. Hill. It
must be prefaced this is an ex-
cellent average head, but of
course it will vary slightly in
different styles, and secondly,
the neck as now made, is quite
\ inch longer than the old
makers used to make it, and
it is for this reason that so many
(in fact nearly all) old violins
have been re-necked. The neck
and scroll are cut from a block
of maple, 9J to 10 inches long
by 2 in. deep by if in. wide (all
the following measurements are
in inches and fractions of an inch),
and when finished ought so to
touch all these dimensions at its
most prominent parts (front and
back of scroll, front and back of
shoulder) as to lie perfectly flat
on a smooth surface, if placed
on its face, back, or sides. The
following are the measurements:
A B, c D, E F, 2 in. ; R S, 9f in. ; A c,
B D, 2 in. ; G H, I \ in. ; L K, -f6 in. ;
FIG. 32. —f HOLES IN BELLY.
FIG. 34. — BRIDGE OF SEVEN-STRINGED
VIOL.*
FIG. 35. — BRIDGE OF FIVE-STRINGED
VIOL.
FIG. 39. — ORNAMENTAL PURF-
LING— STRADIVARIUS.
FIG 36.— ANCIENT VIOLIN BRIDGF.
FIG. 38.— MODERN VIOLIN BRIDGE. FIG. 37 —ANCIENT VIOLIN BRIDGE.
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
255
I J, fin. ; EL, 45 in. ; L S, 5! in. ; R T,
-fiin.;ON, |in.;QP,fJin. The peg-box
is y% in. deep on the line O N, -*-£ in. deep
on the line Q P, and 3 in. long on the
line P N. Looking at the neck and
scroll as in the front view, the measure-
ments are, vw, ifin.;XY, Its in.; tu,
1 2 in. The peg-box is J in. broad at a'.
The cheeks of the peg-box are -fV in-
thick. The summit of the scroll b' is
-Js in. broad. The base of the volute
c' c', f in. broad. The eyes of the scroll,
T, are i in. in diameter. From these
exact measurements, and the figure,
if carefully followed, a most exquisite
scroll may be traced, far better than
the Fig., which merely illustrates the
method. To copy in facsimile the
scroll of any given fiddle, the following
is the best plan. Take as directed for
copying ff holes a cushion and piece
of strong parchment, and arrange
them as there set down. Take the
scroll you wish to copy, and from
which the pegs have been removed,
and pressing it into the cushion, draw
a line round it with a pencil from L to
K. as nearly exactly as possible, and
removing the scroll, correct it as far as
possible by the eye. Then draw upon
it the lines R L and c D, crossing
each other exactly at a right angle
at T. From the point T where they
meet, measure exactly, with a pair of
dividers, the breadth of the scroll on
either side of it (the point T will be
indicated on the outline by the dent
which the eye makes in the paper or
parchment). Then, in the same man-
ner, measure off the distances from
T of the respective volutes at the four
points where they touch the lines R L,
C D, and thus, with the dividers con-
stantly comparing your drawing with
the original, you will get an exact
copy of the profile of the scroll you
wish to reproduce. The elevation is
traced and compared at the points B',
C C', T u, a' and Z, in exactly the
same manner.
The Bridge.— As we saw in Chap.
I. the bridge was an improvement in-
troduced comparatively late in the
history of bowed instruments, though
as I have said before, the evidence
FIG. 40. —
ORNAMENTALLY INLAID PURFLING.
FIG. 41.—
EXAMPLE OF ELABJRATE INLAYING.
from which we have to collect the his-
tory of the violin — namely, pictures
and sculptures, leaves much to be de-
sired in the matter of completeness of
detail. The early bridges would, how-
ever, appear to have been very rude,
as will be seen by turning to Figs. 2
and 12, and in the time of the viols
not much progress had been made.
M. Fetis gives three figures of bridges:
Figs. 34, 36 and 37. Fig. 34 is a viol
bridge to support seven strings, and, as
will be seen, is very elementary. Figs.
36 and 37 are two old violin bridges,
distinctly approximating the modern
form, which design was settled upon
by Stradivarius, and has never since
been altered. Fig. 35 is from a curious
old five-string treble viol, in the pos-
session of Mr. W. E. Hill.
It must not be imagined that the
design thus fixed upon by the greatest
fiddle-maker in the world was merely
his idea of what was most pretty,
though to this day there are a great
many violinists who are firmly under
the impression that the ornamental
cutting of the bridge is merely a
matter of taste. Very far from it, for
countless experiments have been made
as to altering the accepted design,
any deviation from which has proved
injuriously to affect the tone of any
instrument to which it is applied. It
is difficult to imagine the reason of
this, how it is that a little piece of
maple, which merely serves to keep
the strings off the finger-board should
have such a powerful effect on the tone
of the instrument to which it is not
fastened in any way, being merely
kept in its place by the pressure of
the four strings. The first explanation
of this influence must be sought for in
the fact that it is the principal channel
by which the vibrations of the strings
pass to the belly by way of the bass
bar, and to the back by way (in a
lesser degree) of the sound-post. In
consequence of these its important
functions, its proportions, and position
on the bridge must be very nicely
adjusted to the quality of the violin
to which it is affixed. For instance,
if it be too thick, the vibrations of
256
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND 13
the strings will not pass with sufficient rapidity to
the belly. Its height must also be most carefully
adjusted to the quality of the instrument, for if it is
too high the tone will be dull and sluggish, and if it is
too low, a harsh, piercing tone will be the result. As
it is of the greatest importance (as will be discussed
further on) that the strings be supported at a proper
height from the end of the finger-board, and it is of
equal importance that the bridge be not raised or
lowered to maintain this distance ; the height of the
finger-board must be suited to that of the bridge, not
. the height of the bridge to that of the finger-board.
According to Otto, a good violin whose wood has not
been worked too thin, will require a higher bridge as
the vibrations are easier to produce, though the higher
the bridge the more perceptible become the faults of
the fiddle; and on the other hand certain faults may, in
some measure, be glossed over by a low bridge, at the
expense, however, of the power of the instrument.
In an earlier edition of the same work, the same
author contends that the suitability of a bridge depends
more upon its weight than its height; and mentions a
most simple and ingenious mode of discovering the
precise weight of bridge which any instrument requires.
He made six little wooden clips, like one-pronged
mutes, weighing respectively 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 grains.
Having found that any bridge was unsuitable to the
instrument to which it was applied, he tried on it
successively these little wooden weights, clipping them
between the D and A strings. Having found thus with
which clip the result was best, he weighed the clip
and the bridge together and proceeded to make a new
bridge, the weight of the old one plus the satisfactory
clip. Of course, the clip must only act as weights, and
not hold the bridge so as to act as mutes. The bridge
must be made of spotted maple, neither too hard nor
too soft, the grain horizontal, its proportions should be
just half as thick at the top as at the feet. Care must
be taken to select a bridge made of wood which accords
with that of the fiddle in its consistency, grain, etc.
The greatest care must be taken that the feet of
the bridge fit the arching of the belly, where they rest,
so as to leave no interval between them, as such will
render the sound hollow and dull. The top of the
bridge must only so far be rounded as to prevent the
bow touching two strings at once, unless required to
do so by the performer ; and, lastly, the four little
grooves made to receive the strings must be as shallow-
as possible consistent with effectiveness.
As regards its position on the belly of the fiddle,
its exact position is just between the two nicks in the
ff holes (unless the position of such nicks, or the ff
holes be eccentric), at an exactly equal distance from
each, and the left foot must stand exactly over the
centre of the bass bar. The most extensive and in-
structive experiments on the bridge are those of M.
Savart, as determining the necessity of the Stradi-
varian incisions, he commenced by making a bridge
quite plain, and without cuttings in it at all, and the
tone of the instrument was almost entirely destroyed.
On cutting feet in his bridge an improvement was
perceptible, which greatly increased as he made lateral
ncisions in it ; and the tone gradually improved till it
reached perfection, as the bridge attained its present
system of ornamentation (Fig. 38). Any change in
wood has similarly proved prejudicial to the instru-
ment. As we have seen before, the right foot of the
bridge is comparatively rigid, whilst the left foot
vibrates the bar and belly, therefore, if the right foot
of the bridge be held (as by a mute), the effect will not
be nearly so perceptible as if the action of the left
foot were similarly impeded.
The Purfling. — This is the last trace which is left
us of the extraordinary amount of ornamentation with
which violins used to be loaded, and which I shall
shortly notice in its proper place. It is composed as
a rule of a strip of plane-tree, glued between two strips
of the same wood stained black, which sandwich is
exceedingly brittle, and difficult to bend into shape
and inlay. It is inlaid in four or six pieces: either, from
corner to corner, or, from the centre-join, three on each
side of the back, and the same number on the belly,
it is the mark of a good workman to make these
joins at the corners and ends, as imperceptible as pos-
sible ; Stradivari, as will be seen on looking at any one
of his fiddles, excelled in this respect. Some makers
have used whalebone for this purpose to get over these
difficulties ; (Jacobs of Amsterdam) and others have
merely painted a line round their instruments (Peter
Walmsley), and this latter method is often still pursued
with the commonest class of instruments. Maggini
and his copyists have made use of double rows, and
curls and designs executed in purfling, but this has
been said to injure the tone of a fiddle, and certainly,
to my mind, whilst it can do no good, it does not im-
prove the appearance of an instrument. The usual
diameter for the purfling is about -^ inch, and is set
at a distance of T35 of an inch from the edge of the
fiddle. Its only real use (which probably has preserved
it after the relinquishment of profuse ornamentation)
is, that it serves to preserve the edges of the instru-
ment from splintering, by, as it were, binding the fibres
together as a border.
Ornamentatio?i. — The ornamentation of fiddles is
practically obsolete, as I have just remarked, but in
former times the very best masters ornamented their
fiddles occasionally. Before the days of the violin, of
course nearly all viols were ornamented in some way,
and after their extinction violins could not quite get
rid of this superfluous charm, which has come down to
AN AMATEUR'S TOOL-CASE.
257
us in the shape of the purfling. Maggini was especi-
ally fond of a fantastic arrangement and reduplication
of the purfling, of which Fig. 40 is a specimen, and
nearer home it was a favourite peculiarity of Barak
Norman, our last native viol maker. The practice of
using a simple ornamental purfling (or rather two
rows with a design worked between them) has been
followed by the highest members of the fraternity of
fiddle-makers. Fig. 39 is an ornamental border copied
from a violin of Stradivarius, the same as is figured
by Mr. Hart from the Plowden collection. Another
mode of ornamentation once very much in vogue, but
now entirely obsolete, is the practice of inlaying. The
instruments were inlaid with views, medallions, crests,
or fancy designs. Fig. 41 is a fiddle of the Stradivarius
model, very- finely inlaid, which also presents another
form of ornamentation — namely, the sculptured scroll
or head. This was another relique of the viols,
which nearly always had sculptured heads. Jacob
Steiner was the most frequent adopter of this form
of ornament ; and his followers of the German school
have very freely reproduced this peculiarity of their
great master, his favourite form was the lion's head,
but he not unfrequently seems to have executed
human and other heads, probably reproductions of the
crests of the patrons for whom the instruments were
made. There exists also instruments with carved
heads by Stradivari, they are beautifully executed, but
are inestimably rare. I have before noticed the prin-
cipal makers of violins abroad and at home, and
alluded to the peculiarities of form, &c, by which the
instruments of these makers are distinguished, but I
have said but little about their ornamentation with
painting, &c. (Vide Chap. II.) It is not uncommon to
find very old violins painted with medallions and other
similar ornamentation. Some makers, notably Benjamin
Banks, of Salisbury, and Santo Seraphin, have em-
bellished their instruments by branding them with
their initials or other device. The favourite spots for
this kind of initialling seems to have been under the
tail-piece, on the side close to the tail-pin, and under
the finger-board. Lastly, the most (and only) modern
form of embellishment is the practice of fitting up instru-
ments with inlaid accessories, such as tail-piece, pegs,
and finger-board — the first most usually, the second
sometimes, the third seldom. The first are so familiar
in the show-cases of any violin-maker that they need
no description ; the second are not so much used, but
undoubtedly a small gold stud or small plate let into
the peg is not at all amiss with very old instruments ;
the finger-board is seldom ornamented in any way,
but at one time it was not at all uncommon to inlay it
with fancy designs of various sorts, and particularly
with little pearl spots where the notes are formed, and
sometimes a complete scale up to the highest E. The
same remarks apply to all these (excepting as afore-
said)— namely, that they are a mistake, apart from the
fact that they do not improve the look of a clumsy
fiddle, and certainly mar a good one ; these inlaid slabs
of pearl, silver and ivory are very apt to come loose and
jar unpleasantly, and are generally more bother than
they are worth. And, lastly, one remark applies to all
the forms of ornamentation above mentioned — namely,
that except as curiosities they are not a success ; what
can be wanted more than the plain line of purfle, which
merely emphasizes the graceful outline of a well-made
fiddle. What carved head was ever more graceful or
pleasing than a perfectly cut scroll ; what art can inlay
a design so perfect and aesthetic as the natural waves
of a handsome slab of figured maple ; and is it not a
sin to cover up these beauties with a coat of paint (as
if it were a door) ? Branding does not do much harm,
but is unnecessary, for the original model of a first-
rate maker requires not his name burnt into it, which
only serves as something else for the unscrupulous to
copy, and the charlatan to insist upon. Now, there-
fore, we have theoretically discussed our entire instru-
ment from its scientific and mathematical point of
view, it rests now therefore only to notice that all-
important subject, the varnish, and thence, from the
fitting up of a fiddle into playing order, to the last
accessory of the art, namely the strings.
{To be continued?)
AN AMATEUR'S TOOL-CASE.
IKE most amateurs whose proclivities in-
cline them to the use of the saw and
the plane, the writer's stock of tools had
gradually been augmented by occasional
additions, until some suitable receptacle
for them had become a necessity. Quite naturally, per-
haps, I at once adopted the idea of procuring a box, and
a little search among the contents of a certain lumber-
room rewarded me with such an one as I believed
I could adapt to my requirements. It was rather wider
and shallower than I wished, but this I afterwards
found to be more convenient than otherwise. Having
fitted it up with receptacles for brads, tacks, screws,
etc., as well as departments for the smaller tools,
according to their respective uses — brad-awls and
gimlets, chisels and gouges, and similar associates
being arranged together — it served the purpose very
well for a time ; but as other additions continued to be
made to the original stock of tools as inclination sug-
gested, or necessity required, it became evident that a
box, however commodious, was not the most con-
venient receptacle for them. Perhaps the suggestion
258
AN AMATEUR'S TOOL-CASE.
derived much of its potency from the consideration
that there was no anticipation of an early change of
residence. With such an event in prospect, it is not
likely that I would have given any serious attention to
the suggestion upon which I acted, and which I have
since found to be most convenient and satisfactory.
I had come to the conclusion that a tool-case con-
structed like a cupboard would best satisfy my want,
and I at once commenced preparations for its construc-
tion. I shall now endeavour, as explicitly as I can, to
give my readers such details as will enable them to
undertake a like job for themselves.
The boards from which I made the frame of my
case were 1 1 inches broad, and J inch in thickness. I
:^-.^ — -y . ../,-.. : ,s., ,.-.: ^__ , ;
about J inch in thickness. The accompanying sketch
(Fig. i) will convey an idea of the manner in which I
fitted up the case. The compartment a is about 3 feet
in height, 8 inches wide, and was principally intended
for hanging saws in. The lower shelf is 14 inches from
the bottom of the case. My object for this was to
allow it to take in an ordinary bottle perpendicularly.
As I sometimes do a little plain painting, I was aware
of the advisability of having some secure place for
bottles with oil, turpentine, etc. The second shelf is
9 inches above the first, and the remaining space is
equally divided into four compartments. One of the
boards forming these divisions forms the top of the
space in which the saws are suspended, as well as a
I'1!1"'!!
j|'f
If
B
•-J
[:
A
■ 1
"
1
FIG. I. — FRAME.WORK OF CASE-
■FRONT VIEW. FIG. 2. — FRONT OF CASE, READY FOR DOORS AND MOULDINGS.
Scale, j of an inch to the foot.
cut the side-lengths to 4 feet, and the top and bottom
pieces to 3 feet. After planing and preparing them, I
dovetailed them together. If the amateur would
rather shirk the latter operation, if he is careful to
square the ends of his wood properly, he may nail the
pieces together. But if he has had any experience
in dovetailing, I would certainly recommend it in
preference to nails, as being more substantial and
workmanlike.
I covered the back with J-inch lining boards, which
are to be obtained from any wood merchant, ploughed
ready for use. For the sake of appearance, the ama-
teur had better give them a rub over on the right
side with the smoothing-plane; the " right " side, in this
instance, being that which will be inside the case.
The boards of which I made the shelves were i inch
thick, as from the saw, but when planed smooth, were
support for the head of the partition upon which the
ends of the lower three shelves rest.
The next thing to be considered is the front. A
glance at Fig. 2 will convey some conception of the
plan I adopted. I made a frame of wood 3 inches
broad, and if inches thick to go right round, with an
upright bar in the centre, the whole being fixed toge-
ther with mortise and tenon. Tenons cut on the ends
of the centre bar were let into mortises in the end-
pieces, and tenons on the ends of the end-pieces were,
in turn, let into mortises in the side-pieces. Before
fixing together, I ran a j-inch bead plane along the
inside edges of the frame, or rather I should say it was
done — as it should be — before the tenons were cut or
the mortises made. If neatly done, this will leave a
complete bead round each door. This frame is nailed
to the front of the case; and if it has been made
THE FIRE-PLACE IN SUMMER.
259
slighdy large, as it is well that it should, there will be
a little border to clean oft" with a plane.
Before passing oh to write of the doors, I have a
word or two to say about the spaces marked A and B
on Fig. 2. In front, these are about 14 inches wide,
between the front framing, by about 5^ inches deep,
between the shelves. At each side of these spaces I
fitted boards on edge, flush with the edges of the front
framing, and extending backwards to the back of the
case. By this time my reader will probably have
guessed that I had prepared sheaths or cases for a
couple of drawers, and I think he will agree with me
that in such an article as a tool-case, a couple of
drawers are very much in place. As the doors close
quite upon the edges of the shelves, and as I did not
have a pair of flush handles convenient, I allowed the
drawers to recede slightly from the front of the case, so
that there might be room for a screw-ring, or knob, in
the front of each.
The kind of door for such a case must be decided
according to the ideas or circumstances of the amateur
constructing the article. One may be quite pleased
with a plain ledge door, while another may be satis-
fied with nothing less than a proper framed door.
The plan I adopted gave the appearance of the latter
with little more labour than would be involved in the
construction of the former. My frame, as I have said,
was i-| inch in thickness ; and the apertures to be
closed, about 14 inches wide. I took two pieces of
board of the necessary length and width, and when
planed, f inch thick. These I fitted into the apertures
of the frame as doors, but I was not satisfied with this.
I next took some slips off inch wood, i\ inches broad,
which I dressed and squared. Upon one side I made
a moulding, f inch broad, with an O-G moulding
plane, and with the slips thus prepared I planted the
outside of my doors, of course keeping the square
edges along the edges of the doors, and the moulding
inwards. There is a little caution to be added if my
reader wishes the deception to be complete, as viewed,
of course, from the outside. He must consider that
he requires to keep the pieces appearing as styles full
width from top to bottom of door, but cutting the
mouldings at an angle where they meet on the inner
edges. For the middle and lower rails these slips
should be considerably broader than the styles and
top-rail, but proportionate to the size of the door being
thus executed. While the inside of the doors of my
tool-case is just plain board, the outside has all the
appearance of a proper framed door. I secure my
case with a lock on each door, as being the most handy
and neat.
There is only one thing more to which I need refer,
namely, a bit of moulding round the top and bottom,
and this, I think, I may unhesitatingly leave to the
taste of the individual himself, as well as the staining
and varnishing, or painting, of his tool-case when
finished. J. S. S. O.
a- ^-jh =
THE FIRE-PLACE IN SUMMER.
By J. W. GLEESON-WHITE.
(For Illustrations, see the Supplevient to this Part.)
OW and then, even in this cultured half of
the nineteenth century, one hears the old
street cry of " Ornaments for your fire-
stoves," and sees the would-be seller,
generally a faded female, laden with ex-
traordinary combinations of tissue paper, arranged in
the most glaring colour discords, and as ill adapted for
the purpose they are intended to fulfil as it is possible
to imagine. Surely if any part of the house suggests
solidity and fixture, it is the centre and focus of our
peculiarly English admiration— the open grate ; and
it is doubtful why tissue paper was ever conceived to be
a fit decoration for cast iron. One fancies that the
evolution of the present (or to put it hopefully, the past)
fire-apron must have been somewhat in this way.
Some original mind " laid in the fire " for the summer
with clean paper shavings, possibly of bright colour
instead of the " yesterday's paper," usually to be found
there; this we may imagine was, if an ornamental, still a
real "fire "(as domestic habit has named the fuel) if need
be. But the copyists who, then as now, worry every
new idea, good or bad, to death, gradually lessened the
reality, and more and more paper cut in fearful shapes,
grew until the outcome was that wondrous culmination
of tissue paper, called the fire-apron ; then muslin arti-
ficial flowers and other etceteras were pressed into the
service, until the well-known joke by Charles Keane in
" Punch," of the children, who, seeing for the first time
the summer arrangement of the grate, say that Aunty
is getting up the drawing-room chimney in her ball
dress, was possible, and exactly described that speci-
men of the genus whose progress I have tried to
follow. Unsuitable for its purpose, a fearful collector
of dust, liable to be set on fire by a half-lighted match
thrown heedlessly into the fender, we may hope that
any change in this direction, whatever it may be,
must yet be in some, if not in every way, a change for
the better.
An oft-suggested plan for the decoration of the
grate, by laying in knobs of coal and small branches
of natural wood, with the grey lichen or moss clinging
to it, is, on the whole, good, but where the mantel-
piece and grate are ugly in themselves, and it is not
expedient to change them, a plan that would hide
more of the fire-place will be likely to find favour.
260
THE FIRE-PLACE IN SUMMER.
Looking-glass has been fitted into the space left
between the jambs of the mantel, but this so thorough-
ly closes the ventilation of the chimney that if for
no other reason, one would be loth to adopt it. As in
the heat of the summer it is against all reason to
close one of the most useful, sometimes, the only
place for ventilation in the room.
Several distinct treatments may be adopted, either
to hide the whole grate and mantel as far as may be,
to simply screen the empty bars, or hide the grate only
by an adaptation of the whole chimney-board. A few
suggestions for each way are illustrated in this part of
Amateur Work, Illustrated.
The fan-shaped fire-screen shown in Fig. I is an
adaptation in wood of a design that was greatly in
vogue on the continent last summer, though more as a
fire-guard perhaps than a screen. Still the design, if
only from its novelty, will please many, and as the
fitting together is most simple, it is within the reach of
any fretwork cutter to make it. Eleven of the
leaves (Fig. 2), two of the uprights (Fig. 3), and two of
the cross-pieces (Fig. 4) complete the design. To work
the leaves a fine close-grain but light wood should be
chosen, not more than j inch in thickness ; to avoid
monotony and trouble at least four leaves may be
worked at a time by screwing the wood together, seeing
that the screws pierce only those parts of the design
that are cut away, and working those portions the last.
For the uprights (Fig. 3) a thicker piece of wood should
be chosen, \ to f of an inch. One of these for the
back would be best left solid, the outline only cut; this
gives more weight to the base. Two pieces (Fig. 4)
should be worked in the thickness of the uprights.
These pieces and the standards are notched into each
other, as shown at E, E, in Figs. 3 and 4. Between
these, when put together, fit a square block of wood
weighted, or else stand the whole on a wood block for
the base, to which it should be fixed. To put the leaves
together, thread them with ribbon like an ordinary lady's
fan. This is so simple, and within everyone's reach,
that it is not necessary to explain the construction ; the
ribbon is fixed in its place with glue. A peg fitting
tightly connecting the uprights (at a, A, as in the
design) is first passed through one upright, then through
the holes A of the leaves, and fits into the back upright.
If preferred it may be longer than the whole thickness
it connects, and fixed with a peg through a hole at
either end. A peg or brass nail hung at the back by a
cord can be used to keep the fan shut up. By closing
the leaves and passing the peg through the holes B, B,
the fan will be kept closed when not required for use.
For alternative treatment the fan leaves might be
cut in solid wood, and painted with any suitable design.
In this case the uprights should be more simply made,
probably the necessary uprights, in a simple form,
based on this — j.< would be best. Or the monotony of
work may be relieved by the leaves left solid between
C and D (save the holes b), affording space for a spray
of flowers to be painted.
If the uprights (Fig. 3) of the fan-screen are made
much higher, and the lower part of the design is cut
and placed at right angles, as shown in Fig. 5, the
frame connected by bars at G, G and H, H, will be a
substitute for the metal framework of the shops for a
similar purpose. A curtain in needlework hangs well
on such a frame as this, and fulfils the purpose of
screening what it is wished to hide as well, or better
than many of the more elaborate designs.
If a chimney-board is used, it should on no account
be solid, but either covered with a material that admits
the air to pass through it, or else left with spaces of fret-
work, or other perforations, to allow the very needful
circulation of the air. If so treated, the other part
may be glazed, as in Fig. 9. If the glazed panels were
made with a backboard, opening like the transparent
slate of childhood, a frequent change of pictures
might be possible, and if the fire-place is in a good
light, it might be possible to design it to hold etchings
from the " Portfolio," or any other journal taken in by
members of the household, to be changed as each new
number is received. In this case one of the panels
should be arranged upright, and others oblong, to suit
pictures either shape. In Fig. 10 this is shown, with
a framework of wood about 3 inches wide, panelled
into two large and two smaller openings. These are
glazed, and a mount, either oak or gilded wood, is
formed by four pieces of thin wood, mitred at the
corners, and placed behind or in front of the glass at
will ; the side-panels are fitted with a lattice-work of
small wood-work each piece square in section. This
might be lined with thin silk to keep out the dust, or
left open if more air is desired. The opening of the
grate varies so much that only a general idea of the
size can be given. In Fig. 9 another plan is shown of
arranging wood in simply fitting together the larger
squares "rabbetted" for glazing, or left as panels to
receive painted decoration ; the triangles between are
backed by thin wood, perforated to admit air.
The design in Fig. 7 is for a flower stand, the back
of which should just fit the opening of the grate ; the
construction is of the simplest form. Turned wood
might be substituted with advantage for the uprights,
the back should be lined with silk or cretonne to pre-
vent the possible damage to the plants from the
draught of the chimney; in oak or ebonised wood it
would suit a handsomely furnished room, while for a
less ornate one it would probably be fairly satisfactory
painted, but not green, as against the natural foliage
green paint is a hideous contrast.
A miniature screen, as shown in Fig. 6, is
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
ill
another, and perhaps the most effective method
of hiding a grate, while leaving it ready for use the
moment it is needed. The skeleton framework is
made of wood, half an inch square in section, and con-
sists entirely of pieces the same thickness and make.
If made in a very light wood, the outside uprights
might be f inch by i inch, but the effect will be best if
the square rod was used everywhere. The construc-
tion being so simple, it seems hardly necessary to enter
into detail, as the drawing shows the working ; the four
cross bars should be mortised into the uprights, and
pegged, but the other bars may be fixed with pegs, or
nails only if preferred ; the different leaves should hinge
in alternate ways, the panels should be of silk or other
material strained over a frame, covered one side and
fixed into the openings. The design shows a sugges-
tion of decorative treatment ; this may be adopted or
varied at pleasure, either painting on silk or wood,
crewel or any needlework, would be effective, or a
self-colour stamped plush would be satisfactory if the
frame was made in oak or ebonised wood. Glass might
fill the openings to display dried ferns or grasses, or
even Christmas cards ; this last suggestion is not at
all in accordance with the idea of good taste held by
the writer, but that is such a variable quantity, and
in the present day most people seem to assume they
alone possess it, that the many who think the grate a
proper place to display their Christmas greetings may
be right in their opinion. The number of leaves of the
screen, and the height, depends entirely on the grate ;
2 feet high, and six leaves, is the size given here, each
leaf being 6 inches wide.
An etagere for bric-a-brac, made in a size to fit
easily under the mantel-shelf, and covering the jambs, is
shown in Fig. 8. No size can be given for this, as
grates vary so much. The back frame should be
covered in some woven material to show up the
bric-a-brac, and keep off the dust from the chimney ;
when not required for the grate it would equally well
serve for a whatnot in any other part of the room. It
could be made in any wood to suit the rest of the
furniture, and capable of infinite variety of treatment.
The design shown is simply a suggestion of the sort of
thing required, slightly differing from an ordinary
whatnot in the height of back above the top shelf and
several other details.
The decoration of the grate with curtains and other
drapery is not quite within the limits of this article,
and may be treated in another paper on the grate.
It may be objected that the ways given to decorate
the grate consist for the most part of simply hiding
it, but save the simple arrangement of logs referred to
at first, there seems to be no other need to adorn any of
the beautiful grates of the present day ; with their
brass work or tiles, and low unobtrusive bars, they
are themselves sufficiently decorative. But for the
houses that have but the ordinary mantel of marble
or slate, or worse, and the badly-designed grate, it will
be the greatest relief that an eyesore that needs must
be borne in cold weather may be hidden as much as it
can during the bright summer season.
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
By GEORGE EDWINSON.
VI.— Silver-Plating Spoons, Forks, etc.
HE principles enunciated in my former
papers are amply sufficient for our
guidance in dealing with the work now
before us, and it therefore only remains
for me to emphasize all previous cautions
and instructions, adding a few hints applicable to the
work of silvering this class of goods.
At first we must consider that as these will be
subject to more wear and harder usage that those
mentioned in my last, it is necessary to employ extra
care in their preparation to ensure a perfect adhesion
of the coat of silver, as any failure in this point may
result in an unsightly blotch in the deposit where the
silver has stripped under the action of scratch-brush
or burnisher. Many of the silvered goods now sold
under the name of electro-plated spoons, forks, etc.,
have only a blush of silver upon them, and this soon
wears off, leaving a surface a little better than that of
German silver. Tons of such goods are now manu-
factured out of a superior quality of white metal (a
white brass nearly resembling silver), and sold as
electro-plated goods at such a price as should con-
vince purchasers that they are not getting much silver
for their money. Unfortunately, too, the public are
not able to test the thickness of the deposit of silver
on those articles, and, as they are finished equal in
appearance to those thickly plated, purchasers must
be guided by the price and trust to the honesty of the
vendor.
Perhaps I may be allowed to suggest here that
owners of such goods would do well to thickly plate
some new cheap goods themselves, and thus ensure
the possession of some good articles. To do this the
articles should be boiled for a few minutes in a mode-
rately strong solution of caustic soda or caustic potash,
well rinsed in clean water, immersed for a few minutes
in a solution of nitrate of mercury, polished up bright
with a piece of clean rag, and immersed in the plating
bath ; they must then be silvered and finished, as
shown further on.
262
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
We will now suppose that we have a miscellaneous
collection of spoons, forks, labels, etc., from which the
silver has been worn in patches, and in other ways
exhibit signs of daily wear and tear. When the silver
is worn off in patches the remaining patches of silver
must be stripped off in hot sulphuric
acid. Heat the acid in a vessel of
enamelled iron capable of holding
enough liquid to cover the articles,
wire the spoons and forks to be
stripped, immerse them in the hot
acid and gently move them in it,
sprinkle a little saltpetre over them,
and move them about until all
the silver has been dissolved off,
adding more saltpetre as the
action becomes sluggish. If this process is carefully
conducted, and the articles removed when all the
silver has been taken off, no injury will be done to the
articles themselves ; but when the silver is gone, the
acid will then attack the brass, German silver, or
other metal of which the articles are made. They
must next be well rinsed in clean water, and brushed
with a stiff brush or a wire scratch-brush to remove
any adherent particles of silver. They will then take
their places with the other articles, and, like them,
must be prepared for the plating bath.
Spoons must be examined for scratches, dents,
etc. These must be taken out ; the scratches, if not
too deep, with a fine file, but if very deep it will be
well to fill them up with solder and then work off all
superfluous solder with Water-of-Ayr stone. If the
shanks are bent, they should be shaped again with a
small mallet on a block of hard wood ; dents may be
punched out with a wooden punch. It will be noticed
that many of the spoons are much
worn under the points of the bowls,
the sharp edge of this part must be
filed down first, and then the edges of
the rest of the bowl filed down to
correspond. This will throw the point
down ; but it may be brought up to
the proper balance by a light blow or
two on the heel of the bowl. All file
marks must now be taken off with
Water-of-Ayr stone, and the spoon
polished up smooth. Forks will re-
quire similar attention, with the ad-
dition of slight repairs to and straightening of the
prongs or toes. A few forks of superior make may
sometimes be met with pointed with solid silver ;
these will require careful manipulation in the stripping
acid to avoid injuring the points. All articles made
of German silver, nickel silver, brass, aluminium,
bronze, or of copper, may be thus prepared. They
24. — IRON COLLARS FOR BUFFING
WHEEL.
must next be boiled for a few minutes in a solution of
caustic soda or caustic potash to remove all traces of
oil, grease, sweat, etc., contracted during the process
of polishing, then rinsed in clean water, then dipped
for a few minutes in the acid pickle, again rinsed in
clean water, then wired with the
slinging wires by clean hands under
water, then quicked in the nitrate
of mercury solution, briskly rubbed
with a clean linen or cotton rag
to brighten up the surface, and
transferred at once to the plating
vat.
The subsequent work in the
plating vat will now test the skill of
the operator. If he has carefully
followed me through those lessons, and intelligently
understands the principles of electro- deposition, he
will be able to so adjust the power of his battery to
the strength and resistance of his solution, and
arrange the proportion of zinc surface in the battery
cells, and the size of the anode with the articles
exposed to the current in the plating vat, as to
deposit the silver in good condition. And here let
me add for his guidance that a current of high inten-
sity will deposit the metal in a hard, gritty condition,
very hard and rough to burnish, and a current of low
intensity will deposit the silver in a soft condition.
The happy mean between the two is obtained by
balancing the zinc surface to give a sufficient quantity
of electricity to suit the surface to be plated and to
regulate the intensity or force of the current to pro-
perly work that quantity through the circuit.
The time allowed for the first coat should be about
fifteen minutes. Then the articles must be taken out
one by one, the adherence of the de-
posit tested by a brisk scratch-brush-
ing, and if all is right they must be
again quicked and suspended in the
vat to receive the final deposit. If
the deposit strips under the scratch-
brush, the silver must be " stripped "
off, and the articles prepared as before,
but with more care. Whilst they are
receiving the final deposit, which may
occupy from two to three hours, they
should be kept in constant motion
by a see-saw movement, either by
hand or by some mechanical arrangement. It is also
well to reverse their position when half the coat is on,
and thus ensure an equal thickness at both ends of
the articles. The quantity of silver deposited on each
article will be nearly determined by the time they are
in the plating vat exposed to the current, and the rate
of the deposit. This quantity may be exactly ascer-
25. — BUFFING WHEEL MADE
OF FUSTIAN.
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
263
FIG. 26. — COMMON
STEEL BURNISHERS,
WITH SECTIONS OF
BLADES.
tained by weighing the goods after they have been
prepared and polished for plating, and weighing them
again when they are finished.
Articles made of Britannia Metal, pewter,
and similar compositions and alloys must be cleaned
and prepared, up to the " dipping " process, like other
goods, but they must not be dipped in acid nor rinsed
in water, but transferred as quickly as possible direct
from the hot caustic solution to the plating vat, where
they must be exposed for the first fifteen minutes to a
stronger current than we use for other goods, in a solu-
tion with free cyanide slightly in
excess. When they have re-
ceived a firm adherent film of
silver, they must be finished
with a milder or less intense
current.
Articles made of Iron
and Steel will not receive an
adherent coat of silver in the
plating vat until they have been
specially prepared by covering
them with a film of copper in an
alkaline solution of copper. This
is usually done in a hot solution
of cyanide of copper ; but I
have found the following to be
equally efficient and to possess
the advantage of yielding its
metal from a cold solution : —
Dissolve an ounce of sulphate
of copper in one quart of filtered
rain-water, and add to it (with
stirring) as much liquid am-
monia as will first form a green
precipitate, and then dissolve
the precipitate to form a beau-
tiful clear blue solution, add to
this sufficient cyanide of po-
tassium solution to remove all
the blue colour and form a
clear yellow solution ; expose this to the influence of
air for twenty-four hours, and then filter it for use.
This solution must be worked with a battery power
sufficient to give off a quantity of gas and produce a
foam on its surface during the process. The number
of cells necessary to do this will be about four quart
DanielFs or three Bunsen's. If it is observed that gas
is freely given off, but no copper deposited, the solu-
tion must be diluted with water until it will work well.
A copper anode (equal in area to that of the article to
be coppered) must be used, and the solution should
dissolve this freely, forming first a slightly greenish
crust near the surface of the solution, which should
soon dissolve on stirring the solution.
FIG. 27. — STEEL BUR-
NISHERS FOR HEAVY WORK.
WITH SECTIONS OF BLADES,
FIG. 29. AGATE BURNISHERS
Cast-iron articles must be prepared by first filing
off all excrescences and the silicated coating received
from the moulding sand, then immersed in the acid
pickle for iron, and, after soaking therein for some
time, be well scoured with a hard brush, in water with
silver sand. They must then be again immersed for
a short time in the pickle, rinsed in water, wired
under water, and quickly transferred to the coppering
solution. Wrought iron and steel, when free from
grease, may be immersed at once in the following
acid pickle : — Water, 1 gallon ; oil of vitriol, 1 pint ;
aquafortis and muriatic acid, of
each half a wineglass. After
soaking in this for half an hour,
they should be scoured and
made as smooth as required,
again dipped in the acid, rinsed,
and transferred at once to the
coppering bath. When they are
well covered with the merest
film of copper they must be
taken out, rinsed in water,
" quicked " in mercury solution,
rubbed up with clean cotton or
linen rag, and transferred at
once to the silver plating solu-
tion without loss of time.
When articles are made up of
two or more metals requiring
different treatment, it is best to
take them to pieces and silver
the various parts by themselves.
For instance, cruets may be met
with made of German silver
frames clasping a lead or pewter
bottom ; this should be first re-
moved and coated with silver
by itself, as shown in the di-
rections for coating this metal.
A similar caution is necessary
in dealing with those fitted with
ivory, bone, ebonite, etc., mounts ; these would be
ruined by the acids, caustic solutions, or the plating
bath, unless first detached.
When articles made of brass, German silver, and
copper are much oxidized and tarnished, they should
be dipped in an acid pickle composed of : — Water, 1
quart ; oil of vitriol, I quart ; aquafortis, 1 pint ;
muriatic acid, 1 wineglassful, contained in a stone-
ware jar capable of withstanding the heat of boiling
water. I may here add a caution in the manipulation
of the acids used in making up those pickles. Always
pour the acid into the water, and on no account allow
the acid to touch the fingers. Have some soda or
other alkaline water near in a battery jar, and should
PIG. 2S. — HEAVY STEEL
BURNISHERS, WITH SEC-
TIONS OF BLADES.
264
ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.
you meet with an accident, plunge the part touched
with acid at once into the alkaline liquid. The acid
pickle mentioned above is also used as a dipping acid
when preparing spoons, etc., for the plating vat.
Oxidized silver articles to be plated must be alter-
nately dipped in aquafortis, rinsed, and scratched
until clean, then dipped in very weak aquafortis,
quicked in the mercury solution, rinsed in water, and
immersed in the plating vat. Soft solder and lead
mounts must be coppered as directed in the last
paper on this subject.
When the acid pickles are worn out — that is,
become green — and cease to act upon the metal, they
should be thrown away and fresh pickles made ; but
the oil of vitriol used as a stripping acid, and the
aquafortis used in cleaning silver, must not be thrown
away, as they contain silver. This may be extracted
from them by largely diluting the acids with water,
and adding common salt as long as any white preci-
pitate (chloride of silver) goes down ; the chloride of
silver may then be washed and dried, mixed with dried
washing soda, and melted in a cavity scooped out of
charcoal under a good blowpipe flame, or in a crucible
in the usual way. Or the silver may be extracted for
use in making up plating solutions by placing some
fragments of clean zinc in the wet chloride of silver,
and stirring them about until the white powder is all
changed to grey mud ; then take out the zinc, wash the
mud in dilute oil of vitriol, and several times in clean
water, and the residue will be pure silver in a finely
divided state. This may be dissolved in aqua-
fortis (nitric acid), and converted into nitrate of
silver.
But it is time we returned to the spoons and forks
left in the plating vat, and we will suppose them
ready for the finishing process. Unhook the slinging
wires from the cathode rod and hang the spoons in the
solution from the rim of the vat for a few minutes to
dissolve the yellow sub-cyanide of silver seen upon
them. Then rinse them well in plenty of clean sprhig
water, and proceed to brush them with the scratch-
brush. This is hard work ; but brush away over
every part, and down in the cracks and corners, until
not a trace of the chalky white appearance remains,
and the goods appear polished. Now rinse them well
again in clean water, rattle them about a bit in the hot
boxwood sawdust, and then allow them to dry therein.
This sawdust is recommended, because it is free from
turpentine, resin, acid, and other matters found in
common sawdust ; it may be bought from rule
makers, some turners and cabinetmakers, and of
dealers in electrical apparatus, at various prices,
ranging from 2id. to 4d. per quart. Other kinds of
sawdust would sully the purity of the silver, and spoil
the deposit with unsightly stains. A biscuit-tin forms
an excellent dust-box, and it can be kept hot in the
oven of a kitchen stove or range.
After the articles are dried and well rubbed with
hot sawdust, they may be finished by the process of
buffing, or they may be burnished, polished with lea-
ther, and "handled " as may be required. Burnished
work has a superior appearance when new ; but thou-
sands of articles are finished on the buffing-wheel of a
lathe, together with a little " handling." A buffing-
wheel may be made as follows : — Procure two collars
or discs of iron about two inches in diameter, with
holes in the centres, one slightly larger than the other,
and made to fit the taper spindle of the scratch-brush
lathe half an inch apart. Get these drilled with three
holes in each, as shown in Fig. 24, to receive three
small bolts, and have bolts to fit them. If the holes in
one of the plates are squared, and the bolts are also
made square under the heads, it will be a convenience.
If this is not done the heads of the bolts should be
square, and I need scarce add that the bolts should be
screwed and fitted with small nuts.
These discs or collars are to hold between them
many pieces of fustian to form the buffing or bobbing-
wheel, and the fustian should be cut into discs of from
3 to 32 inches in diameter. When a pile of them have
been prepared they must be arranged between the iron
collars, holes must be pierced for the bolts ; these
should only and barely pass through, just enough, in
fact, for the nuts to take a bite on them, and then be
screwed up tight to make a firm wheel of fustian (Fig.
25). The hole can then be cleared with a knife, and
the wheel mounted on the lathe. This wheel must be
made to revolve at a high speed, a little lard or salad
oil is then applied to hold the polishing powder. This
is charged with plate powder or with rouge, and the
articles are well polished by holding them on the
revolving fustian-wheel, and pressing them against it.
They are next to be manipulated with the bare hand
(" handled ") charged with dry pewder, prepared chalk,
or rouge, using the ball of the thumb and the palm of
the hand as polishing pads, until the required finish has
been obtained.
If the articles are required to be burnished, this
must also be done after they are dried, and for this
purpose tools named burnishers, made of steel or agate
are required. The size and form of these tools are
determined by the magnitude and kind of work to be
done with them. Their cost will not only be in pro-
portion to their size and quality, but also according to
the style of mounting and finish of the handles. A
few useful forms of burnishers are shown in the
annexed figures ; those selected should be sketched
and sent to the makers or dealers, who will quote
prices for them, but these vary so much that I cannot
give them here. Those exhibited in Fig. 26, are types
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
265
of the most common steel burnishers. They are very
light and thin ; sections of the blades are shown under
each. Those shown in Fig. 27 are more substantial
in make, and will stand heavy work, as may be seen
from the sections given. All these will be useful in
burnishing spoons, forks, and small work generally.
Three forms of heavy steel burnishers, with their sec-
tions, to be used with two hands on large articles, are
shown in Fig. 28. In Fig. 29 may be seen representa-
tions of agate burnishers. It will be seen that a rounded
and polished lump of the stone is held in a steel socket
attached to the handle. A species of iron ore, known
by the name of haematite, and also " bloodstone," is
sometimes used instead of agate as a burnisher.
The article to be burnished must be held firmly on
a bench, on a leather pad, in good light, and the
burnishers must be previously well polished. It is also
necessary to have a small jar of some liquid lubricant
at hand, to apply to the work being burnished, and
thus prevent the burnisher from dragging and cutting.
Professional burnishers have their own pet lubricant,
some use the stale beer from the scratch-brush lathe,
others use soapy water, others weak linseed tea, and a
tea made from marsh-mallows has been recommended
by others, but I have found weak linseed tea to be most
efficient and agreeable. The work of burnishing must
be conducted systematically, beginning on one side of
the article, directing the strokes uniformly side by side
in straight lines, and in one direction only, on the whole
surface of the article. The pressure and speed
required must be regulated to suit the roughness and
softness of the metal being burnished, the aim being
to obliterate all specks and scratches, and produce a
mirror-like surface. Now the operator will reap the
benefit of the care bestowed upon the article, in pre-
paring it for the plating bath, or suffer the consequences
of carelessness and neglect, for, rough surfaces will be
hard to burnish, and loose silver will blister and strip
under the burnisher. Experience alone will teach him
this part of the work, and he must unite skill with
determination if he would succeed. The burnishers
will need frequent polishing on a leather pad charged
with rouge, for a rough burnisher will not produce
smooth work. Extra care must betaken in burnishing
articles made of pewter, Britannia metal, etc., such as
tea-pots, mugs, and cream-jugs. The strokes must be
light, for heavy pressure on the burnisher would result
in ugly marks and dents on the surface of the article ;
undue pressure should also be avoided in burnishing
soft soldered joints.
A few words in conclusion respecting the care of
apparatus and solutions. Keep everything properly
marked with labels, and all solutions in their own res-
pective jars and bottles. See that vessels and bottles
are quite clean before any new solution is put in them. l
Never put a vessel or burnisher away in a dirty condi-
tion. " Have a place for everything, and keep every-
thing in its place." Better be unreasonably careful to
guard your solutions from contamination, than suffer
loss from the introduction of experimental nostrums.
Avoid doctoring your plating solution with quack
recipes to brighten the deposit, or improve the colour
of it. Be careful and clean in all manipulations, and
above all, be scrupulously clean in your person. An
electro-plater should always follow the Jewish law, in
abstaining from eating with unwashed hands.
If you meet with any difficulties, remember that I
shall always be pleased to hear from you, through the
Editor, and to give you advice. When you are about
to write, bear in mind that you have to be eyes for
me, for I cannot see the cause of failure with my own
eyes. Therefore take care to state fully your expe-
rience, and I shall then be in a better position to
render you assistance.
{Concluded?)
»<={==»«
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO
MAKE IT.
By csables spencee.
I,— Garden Swings.
N the summer-time, now fast approaching,
nothing can be more health-restoring or
agreeable than out-door recreation in the
shape of gymnastic exercises, which are
beneficial both to mind and body.
It is desirable that all who can conveniently do so
should devote a portion of their time to gymnastic
exercises ; and, inasmuch as the pleasure of making
the apparatus will enhance and stimulate the appetite
for practising upon the apparatus so made, I purpose
to write a few brief papers giving special instruction
on the subject, which, simple as it may appear, requires,
nevertheless, the greatest nicety and the strictest
accuracy; for a gymnastic apparatus which is not
constructed upon sound scientific principles, nor
properly proportioned, is far worse than useless.
In the present article I propose to describe in
detail how anyone, with a slight knowledge of tools,
may make a garden swing at a very small cost.
Everybody has seen at the Crystal and Alexandra
Palaces, and at almost every considerable pleasure
ground in the kingdom, swings similar to that in Fig. I,
which consists of four uprights, two sole pieces, with
cross-beam, to which is fixed the boat, or sitting-swing,
which is so constructed as to enable one or two persons
to swing him or themselves by the aid of the ropes
and handles attached to the ends of the cross-beam.
266
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
as shown above. It must be admitted that this self-
swinging arrangement is a great improvement upon
the old style of having to get someone else to put and
keep the swing in motion, an occupation by no means
inviting to the person so employed ; but the improve-
ment is not confined to the fact that it renders one
independent of extraneous aid. The very effort
involved in the exertion of swinging oneself, though
slight, affords a gentle exercise to the muscles of the
arms and chest, which, in combination with the rush
backwards and forwards through the air, is healthy
and invigorating. Moreover, constant practice upon a
swing, which can only be had by the erection of one
upon one's own premises, is extremely useful, as being
the only practical remedy against sea-sickness, the up
and down mo-
tion of the swing
much resemb-
ling that of a ship
on the water, so
that frequent
practice in the
former serves,
as it were, to
acclimatize a
person who is
about, for busi-
ness or pleasure,
to entrust him-
self to the latter,
it being a well-
known fact that
a gymnast ac-
customed to the
flying trapeze,
or other similar
exercises, feels
no inconveni-
ence in crossing the
call Jiim to France,
Continent.
If the following instructions appear at once com-
prehensive and minute, it is because I am not address-
ing myself solely to those who as amateurs are versed
in the carpentering and joining trades, but to all
readers of this magazine, many of whom probably
understand very little of carpentering. To such espe-
cially it will be useful to be informed what materials
and tools it will be necessary to provide, as it is
a source of much annoyance to discover, after
the work has been commenced, that something of
importance has been omitted. To begin with,
therefore, I subjoin a list of the various materials
that are necessary for the construction of a garden
swing, as shown in Fig. I.
Timber.
3 yellow deals, 12 ft. by 9 in. by 3 in., at 6d
per ft. run, cut lengthways, thus making
six pieces 12 by 4 J in. by 3 in. ...
1 yellow batten, 8 ft. by 7 in. by i\ in.
2 ditto 8 ft. by 3 in. by 3 in.
2 ditto 3 ft. by 4 in. by 2 in.
Ironmongery.
14 J-in. bolts and nuts
2 J-in. coach screws
2 hooks ... ...
30 ft. iron rod or wire rope, f in. diameter
Colours.
3 lbs. lead colour ...
2 lbs. ultramarine blue ...
}
d.
2 6
2 o
1 6
6
o
o
S
1
2
FIG. I. — GARDEN SWING, SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMEWORK.
Channel, when his avocations
Germany, or elsewhere on the
The Tools re-
quired are : — A
cross-cut saw, an
£-in. auger, a
1-in. spike gim-
let, a |-in. span-
ner, or coach
wrench, a jack
plane, a ij-in.
chisel, a ham-
mer, a rule, a
square, and a
pencil.
Having pro-
cured the above,
plane the whole
of the wood over
with the jack
plane, and then
either chamfer or
round the edges
of the whole.
Then take one
of the 12 ft. by 3 in. by 4^ in. (a a) to form the sole
piece, and lay it on level ground. With the rule
and square measure off 2 feet from each end, which
will be the position of the uprights. Now take two
pieces, 12 ft. by 3 in. by 4J in. (B b), to form the
uprights, or supports of the cross beam, which place
on the sole piece marked at 2 ft. inside the line, and
bring the other ends together, forming the apex at
the top (c c), and halve them together, as it is techni-
cally termed ; i.e., cut sufficient off each to make
the surfaces level, as shown ; and with the £ in.
auger bore a hole through the two, and bolt them
together. The surfaces of the uprights being by this
process of halving rendered flat, the cross pieces, or
bearers (d d) when bolted on will lay even upon the
surface. Now put the beam E to which the swing is to
be attached into its place close under the angle of
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
267
the uprights, and the bearers close under the beam by
two bolts as described. Then fix the bottoms of the
uprights to the sole piece, also with bolts. There is
no necessity for halving these, which must merely be
laid flat on the sole piece, and securely bolted together.
Proceed then to put the other uprights together in a
similar manner, and offer them up into their places, in
which operation you will require some assistance.
Let your assistant, therefore, hold them steadily up,
while, with the aid of a pair of steps, you place the
cross beam into its proper position, and secure it
with the two coach screws through the bearer upon
which it is resting. Fix the two 3 in. by 3 in. pieces
with coach screws in a similar manner. These are
for the purpose of securing the two ropes for self-
swinging. At this period of its manufacture you
will find that the entire machine shows a decidedly
unstable condition, having a tendency to oscillate.
To obviate this imper-
fection, it will be ne-
cessary to stay it with
two guys, G G, so as
to render it firm and
motionless. These
stays must be made
either of round iron,
£ in. diameter, with
hooks forged at the
ends, or of wire rope
of the same measure-
ment, and must be se-
cured by a screw eye
fixed into the under-
neath part of the beam
E, and fastened into
the ground by stakes
well driven in. These are made taut by gently raising
the sole piece, which should be sunk slightly into the
earth previous to fixing the stays, so as to allow for the
raising, which may be accomplished by wedging pieces
of wood or stone underneath, and by shovelling the
earth under to fill up the part which does not touch
the ground. The two hooks which support the swing
must be fixed in the centre of the beam 2 ft. apart.
The whole will require two coats of lead colour, and
one of ultramarine blue, or any other colour agreeable
to the taste and fancy of the owner.
The foregoing is very simple work, but we come
now to something more intricate, i.e., the boat,
which must be made to accommodate two persons,
and which, while light in appearance, must be
very strong. It must consist of two sides of some
hard wood, i£ in. thick. American ash is perhaps
about the best wood that can be obtained for the
purpose, as it has a straight grain, is free from knots,
FIG. 2. — BOAT OF GARDEN SWING, SHOWING DETAILS, ETC.
and is very strong. The length of the boat should be
not less than 4 ft., and it should be 18 in. in width
from the inside measurement.
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 2) represents
the general form of the boat, which must be set out
on a board, full size, and the stuff cut accordingly.
In building the wood to the shape, it will have to
be glued and tongued together. By this latter term
I mean that an insertion is to be made in any two
pieces of wood which are to fasten together, and
into the incision so made is to be inserted, about
f of an in. deep in each piece a " tongue " of hard
flat wood about i in. thick throughout the entire
length of the pieces to be joined. This tongue is
to be cut off and inserted cross grain. The ob-
ject of this is to keep the pieces firmly joined to-
gether without gaping asunder. Having cut your
sides to the shape, connect them together by battens
A, A, A, of the same
hard wood used for
the sides i\ in. wide,
f in. thick, and 1 ft.
8 in. long. These must
be secured on to the
bottom of the sides by
two if in. No. 12
screws at the end of
each batten ; and in
putting them on keep
them \ in. apart, so
as to allow the water
to run through in
wet weather. The
two seats, one at each
end of the boat, are
merely two flat pieces
of any sort of wood — deal will answer the purpose —
cut to fit. Iron straps, \\ in. by \ in., represented
at B, B, B, B, must be screwed inside the boat to
give it strength. For these you must use \ in.
No. 10 screws, placed 3 in. apart from each other.
The parts C, C, C, C, are four iron straps with
eyes forged at the top, to fasten the iron sus-
penders to which the swing hangs. These are
made of \\ by -f^ iron, and each is secured by four
No. 12 1-} in. screws. The boat should hang at an
elevation of not more than 1 ft. from the ground, and
the suspender should be made of f in. round iron,
each with one eye on the top and a hook at the
bottom, as shown. If the amateur swing-maker have
not the facilities, as I presume will be the case in
most instances, the iron work must be made by a
smith. The boat should be sized and varnished.
Though, of course, in its construction great care and
accuracy are indispensable, yet if the above in-
M
268
SATIN PAINTING IN OILS.
structions are strictly followed, I do not think any
insuperable difficulties will be encountered, and I
venture to hope that the labour expended will be
repaid by the result obtained.
SATIN PAINTING IN OILS.
From " The Scientific Canadian!'
T is beyond our province to teach oil
painting in itself, and therefore, if any
of our readers wish to undertake it on
satin, "and have not already mastered its
technicalities, our first direction to them
will be that they should take one or two lessons in the
technicalities of the art, especially as oil painting on
satin does not admit of alteration or effacement, and
all that has to be done must be resolved on before-
hand, and carried steadily through without any change
whatever.
We will suppose, therefore, that a knowledge of
oil painting has been acquired, and that the amateur
only wishes to know how to apply it to decorating
satin. The requisite materials are oil colours in tubes,
small bristle and red sable brushes in tin ferrules, a
large palette, and some turpentine, with the usual
requisites of palette knife, etc. All materials must be
kept scrupulously clean and free from dust, the colour
must be fresh and pure, and the hands must never rest
on the satin, but on a sheet of tissue paper spread over
the whole, excepting the part actually being worked
upon ; and the greatest care should also be taken to
avoid any smears or splashes of paint. The amateur
will find that it saves time to have separate brushes
for each colour.
Their exact sizes will depend partly on the painter's
method of work, and whether its aim is breadth of
effect or fineness of detail ; but, unless for folding
screens of very large work, the higher numbers are
useless. Nos. 3, 5, and 7 are useful sizes ; 2 may
occasionally be required for fine strokes, and 9 for
broad leaves, such as water lily or arum. It is best to
have two jars of turpentine for rinsing the brushes —
the second for the final cleansing — to ensure their
being thoroughly empty of colour.
The satin must have a perfectly smooth face, and
be free from folds. If these are unavoidable, they
should be slightly damped and ironed on the wrong
side, with a handkerchief or thin paper between, but
only the folds themselves must be pressed down, as,
when possible, satin should not be ironed. If, when
it is held horizontally to the light, the face looks
woolly, the piece should be rejected ; but, on the other
hand, a fine, close make of satin, without any admix-
ture of cotton or thread, is preferable to the richest
quality. When two substances are mixed in the same
material, one is apt to shrink more than the other ;
hence arises the wrinkled look which is called
" cockling."
When the satin is cut to the required size, it must
be pinned out flat on a drawing-board, on which a sheet
of paper has been laid. Toilet pins will make smaller
holes than drawing pins. A large piece of satin, such
as a fan leaf should have the pins not less than an
inch apart ; very small pieces can have one pin at
each corner only. Though it must lie perfectly flat,
the satin must not be stretched, as the recoil would
make the painting uneven. No sizing is required for
oil painting, and the next step, therefore, is to sketch
the design.
If the amateur artist can draw sufficiently well,
the better plan is to do this directly on the satin, all
danger of soiling it with the transfer paper being
thereby avoided ; and the pencil used must be a mode-
rately soft, not a hard one. Mistakes, of which the
fewer the better, can be taken out with bread-crumbs or
india-rubber ; the best and old-fashioned kind of the
latter must be used, " erasers " making smears which
are ineradicable. But a design may be also sketched
on paper and transferred ; and in either case, if much
arrangement, as in wreaths, is required, this should be
thoroughly worked out on paper and decided upon
before it is placed on the satin. The artists' colour-
men now supply white, blue, red, and black tracing
papers — the former is used for transferring on black.
All must be well rubbed before laying on the satin, so
that no more of the colour will come off when it is
pressed on than is necessary. When the design is
laid down, design, transfer paper, and satin must all
be securely fastened together at the four corners and
the centre of each edge, in order to avoid all dangers
of slipping.
The satin will now be ready for painting. Small
quantities of each colour to be used must be squeezed
on the palette — of the pure colours no more than is
necessary, as they will keep fresher in the tubes ; but
with mixed tints it is well rather to err on the side of
grinding too much, as it is often troublesome to get
the exact match again. It is also better to waste a
little colour by cleaning it off the palette, than to
spoil a great deal of work by using what is dull and
dirty.
We do not advise an amateur to begin by trying a
great variety of colours, as this only causes embar-
rassment ; more can always be added as the work
becomes easier. A learner should select some simple
figure or flower, and thoroughly master the colour it
SATIN PAINTING IN 01 IS.
269
requires ; then some other subject may be painted
with the same ; and a third upon a different coloured
ground.
The only medium employed is turpentine. It
quickly dries, but it must be sparingly used. Too
much of it will run into the satin, and a difficulty will
be found in getting the colour sufficiently thin to
"take " on the satin, and at the same time not to run.
If it runs, the brush is too full. Instead of loading the
colour, it must lie quite smoothly ; no brush marks
are to be seen, and the requisite texture is best attained
by grinding the colour with the turpentine until it is
thin enough to flow freely from the brush, but at the
same time not to charge the brush with too much of
it. If when dry the ground appears through the paint
it must have a second coat. Only practice can teach
the exact quantity of turpentine to be used, or of
colour to be taken up with the brush. When the work
is finished, or approaching completion, rather dry
colour in little bright touches may be used here and
there with good effect.
We have now to add a few general remarks on the
subject of the colour of the satin to be chosen, and on
suitable designs for the work.
The choice of the colour of the satin will of course
depend on the choice of the subject to be painted on
it. Black is a good ground for flowers, but for land-
scapes it looks like a black sky ; therefore blue, blue-
grey, or pale saffron for evening effects, are preferable.
Figures look well on black, but blue or pale pink are
better for amoretti, or child subjects. For flowers,
cream or ivory satin looks well, with red, crimson,
blue, or purple ; crimson, but not terra cotta red, with
cream-colour, such as Gloire de Dijon roses ; while
terra cotta colour is a suitable background for buff
or black. Pale blue or turquoise blue make lovely
grounds for almost every sort of flower. They are
especially suited for peach or almond blossom, with
sulphur-coloured butterflies, or for a design of corn,
pink bind-weed, and blue corn-flowers, the blue of the
last being shaded from the lighter blue of the ground.
Greens require good management with green leaves,
• but when the eye for colour is naturally good, and the
skill acquired by training and practice is good also,
the effect obtained by the relief from the ground of its
own colour shaded in the design cannot be surpassed ;
and a pale green ground, with its suggestion of the
"green lap of the flowery May," is most appropriate
for peach, almond, pear, or apple blossom, with their
rich brown stems and budding green leaves, or, the
most graceful of all white cherry blossom pendent
on its long slender stems, and its unfolding bronzed
leaves.
In regard to designs, figure subjects are sometimes
chosen ; but unless they are children, elves, or cupids
— in short, very airy and fanciful — we do not think
them particularly suited for this style of painting,
which is not so much elaborate or elevated as it is
graceful.
It must be remembered that painting on satin,
whether in oils or water-colours, is not pictorial, but
decorative. For this reason, we do not care for land-
scape, unless it is a mere suggestion as a background
for flowers and plants. Large foliaged plants — such
as tree or dwarf palms, yuccas, flags, maize, cannas —
are all effective ; so are ferns when the fronds are
simple, pinnatifid forms being most difficult to render.
All serrated edges to leaves are difficult also, but of
course they cannot always be avoided. Butterflies,
dragon flies, and birds are easy, and are effective and
suitable. A peacock, with his tail spread, makes a
splendid panel for a fire-screen.
The round gipsy tables now in vogue can be
covered with black satin painted with a wreath, and
edged with deep fringe or with a corresponding
border. Honeysuckle with its ivory flowers and
crimson buds, and here and there a cluster of its
scarlet berries, makes a beautiful wreath for painting
on black satin ; so does jessamine, either the white
alone, or the white and yellow mixed. Pelargoniums
— the " nosegay varieties," with their velvety spots —
are well suited for the work. Scarlet geranium re-
quires careful management, lest it look staring. A
most brilliant wreath is formed by the little Tropasolum
speciosum, and there is none more graceful than one
of our common pink bind-weed. A good design for a
table is a bouquet cf flowers loosely tied and appa-
rently carelessly thrown down (but not in the centre),
while some of the flowers are scattered. Again,
flowers may spring from one edge of the table, and
birds and butterflies hover above them. For designs
of this kind the position of each object may be studied
from any Japanese drawing at hand, as even in the
commonest they are instinctively put in their right
places. We may add that, while it is a matter of
taste whether a wreath or bouquet is of one kind of
flower or of several kinds, it is a matter of practical
utility to know that it is infinitely easier to arrange the
former well than the latter.
Panels or screens look best with tall plants or
flowers standing up from the ground, or sprays hang-
ing down from above, but these may alternate. A
four-leaved screen may represent the seasons— apple-
blossom for Spring ; roses for the Summer ; a bough
of apples for Autumn ; and for Winter that " fruit that
counterfeits a flower," branches of the lovely spindle
tree, with its rose-coloured fruit split here and there
to show the orange kernel, and a dark trail of ivy to
relieve it, with a suggestive feathery spray of the wild
clematis seed, called by country people " old man."
270
A SUMMER-HOUSE FOR A SMALL GARDEN.
A SUMMER-HOUSE FOR A SMALL GARDEN,
WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING IT.
By J. B. WOOLFITT.
□
□
□
i □
□ i !
1 i
□
□
□
i I n
□
DVANCING spring covers hill and dale
with verdure, and the amateur gardener,
inspired by Nature's awakening, sets to
work heartily, as well-kept beds and trim
borders soon manifest. Being intent on
the embellishment of his garden, he labours in the
hope that summer's advent will discover successful
cultivation testified by sweet flowers in profusion, and
seeks no other reward than contemplation of their
bright hues and forms — a contemplation that will be
better enjoyed and reward thoroughly realized if he
rejoice in the possession
of a summer-house,
wherein he may cogitate
upon plans for the future,
or, perhaps, with family
and friends, partake of the
cup that cheers. But if
his garden boast not such
a pleasant shelter, let
him make its erection one
of his tasks ere the time
arrive when exposure to
the broiling heat of noon
is attended by danger, or,
at least, discomfort. The
time and trouble expended
thereon will be amply re-
paid, and with its com-
pletion summer's joys be enhanced, just as the pos-
session of a greenhouse rendered less irksome the
dreary hours of winter.
It is the purpose of this article to describe the
construction of an arbour, simple in style, yet neat
and pretty withal, therefore to a slender purse better
suited than a design more pretentious; and the dimen-
sions (5 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. 6 in. on plan) will be found to
encroach not too greatly on the garden space generally
available. The elevations and plan are drawn to a
scale of A inch to the foot, and the method of building
may be easily understood and followed ; but it is quite
a probable contingency that the work in its progress
will present difficulty, assuming the intended builder
to be no adept at carpentry ; he is admonished, there-
fore, before proceeding, to digest these few words of
advice : Do not seek by slovenly subterfuge to evade
doubtful points, but boldly set about their solution ;
perseverance and patient thought must prevail, for in
their exercise the inconveniences attached to deficient
1
rminiinii
Scale of feet.
. — PLAN SHOWING FRAMING OF GROUND-PLATE.
skill or scantily furnished tool-chest are minimised,
and amateur work often saved from bearing the impress
of unprofessional labour.
The site should be one that affords an interesting
view ; let it be also dry, and, in order that no moisture
hereafter collect beneath the building, somewhat raised,
or, better still, a course of bricks laid for a base. Then,
taking into consideration the desirability of easy disin-
tegration and removal, let four posts, each 3 in. square,
be sunk into this base to the depth of 1 ft. 4 in., leaving
2 in. of each protruding ; upon these the summer-
house will rest, and, to insure stability be secured to
by means of screws through the ground-plate. Their
positions, two at back and two at front, near to but
clear of the corners, are shown in plan, and may easily
be determined.
The ground-plate beginning the actual building is a
rectangular framing, 5 ft.
6 in. by 3 ft. 6 in., of 34 in.
by 3! in. stuff, halved to
join, and consisting of five
pieces. When fixing, put
the longer pieces down
first, then upon those the
three shorter ones ; this
provides support for the
flooring. Ten uprights,
each 3 in. sq. by 5 ft. 8 in.
long, are mortised into
this framing ; four for the
back may be placed equi-
I distant, one each side mid-
' way, and four for the
front ; but between the
two that form the en-
trance allow for a clear way of 2 ft. 6 in. Having
arranged these, insert the horizontal pieces into the
corner uprights, halving where they cross the inter-
mediate ones ; all these uprights are in turn to be
mortised into the wall-plate, a frame similar to, but of
less stout material than, the ground-plate. The aper-
tures at the sides and front may be furrowed or re-
bated on the inner, and stop chamfered on the outer
edges.
Then two pieces of the 3 in. stuff, 1 ft. 8 in. long, are
inserted into the top of the wall-plate, and themselves
connected by a length of the same, to form the apex
of the roof. To each side of this are screwed three
rafters of proper length ; these rest upon and are
secured to the wall-plate. In order that no weak and
rickety affair be presented in the completed building,
it is incumbent on the amateur to make all joints
closely yet not too tightly fitting; then, having in
practice carefully followed the foregoing, he will find
the arrangement of the various parts lend itself to an
A SUMMER-HOUSE FOR A SMALL GARDEN.
271
easy taking apart when needful, but in no way detract
from the quality of firmness requisite. Employ coach-
screws with washers and counter-sunk heads to fasten
the comer uprights to the wall and ground-plates, thus:
At each bottom corner a screw passed through the
lower half of ground-plate will hold the end of the
upright mortised therein ; at each top corner one screw
through the rafter into the upright will at once hold
rafter, wall-plate, and upright together; the lower
weather-proof. The strips of ornament may be manipu-
lated with a keyhole saw, using the brace and bit for
the circles. The spear-head should be turned, but,
failing that, fashioned by the best means the amateur
can command. The skirting round the base is 8 in.
wide, bevelled on one edge ; and, to insure the passage
of air beneath, a few holes are bored therein, forming
trefoils to accord with other parts of the design. The
space apparent in the apertures from the ground-plate
AAAAAAAA,
FIG. 2. — FRONT ELEVATION OF SUMMER-HOUSE.
Scale, Half an inch to the foot.
FIG. 3.— SIDE ELEVATION.
astenings will then be hidden by the skirting, and the
upper ones covered by the boards of the roofing.
Stouter coach-screws must be used to hold the ground-
plate to the sunken posts. For other parts ordinary
screws will suffice, their heads counter-sunk by the
£ centre-bit ; when these screws are driven home, the
pits left must be stopped by turned wooden plugs,
these plugs to be omitted in putting on the rafters.
The skeleton being now completed, the roof may be
put on, either of feather-edged boards, or, preferably,
close-boarded, covered with felt, pitched and sanded ;
whatever method be employed, of course, must leave all
to where the top of skirting reaches, will need to be
made good ; the riser of step must also be provided
for.
Having proceeded so far with the outside of the
summer-house, commence the interior work by laying
the floor with inch boards, making the tread of the
step rounded on the edge, and to project somewhat
beyond the riser. That done satisfactorily, cut out
with the keyhole saw, from \ boards, the arched pieces,
and fix them in their respective places in the upper
apertures of the front and side ; then fill the remaining
space of those with lattice work ; if the work has
272
THE USE OF GAS IN THE AMATEUR'S WORKSHOP.
been rebated, this must be kept in position by strips
of beading. The lower apertures are to be filled up
by narrow boards, tongued, and V-jointed, fixed up-
right or diagonally right and left, as shown in elevation.
The back and lower portions of sides and front, and, if
desired, the roof, are to be lined with match-boarding,
then with a moulding at the height of a dado, and at the
head of the walls will leave a neat appearance. The
seats must be of inch board, and arranged to rest upon
ledges and brackets, or one or two perpendicular sup-
ports. The table may be manufactured, or a piece of
rustic formation utilised for the purpose. The small
brackets flanking the entrance may now be affixed.
Clean deal will be found economical for all parts
of this, and may be obtained in the sizes mentioned ;
but it will be necessary to make, or have made, the
small quantity required of the V-jointed paneling;
this consists of 3 in. by £ in. stuff, bevelled both edges
on face, and grooved for the reception of a false
tongue. This tongue must be glued in, and should be
of hard wood, not necessarily in one piece, but with
the grain at right angles with its length. The lattice
work may be made, or purchased prepared.
When completed so far as carpentry be concerned,
give all two coats of paint. It is suggested for finish-
ing that the outside receive two shades of green, the
lighter on the chamfers and panels only ; the slips of
ornamental and plugs may be white. The interior
may be a green grey, with a dado of a dark plum
colour.
In conclusion may be mentioned the advisability of
providing a means for catching the rain-drip from the
roof in wet weather ; and whosoever desires to com-
plete his job in a workman-like manner will not omit
to effect this by fixing a gutter at each side, leading to
a pipe at the back. These precautions taken, and with
a good coat of paint every'year, will largely contribute
to the durability of the structure.
THE USE OF GAS IN THE AMATEUR'S
WORKSHOP.
By THOMAS FLETCHER.
II.— How to Use the Blow-pipe.
E now come to the use of the blow-pipe.
With a little practice and a suitable
blow-pipe, or rather two or three sizes,
it is surprising what a variety of work
can be done. Many look on the blow-
pipe as a tool for soldering only : this is a mistake, as
it will, with an efficient blower, to a very great extent
take the place of a furnace and smith's hearth. It
must, however, not be expected that any great feats
can be performed with a mouth blow-pipe ; to do any
except the smallest work, we want a pair of " leather
lungs," i.e, bellows. For soldering, say up to half
pound total weight, a common mouth blow-pipe may
be used with ease for soft solder. For hard soldering or
brazing, it is difficult to do any work exceeding about
an ounce in total weight, and even in this case the
work must be supported on a good non-conductor.
Perhaps the commonest support for work runder the
blow-pipe is a lump of pumice-stone, which can be
purchased from any dealer in painters' tools. The
best support is a mixture of powdered charcoal and
fire-clay made into a stiff paste with rice-flour paste
pressed into a mould and allowed to dry. If this is
used for large blow-pipes the charcoal must be only in
small quantity, and for great heats it is better to use
a solution of silicate of soda instead of rice-flour
paste. In this case the charcoal may be in larger
proportion, as it is not so liable to burn away owing to
the protection afforded by the silicate of soda.
If we confine ourselves to very small soldering,
hardening and tempering drills, up to say quarter inch,
a common mouth blow-pipe may do very well, using
the gas for a § horizontal supply pipe cut into the
shape shown in Fig. 6, with a wire fastened round it
so as to form a support for the end of the blow-pipe.
For soft soldering use either ordinary tinman's
solder, or pure tin and a flux made of a saturated
solution of zinc in muriatic acid. It must be remem-
bered that in soldering with the blow-pipe the work to
be soldered must be heated up or the solder will not
adhere — in fact, it is not necessary or advisable to
direct the flame on to solder at all, when the work is
hot enough it will run.
As to the art of blowing with the mouth it is im-
possible to describe so that all may understand. The
mouth is converted into a chamber, the cheeks supply
the place of the elastic reservoir, and the air is taken
into the mouth in gulps to supply the blast, whilst
fresh air is being taken into the lungs through the
nose. With practice a steady continuous blast can be
kept up for 15 or 20 minutes without a break or
irregularity, but the quantity of air available is not
large, and forany except very small work, a mechanical
blower is necessary.
It may be perhaps advisable to say a few words
with respect to the hot blast blow-pipe devised by my-
self some ten years ago. It has been copied by almost
every maker in the world, and sold by them often as
their own invention, as a great wonder. The fact is
that many who have made, and still more who have
bought this form, are in total ignorance of the peculiar
use and advantage of the arrangement. The air and
gas are heated to a high temperature, which, of course,
THE USE OF GAS IN THE AMATEUR'S WORKSHOP.
273
increases the temperature of the flame ; but as the air
when heated occupies so much greater bulk, it means
practically that twice or three times the air pressure
is necessary : this, except in very small flames, is quite
out of the question without a mechanical blower ; and
in large jets the air pressure required is so great as to
make a ragged useless flame, and the practical fact
FIG. 6. — CARRIER FOR BLOW-PIPE.
remains that except for the smallest pointed jet, a hot
blast is simply worse than useless. It may be possible
to get in a large flame a greater quantity of heat with
a hot blast, provided the blowing power is increased
in proportion, but the flame obtained is, at all events for
blow-pipe work, distinctly worse than when a cold
blast is used.
The same remarks as to hot blast attempts apply-
to blast furnaces on a small scale, the bulk of the air is
So greatly increased that if the blowing is to be done by
manual labour the practical result obtained is worse
instead of better. Given the extra blowing power
and a proportionate increase in the fuel available, the
advantage is still in favour of a cold blast except in
economy of fuel, and this is, for small work, so trifling
as to be not worth consideration.
For hard soldering steel, brass or copper, the best
possible solder is an alloy of 1 1 parts pure silver and
13 parts copper, using borax as a flux. This makes
a joint which cannot be torn asunder, and will bear
hammering or rolling ; it is far superior to what is
commonly sold as silver solder. Those who attempt
to use what is known as spelter for making joints,
usually find a great difficulty with a gas blow-pipe, they
burn the spelter and cannot make it run. The reason
is that this alloy is peculiarly liable to oxydize or burn
in a blow-pipe flame, and the only way I have succeeded
in making safe joints is to coat the surface to be
brazed or soldered with borax, make it hot, dip it into
a mixture of powdered borax and spelter, and slowly
heat up the mixture which adheres to the work until
the borax fuses and forms a protecting covering, which
prevents oxydation. The power of a blow-pipe depends
on the gas available, and on the pressure of the air
supplied. An ordinary smith's bellows is of little use
unless the air jet is very large, and in this case the
flame is broad and rough, unfit for any fine work. It
is better to get a good small foot-blower giving a
heavy pressure of air, and for mechanical blowers it is
advisable to have the air jet in the centre of the gas
supply pipe. Blow-pipes of almost any size may be
purchased ready made, but a very simple makeshift
can be made as follows, the rule for power being
approximately this : —
Speaking roughly, but still sufficiently near to
make a correct rule to work by, a blow-pipe requires
one of gas to eight of air. If the gas is supplied at a
pressure equal to one inch of water, and the air at
eight times that pressure, the area of the gas and air
pipes should be equal to get the best effect. If the
air supply is equal to 16 inches of water pressure, the
gas pipe must be double the area of the air, and so on
in proportion.
Of course, the air and gas supplies can be adjusted
by taps easily, but in the first construction of a blow?
pipe for large work, this rule must be adhered to. Any
departure from it reduces the power of the blow-pipe,
and ignorance of this simple rule has frequently
caused failures which the makers of blow-pipes have
been unable to explain.
It is often an advantage to build up a blow-pipe
quickly for some special work, and the method and
rules for construction are here given, bearing in mind
always that a high pressure blast gives the most
compact and highest temperature flame, without
having any actually greater quantity of heat in the
flame produced.
At day, pressure= 10-ioths on the gas supply, a
half-inch pipe with a half-inch bore tap will supply
about 1 j cubic feet per minute, or 75 cubic feet per
hour. A one-inch bore pipe and tap will supply about
five cubic feet per minute.
About 25 cubic feet of gas equals one pound of
coal in fuel value, and, therefore, a half-inch gas-pipe
will supply at the rate of one pound of coal in a gaseous
INLET
FIG. 7.— LARGE BLOW-PIPE FOR SPECIAL WORK.
form, in twenty minutes. To burn this in a blow-pipe
an air supply of ten cubic feet per minute is required,
and given the available blast pressure the area of the
air jet necessary is easily found.
For the construction of large blow-pipes for special
work, the stock fittings can generally be utilised, and
an efficient blow-pipe built up in a few minutes, as
shown in Fig. 7. Nothing more is necessary than
three short bits of tube, a T coupling and diminishing
socket, or straight union. No taps are necessary on
274
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.
the blow-pipe, if not at hand, as if an elastic tube is
used the flame can be perfectly controlled by squeezing
the tubes between the ^fingers, holding them in the
same way as the reins are held in driving a horse. If
a diminishing socket is not at hand, the end of T-piece
can be plugged up and the air tube fastened into this
plug, and it will be a convenience if an elbow is put
on the gas inlet close to the T, so as to turn the gas-
pipe in the same direction as the air-pipe. In this
form, it makes a handy and convenient blow-pipe.
If the air jet is made of glass and held in with a
cork, the blow-pipe is distinctly better in working than
with a metal air jet, but of course a glass jet wants
care in handling. It must be borne in mind that a
gas blow-pipe flame, under ordinary circumstances, is
almost always a strongly oxydizing one, which not only
scales iron very much but also burns the carbon out
of steel. It is therefore unfit for hardening and
forging steel drills or tools, but the objection can be
got over by supporting the work on a lump of charcoal
and directing the flame, not on the work but on the
charcoal immediately in front. This surrounds the
steel with a bath of carbonic acid gas, and to a great
extent prevents the injury which would otherwise be
done to the quality of the metal. If we get a blow-
pipe with say \ inch air jet, \ inch or \ gas supply, and
a blower giving an air pressure of I or ij pound on
the square inch, we get a tool which will often fill the
place of a small furnace or smith's hearth. A large
proportion of soft soldering, which requires to be done,
is far more satisfactory with a copper bit, and this can
be heated in a minute or two with a large blow-pipe.
In the same way, if we direct a powerful gas blow-
pipe flame on to broken lumps of charcoal, we get an
exceedingly good substitute for a small smith's hearth,
and when the work is done a close fitting sheet iron
cover extinguishes the charcoal and prevents waste.
Broken coke will do for some work, but the heat
obtained is much less and the protection afforded to
steel is much less efficient than when charcoal is used :
this is easy to obtain from the acetic acid and tar
distilleries, that made and sold by the gunpowder
manufacturers is too good in quality and too expensive
to use for this work. Of course, the amateur can make
his own blow-pipe to suit his own work, with the rule
already given.
Glass jets can be made of tube drawn down to the
size by heating in a common lighting burner until soft,
pulling the ends apart and breaking off so as to form
a jet of the required size. This jet gives a flame far
more powerful and more perfect than one made of
metal. The difficulty is that so _few will take the
trouble necessary. They could not very well be sold,
being brittle and liable to damage before they are
mounted in position, but the amateur who will take
the trouble to make himself a dozen or two of different
sizes, will find his time well expended. As a tool for
great variety of work and peculiar and instant control
over the power and character of the flame, I know no
blow-pipe which equals the automaton. This is an
arrangement which requires peculiar care in the con-
struction, the working part is really two taps on one
plug, adjusted to each other as to proportionate opening
and position, and opening respectively into two con-
centric tubes. The projecting pin controls both gas
and air at the same time, and the size of jet can be
changed by simply slipping the front cap off. These
are made with brass jets for the air ; but if I had time
I should always, for my own use, remove the brass
jet and jet tube, substituting glass. It is a very
troublesome operation, and takes some time to get the
jet concentred and steady, but there is no doubt that
glass for blow-pipe jets is the proper material where it
can be used.
Of blowing arrangements there are any quantity,
good, bad, and indifferent. A smith's bellows, or fan,
will be found of little or no practical use, except for
blow-pipes with very large air jets, say £ inch or over,
the pipe leading to the jet being at least double the
diameter of the jet at the point. For smaller work,
where a high temperature is required, it is better to
use a foot-blower with an india rubber reservoir in one
of these forms. Reservoirs in which the pressure of
air is got by the different levels of water, appear to
have gone out of fashion. They are more expensive
for their power than an india rubber reservoir, and are
far more unsteady — in fact, the rubber disc is far the
best arrangement for equalising the air pressure, and
although it wants a little care to protect it from
mechanical injury, its advantages are quite sufficient
to compensate for any objections.
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.
By LEO PARSET.
I. — The Wood-earver's Bench and Tools.
OOD-CARVING in its various branches is
so admirably adapted for the employment
of spare time, that it is surprising to find
its claims are not more fully recognized
by the amateur artisan. Unlike many
occupations for leisure hours, wood-carving is cleanly,
the manual labour required is trifling, and no special
workshop is required, thus rendering the art suitable
for either sex. The requisite tools and appliances are
not difficult to procure, and their cost is, comparatively
speaking, small.
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.
275
i_r
The pleasures, too, of wood-carving are great, and
as the student improves in his work, so are these
pleasures enhanced. What more interesting, for
instance, than to see a smooth block of wood gradu-
ally develope, under the skilful manipulation of the
worker, into a panel of delicate Italian foliage, with
all its beauty of graceful sweeping lines and har-
monious grouping of ornament. As a means of home
decoration, wood-carving stands pre-eminent, there
being hardly a single article of furniture that cannot
be improved and rendered more artistic by its aid.
Doubtless the vague and unsatisfactory instructions
given in most of the various works published on the
subject, is the principal reason why wood-carving has
been more neglected than any of the sister arts.
Generally speaking, no
really practical advice is
given in these works, except
in the preliminary stages-
How many would-be fol-
lowers of the art, I wonder,
have been discouraged,
owing to the unsatisfactory
working of the tools which,
in most instances, is
simply due to the method
adopted in sharpening
them, instruction on this
point being dispensed with.
Many who have attempted
wood-carving have been
previously used to working
with the ordinary chisels
and gouges used by carpen-
ters and cabinet-makers,
and have imagined that
these tools would be equally
suitable for wood-carving, or perhaps they have obtained
one of the so-called sets of carving tools, and have
pursued the same method of sharpening, as in the case
of the chisels and gouges. I can easily imagine their
disappointment and the unsatisfactory appearance of
their work, as it is useless to expect to be able to be-
come an adept in wood-carving without having a
thorough knowledge of the tools required, and of the
method of sharpening and using them. Even in
London instruction in wood-caning is difficult to
obtain, although a few years ago a school for the ad-
vancement of the art, called " The School of Art
Wood-carving," was established at the Royal Albert
Hall, Kensington, S.W. ; the Society of Arts and the
Drapers' Company furnishing substantial aid.* A
• It may be useful to the readers of this Magazine to state
that both Day and Evening classes are held in this School. The
Day classes are open from 10 to 5 on five days a week, and
FIG. I.— WOOD CARVERS BENCH.
FIG. 2. — UPPER DRAWER.
taste for drawing and some knowledge of design is
absolutely necessary to the wood-carver, and unless
he possesses these requirements his work will never
rise above mediocrity.
In wood-carving, where so much depends upon
individual taste and ability, it is impossible to lay
down hard and fast lines for the guidance of the
student — general rules and ideas only can be given
regarding the treatment of the work. Even among
professional carvers there are always new designs
and different methods of treatment required, which
cannot be satisfactorily executed by adherence to any
fixed rule.
The student will find it an advantage to devote a
portion of his time to modelling in clay, before com-
mencing to carve in wood.
In many, if not in all,
cases, it will be found of
great assistance to roughly
model in clay the design
intended to be executed in
wood. In clay, if a mistake
is made, it can so easily
be rectified ; the design can
either be built up or cut
down, and there is no grain
— as in wood — to contend
with : whereas in wood, an
unlucky cut frequently spoils
the whole effect, or, worse
still, renders the work per-
fectly useless. When the
design is brought to a satis-
factory conclusion in clay,
t only remains to copy it
in wood, and simple as this
may at first sight appear
to the amateur, he will find the task by no means so
easy as he anticipated.
One of the first things the amateur should procure
is a good bench, or where expense is an object, a
strong table will answer the purpose.
The best plan, however, is to have a bench made
and fitted in front of a window — with a north light if
possible — so as to occupy the whole space between
the walls. For general work, this bench should be at
least 3 feet long, and not less than 2 feet wide, and as
from 10 to 1 on Saturdays. The Evening classes are held from
7 to 9 on four evenings a week, viz., Monday, Tuesday, Thurs-
day, and Friday. The fees for Day Students are £2 a month,
or £5 a quarter. The fees for Evening Students are 15s. a
month, or £2 a quarter. These fees may be paid either at the
Ticket Office, Royal Albert Hall, between the hours of 10 a.m.
and S p.m., or by P. O. Order addressed to the Secretary at
the School, and payable at the Branch Office, Exhibition Road,
South Kensington.
M 2
FIG. 3. — LOWER DRAWER.
276
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.
FIG. 5. — FLAT BENT TOOLS.
firmness and solidity is desirable, it should be made
of beech wood, the top being composed of sound
planking, at least itin. thick. The legs should be
about 3 in. square, and strongly-
mortised into the top, and cross- W
bars may with advantage be
added. The height of the bench
depends entirely upon the height F[G 4 _(A) parting tool ; (b) veiner
of the person for whom it is in-
tended. In order to have proper command over the
work, it is much better to stand than to sit, and the
bench should be of such a height as to enable the
student, when working, to bend the body from the
hips, and not to bend the head only. Should a seat
be considered
desirable,aone-
legged stool,
with a top simi-
lar to a music-
stool, will be
found more
convenient, and
allow greater freedom of movement than an ordinary
chair. If the bench is intended to be placed in any
room not generally used as a workshop, it will be better
to have two drawers at the bottom, as in Fig. 1. The
upper drawer (Fig. 2), for holding the tools, should be
\\ in. deep (inside measure), and should have a parti-
tion across the centre. The lower drawer (Fig. 3)
should be about 4 in. deep, and will be
found most useful for holding work,
odd pieces of wood, and other sun-
dries ; a portion should be partitioned
off to contain the stones used in
sharpening, oil bottle, etc. A bench
of this description, when not in use,
can easily be covered so as to look
like an ordinary table. Many amateurs
will be able to construct a bench for themselves, and
many will, no doubt, be able to utilise one that is at
present used for other purposes.
Where the carving intended to be executed is of
the lightest descrip-
tion, a bench of the
above description is
not necessary ; an or-
dinary deal table
would answer the pur-
pose equally well.
I will now proceed
cr>
FIG. 6. — SLIGHTLY CURVED BENT TOOLS.
practical purposes, and should be studiously avoided
by all amateurs who do not wish to be at once
discouraged. Nearly all the carving-tools used by
professional wood-carvers are
A made by Addis, and can be ob-
tained from Buck, of Tottenham
b Court Road, and probably from
other dealers in edge tools.
The tools made by Addis are
not, perhaps, so neatly finished as those made by
some other makers, but for shape and temper they
cannot be surpassed. The cost of carving-tools is
not great, and varies with the size and shape, the
average price would be for handled tools about 10s.
per dozen. The
number of tools
required by the
beginner de-
pen d s, of
course, upon
the style of
work to be exe-
cuted. From four to five dozen, however, would be
quite enough to commence with, and the number can
be gradually increased as necessity arises.
The tools used by the wood-carver are technically
termed flat and quick tools, not chisels and gouges,
which they, to a certain extent, resemble ; although,
owing to the difference in shape and sharpening, it
would be useless to attempt to carve
with a carpenter's set of chisels. One
of the most difficult things for the
beginner is to sharpen his tools pro-
perly ; this, however, is a subject
which I intend to treat more fully in a
future article. Carving-tools are made
in sizes varying from ^ in. to 2 in. in
width, and with a corresponding dif-
ference of sweep in the quick tools. To commence
with, the amateur will find tools of the following
description the most useful : A parting tool, Fig. 4 (a);
a veiner, Fig. 4 (b) ; nine bent tools, as shown in
Figs. 5, 6, and 7 ; and
FIG. 7. —
DEEPLY CURVED BENT TOOLS,
FIG. 8. — STRAIGHT FLAT TOOLS.
to describe some of the most necessary of the many
various tools required by the wood-carver. In the
first place, it should be understood that in the majority
of cases the so-called sets of carving-tools, sold by
dealers in edge-tools, are utterly useless for all
one dozen and a-half
of straight flat tools,
varying in width and
sweep, as shown in
Fig. 8. A dozen and
a-half of quick tools,
varying in width and
sweep, as shown in Fig. 9, will be sufficient for a com-
mencement. As he progresses, the amateur will pro-
bably find that for some kinds of work he cannot buy
tools suitable for what he requires, as great difficulty
is sometimes experienced in getting them small
FIG. 9. — QUICK TOOLS.
ME TV USES FOR OLD TIN CANS.
277
*
H
V
+
Y
0
*
0
4-
FIG. IO. — PUNCHES.
enough. Under these circumstances his only resource
is to make them for himself, which can easily be done.
Anything in the shape of steel, such as old darning
or knitting needles, will
furnish the material ; this
heated to a white heat in the
gas, hammered into the ne-
cessary shape, and tempered
either by 'plunging into oil,
or into a stick of sealing wax, makes a most useful
tool.
Punches of various sizes and patterns, as in Fig.
10, can also be made by the amateur : a small three-
cornered file, and a few French nails of different sizes
being all that is required. These punches are very
useful for making a pattern on the ground-work of
panels, etc., and tend to hide all inequalities of sur-
face, , thereby giving a more finished appearance to
the work. A small hard brush is required for brush-
ing out small particles of wood from the carving. A
nail-brush is frequently used for this purpose, and
answers the purpose. Various other
tools will be found of great service, and
should be obtained. An ordinary small
marking and cutting gauge, a small
cabinet, or wood rasp, and a file, a pair
of medium-sized egg-shaped callipers,
a pair of spring dividers, and a small
wooden mallet, are among the most use-
ful. The mallet should be made of
either beech or box-wood, and should not be too
large. Fig. 1 1 will be found the most handy shape.
Mallets, in fact, are seldom used except in heavy
work, the palm of the hand acting as a substitute.
A wood-carver's screw (Fig. 12), is a most useful
contrivance for fixing the wood, intended to be carved,
securely to the bench. Holes just large enough to
admit the screw should be bored through the bench
at various places, for convenience of working. The
end of the screw A is inserted into the back of the
panel, or other work, and firmly screwed in. B is
passed through the hole in the bench, then by screw-
FIG, 12. — WOOD CARVER S SCREW.
ing C until it rests close to the bench, the piece of
work is strongly and firmly fixed, and can easily be
shifted by simply loosening C. Another useful con-
trivance can easily be made by any carpenter, or by
the amateur himself. It consists of a piece of hard
wood— beech is the best— about ii in. wide, 1 in.
thick, and 4 or 5 in. long, with a slot cut through the
centre to admit a piece of strong sharp steel, shaped
like a chisel, and a wedge to hold the cutter in its
place, as in Fig. 13.
This little instrument, called a " router," is especi-
ally useful for regulating the depth of the groundwork
of panels, etc. It can be made of various sizes, but
the most useful will be of the size mentioned above to
admit a steel cutter of | in. in width. In using the
"router" the groundwork of the panel is first cut out
to some extent by
\lb.
FIG. 13. — (A) ROUTER ; (b) CUTTER.
a quick bent tool ;
the cutter is set to
the depth required,
and by working
sharply backwards
and forwards, a per-
fectly flat surface is obtained. The stones required
for sharpening carving-tools can be obtained at
almost any cutler's. Arkansas stones are generally
used, and may be had in slips, the edges — or
at least the top and bottom edges of which — require
to be ground, so as to fit the inside of the various
tools. The backs of the tools are sharpened on
the sides of the stones which soon get worn into
hollows to fit the sweeps of the quick tools. In gene-
ral a quick-cutting" stone is the best for large tools,
and a fine-grained slow-cutting stone puts on the best
edge for small tools. With small veiners and parting-
tools a piece of deal is cut — across the grain— so as to
fit the inside of the tool to be sharpened, and emery-
powder and oil is then used to rub out the inside of
the tool. Other tools and contrivances, such as small
files of various sizes, scrapers of different shapes, etc.,
the amateur will soon learn to make for himself.
In the next article, I intend giving further instruc-
tions as to the proper method of sharpening the tools,
the best kinds of wood to be used for carving purposes,
and the various methods adopted in preparing the
wood and impressing or drawing on it the design to
be carved.
NEW USES FOR OLD TIN CANS.
By A. W. ROBERTS.
GIVE below the result of an extended
experience in the utilisation of old tin cans,
such as are used by the million by
packers of fruits and other articles.
These cans, after serving their original
purpose, are usually thrown into obscure corners,
battered and rusty, a nuisance to every one.
By the method given below these troublesome
278
NEW USES FOR OLD TIN CANS.
articles are made useful and even
ornamental, such articles as flower-
pots, hanging baskets, bird-houses,
etc., being made from them with
little trouble or expense.
The cans were prepared in the
following manner: Having procured
a large dishpan, as much asphalt was
melted in it as it would hold with
safety. Into the boiling asphalt
the cans were dipped ; as each can
was taken out it was rolled in dry
sand, to give it a natural ground
colour ; without the sand the effect
of the black asphalt coating would
FIG. 6. — HANGING FLOWER POT.
small piece of metal, it was bent
down so as to form a rest for the
birds when feeding their young,
or a porch or rain screen over the
entrance. All these little points
when carried out gave character,
variety of form, and complete-
ness. The different ways of fasten-
ing and suspending the bird-houses
are shown in Fig. I. I sometimes
fastened branches of creepers over
the bird-houses to screen them from
view as much as possible.
A glue-pot, a bailer, a fruit
gatherer, and a grater are shown
FIG. I. — BIRD HOUSES MADE FROM OLD CANS.
FIG. 3. — BAILER.
be sombre and out of keeping with
the colour of the surroundings. To
give some of these bird-houses a
still more picturesque effect, they
were rolled in the ordinary dry
packing moss used by florists, and
wood mosses; short dry twigs, small
cones, and burrs were also fas-
tened on the cans. In this way
very nice effects of colour were pro-
duced. It is a well known fact that
birds avoid brilliant or artificial
colours ; for this reason greens,
greys, browns, and neutral tints
are best for bird-houses. Where
cans had been opened so that the
top piece was still attached by a
FIG. 5.— BREAD GRATER.
HANGING LOC.
respectively in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5.
The glue-pot, Fig. 2, was made in
the following manner : Selecting
an empty two pound can, enough
tin was cut away to admit of an
empty one pound can. This inner
can, projected one inch above the
top of the two pound can and was
held in position by four wooden pegs,
which were slightly tapering so as
to bind. Holes were made in the
shoulders of the cans, through
which wire handles were fastened.
Fig. 3 shows a liquid measure or
a water bailer. A hole is made in a
can two inches below the edge;
through this hole a handle is
NE IV USES FOR OLD TIN CANS.
279
inserted, which presses against the
opposite side, and is secured with
a nail or screw.
Fig. 4, a fruit gatherer, was
made by attaching a circular piece
of board to the end of a long pole
and fastening to this a can. Inside
of the can there was a bag to receive
the fruit without bruising. The bag
was sewn inside of the can through
a circle of small perforations. The
rim of the tin was sharpened, so
that when pressed against the stem
of the fruit it would cut through it.
Fig. 5, a bread grater, is so
FIG. 8. — PLANT STANDARD EMPTY.
FIG. 10. — ROCKERY.
simple that it hardly needs describ-
ing. Out of a piece of one inch
board a holder was shaped on which
a perforated piece of tin was fasten-
ed. This piece of tin consists of a
side of a fruit-can flattened out.
Lines were then drawn diagonally
over it for guides when punching
in the holes. The tin was laid on
a piece of wood, in which a hole
had been made of the exact depth
required for the uniform projection
of the burred cutters of the grater.
The tin was then nailed to one side
of the holder and bent over in as
perfect a curve as possible to the
other side, when it was again
fastened.
A fruit-can is very easily con-
verted into a respectable looking
flower-pot. The can to be ope-
rated on is first dipped in hot
asphalt. A piece of well seasoned
white birch bark is cut out of the
same height as the can, and suffici-
ently long to reach round it. This
piece of bark is cut large enough
for the can to be dropped into it,
leaving considerable space between
the can and the bark. This space
is filled in with hot asphalt. For
ornamentation of the pots, burrs of
different kinds, small pine cones
FIG. 9. — PLANT STANDARD FILLED.
FIG. II.— ORNAMENTAL VASE.
and acorns are used. A hole
must always be made in the bot-
tom of the pots for the drainage
of surplus water.
Fig. 6 is a hanging pot, planted
with ferns. This was also covered
with white birch bark, fastened on
the straight sides of the can with
asphalt. Three wires, by which it
was suspended, were fastened to the
rim of the can. In using cans for
flower-pots or hanging-baskets care
should be taken to thoroughly coat
the insides and outsides with the
asphalt ; this secures the tin from
rusting.
Fig. 7, a hanging log, was made
280
HINTS FOR BICYCLISTS IN TROUBLE.
by partially telescoping two cans together, after the
opened ends had been entirely removed. A section of
the side of each can was cut out, to leave an opening
for the reception of the soil and plants. The cans
were then heavily coated with asphalt, particularly
where the cans joined, so as to strengthen the joint.
Bark of chestnut or oak was used for covering the
cans.
Fig. 8 is a standard for plants and flowering bulbs.
Having secured an old centre-table, two cheese-boxes
of different sizes were placed one on top of the other,
the smaller one on top. Around the side of the lower
box fruit-can flower-pots were ranged, above these
ranged another circle of pots, which stood on the
top of the largest cheese-box and against the side
of the smaller one. On top of the smallest box more
pots are placed, so that but little of the cheese-boxes
could be seen. All the pots were ornamented with
burrs, cones, lichens, or barks. The spaces left between
the boxes were filled in with wood mosses. Around
the rim of the table was nailed hooping from a flour
barrel. The inner angle formed by the hooping and
the top of the table, was patched with putty. Over
the entire top of the table, the hooping, and the putty,
hot asphalt was applied with a brush. This rendered
the top of the table water-tight, so that when watering
the plants water could not run on to the floor. A hole
bored through the top of the table afforded an escape
for surplus water. The cheese-boxes were coated
inside and outside with asphalt, to prevent them from
warping. The open space between the first circle of
pots and the rim of the table was filled in with earth,
on top of which moss was built up to the first circle of
pots. The plants used were tradescantia, common
and variegated ivy, vincas, saxifrages, hyacinths,
stonecrop, ferns, and calla lily.
Fig. 9 shows the complete plant standard. In
hanging baskets, pots, and standards, where the
plants are planted closely together and in a compara-
tively small bulk of soil, they require frequent watering
and occasional applications of liquid manure. Our
fowls provide us with a very fair article of " domestic
guano," from which we make good liquid manure of
sufficient strength by mixing one shovelful to a barrel
of water. Still there is danger in a too generous use
of liquid manure ; if too strong or too frequently used
the tender roots of the plants are injured and the
leaves begin to fall.
Fig. 10 is a fern rockery for table or Wardian case.
For the rockwork the most picturesque of rocks in
form and colour were selected. The rocks were
fastened together with plaster of Paris, which was
mixed with dry colours, greys and browns predomin-
ating. As fast as the plaster was applied sand was
thrown on it. The effect of the colouring and sanding
of the plaster was to destroy its whity glaring look,
and to harmonize it with the general colours of the
rockwork. The cans used for the flower-pots were
first wrapped in wet paper, to increase them in size,
before applying the plaster against them when building
the rockwork. In a few hours the paper wrappings
had so dried that the pots were easily withdrawn, after
which the paper was removed and the pots put back
in their places.
Fig. 1 1 is a vase for dried grasses and autumn
leaves, which was constructed as follows : To the top
of a broken lamp-standard of glass was fastened a
fruit-can that had been previously dipped in asphalt.
The outside of the can was then carefully covered
with selected lichens and tufts of " sealing-wax moss.'
Shells and parts of pine cones were used for orna-
mentation.
HINTS FOR BICYCLISTS IN TROUBLE.
By T. H". FITTON, Hon. Sec. E.C.B.C.
EEING in your third part a query from a
bicyclist respecting cycles, I have
written the following brief remarks on
the easiest method of remedying common
accidents. These, I hope, will prove
useful to many readers of Amateur Work, Illus-
trated.
Bent Handle Bar. — This is one of the most
common accidents which happens to a bicyclist, and
is also one of the most easily remedied. If the
handle bar is badly bent, turn the machine upside
down, so that it rests on the saddle and centre-pin
head, get something to fasten the straight end of the
handle bar firmly to the floor, then take hold of the
pedal, and standing with one foot on the bent end,
press it gradually down until it is straight.
Bent Crank. — Another of the many troubles of a"
touring cyclist, who if he is in a lonely part of the
country and has a spill, finds on picking his machine
up that the crank has bent sufficiently to stop the
front wheel from going round, the best way to remedy
this is to lean the machine against a wall or post with
the bent crank inside, i.e., between the wall and the
wheel ; then turn the wheel until the crank is at the
highest point, and, standing on the pedal, push it
slowly down so that you do not bend the pedal pin
instead of the crank.
Buckled Wheel. — This is what is known amongst
mechanics as a burst wheel. Most bicycle wheels
will, if properly managed, spring back when pulled ;
this, however, is beyond the power of one alone, and
is most easily accomplished by about four sitting on
the ground with the wheel laid flat between them,
WA YS AND MEANS.
281
and taking hold round the rim pulling steadily until
the wheel springs, when in most cases it may be
ridden many miles without any further bother.
Bent Backbone. — Although cyclists sometimes have
the misfortune to come a cropper, which is so violent
as to bend the backbone until it overlaps the front
wheel, yet it is by no means so common an occurrence
as the accidents before mentioned ; however, it is as
well to know what to do in the worst cases as in the
more trivial ones. Sometimes a backbone is so far
bent as to make it practically impossible for anyone
but a skilled workman to bend it back to its proper
shape, but there are many instances when with a little
perseverance and a good deal of physical strength,
one may so straighten it that it can be ridden without
fear of further mischief.
To straighten one then, take the backbone out of
the head and put it (the head) under a heavy weight,
or if you have a companion get him to stand on it,
then put a stone or a block of wood under the place
where it is bent and press down slowly, because if you
jerk it you will most likely snap the backbone, which
would leave you in a worse plight than before.
WAYS AND MEANS.
[The Receipts brought together under this title are gathered
from various sources. They are given here because they are each
and all apparently possessed of value, and likely to he useful to the
Amateur. It is manifestly impossihle for the Editor to test them,
or to have them tested, and he therefore disclaims all responsibility
for their accuracy or otherwise. Amateurs -who may try them are
requested to communicate the results arrived at.]
Effect of Coloured Bottles on Liquids. —
The Oesterreichisch.es Handels Journal makes the
following interesting statements on the effect of the
colour of glass bottles on the liquors contained therein :
Liquors contained in colourless bottles, when exposed
for some time to the light, acquire a disagreeable taste,
notwithstanding the fact that they may have been of
superior quality before being so treated ; liquors con-
tained in brown or green bottles, however, remain
unchanged in quality, even if exposed to direct sun-
light. This phenomenon has not received proper
attention heretofore, and quality has often been sacri-
ficed for the sake of outward appearance. Since the
results of the above treatment are due to the chemical
action of light, it is advisable to use red, orange, yellow,
green, or opaque bottles for the preservation of liquors,
while colourless, blue, and violet ones should be
entirely discarded.
Waterproofing Pasteboard.— A writer in Mar-
tineau and Smith's Hardware Trades Journal says
that the waterproofing of pasteboard may be effected
with a mixture of four parts of slacked lime into three
parts of skimmed milk, with a little alum added. As
soon as mixed, the pasteboard is brushed over with two
successive coatings of the preparation, and thus be-
comes impervious to water.
Universal Cement. — The cement described be-
low is said to be unequalled for uniting wood, crockery,
glass-ware, and, more particularly, leather : — Take
one-quarter of an ounce of powdered white shell-lac,
one-quarter of an ounce of sulphuric ether, and one-
half-gill of alcohol. Bottle the ingredients, cork tightly,
and allow to dissolve for the space of twenty-four
hours. The shell-lac may not entirely dissolve in that
time. When ready, take a common glue-pot, and put
into it eighteen ounces of white glue, one ounce of
isinglass, and one pint of soft water. Dissolve by
heating in the usual manner. When thoroughly dis-
solved, stir in two ounces of dry white lead, and add
the contents of the bottle. Take the mixture off the
fire, and add the white of one egg. Pour into a tray,
and allow to cool. This preparation is to be applied
warm in the same general manner as glue. After
applying the cement to the article under repair, clamp
the parts firmly together, and allow the cement to set
for ten to twelve hours.
Soft Solders. — The fusibility of soft solders is
increased by adding bismuth to the composition. An
alloy of lead four parts, tin four parts, and bismuth one
part, is easily melted ; but this alloy may itself be
soldered with an alloy of lead two parts, of bismuth
two parts, and tin one part. By adding mercury, a
still more fusible solder can be made. Equal parts of
lead, bismuth, and mercury, with two parts of tin, will
make a composition that melts at 1220 Fahr. ; or an
alloy of tin five parts, lead three parts, and bismuth
three parts, will melt in boiling water. In mixing these
solders, melt the least fusible metal first in an iron
ladle, then add the others in accordance with their
infusibility. To cast strips of solder, pour the molten
metal on a flat surface of stone or metal, drawing the
ladle along the while to leave a thread of metal of the
desired substance.
Strong Glues. — A glue which will resist the action
of water may be made by boiling one pound of glue in
two quarts of skimmed milk. To make a strong glue
for inlaying or veneering, take the best light-brown
glue, free from clouds and streaks, dissolve this in
water, and to every pint add half a gill of the best
vinegar and half an ounce of isinglass. For fire and
waterproof glue mix a handful of quick lime with four
ounces of linseed oil, thoroughly lixiviate the mixture,
boil it to a good thickness, and spread it on tin plates
in the shade ; it will become very hard, but can be dis-
solved over a fire like common glue, and is then fit for
use. — Builder and Woodworker.
WA YS AND MEANS.
Polishes. — The following is said to be a very-
effective polish : — Dissolve four ounces of orange
shell-lac in one quart of ninety-five per cent, alcohol,
and when the shell-lac is dissolved add one quart of
linseed oil and one pint of turpentine. Mix the
ingredients, and when thoroughly incorporated add
four ounces of sulphuric ether and the same quantity
of liquor ammonia. Stir well before using, and apply
with a cloth or sponge, rubbing the surface to which it
is applied till the polish appears.
Holes in Glass. — It is said that a round hole of
any desired size may be cut in a pane of glass without
injury to the pane by taking a copper tube of the size
of the hole required and causing it to revolve in con-
tact with the glass, keeping the surface where the cut
is to be made well supplied with emery and water. Of
course, care must be taken to hold the glass firmly
down and to prevent the tube from moving away from
the spot where the hole is to be cut.
To Remove Rusted Bolts.— The most effectual
means for the removal of bolts that have rusted in,
without breaking them, is the liberal application of
petroleum. Care must be taken that the petroleum
shall reach the rusted parts, and some time must be
allowed to give it a chance to penetrate beneath and
soften the layer of rust before the attempt to remove
the bolt is made. Bolts and studs on which the nuts
are fixed with rust are broken off through impatience.
In most cases a small funnel built round a stud
or bolt end on the nut with a little clay, and partly
filled with any of the searching petroleum oils, and
left for a few hours, will enable the bolt or nut to be
moved.
Lubricant for Machinery. — A good lubricant
for machinery and oilstones may be made by mixing
one part of paraffin with five parts of oil. This is
excellent for machinery, especially if they are not in
constant use, as it prevents rust and clogging. Planes
also work much easier if a little is rubbed on the
bottom. The writer has used the above for some years
and never intends to return to oil alone. — Delta,
Barnard Castle.
Salt in Diphtheria.— In a paper read at the
Medical Society of Victoria, Australia, Dr. Day stated
that, having for many yeais regarded diphtheria, in its
early stage, as a purely local affection, characterized
by a marked tendency to take on putrefactive decom-
position, he has trusted most to the free and constant
application of antiseptics, and when their employment
has been adopted from the first, and been combined
with judicious alimentation, he has seldom seen blood-
poisoning ensue. In consequence of the great power
which salt possesses in preventing the putrefactive de-
composition of meat and other organic matter, Dr.
Day has often prescribed for diphtheritic patients living
far away from medical aid, the frequent use of a gargle
composed of a tablespoonful or more of salt dissolved
in a tumbler of water, giving children who cannot
gargle a teaspoonful or two to drink occasionally.
Adults to use the gargle as a prophylactic or preven-
tive, three or four times a day.
How to tell Good from Bad Gilding.— It
may be ascertained whether gilding is genuine or not
by the fact, that, on the latter a weak solution of pro-
tochloride of copper produces a black precipitate,
which it does not on the former. In the case of gilt
paper, the simplest method consists in slowly burning
the paper in a bright flame that gives out no smoke ;
in the incinerated remains of good gilt paper there are
traces of the gold left behind, which are quite percep-
tible to the naked eye, in the shape of glittering spots,
while base metal on paper oxidizes in burning, and leaves
nothing but a lot of red spots behind. This method,
however, is scarcely accurate enough ; a very much
safer test is to be found in the use of mercury, either
in metallic shape or in solution of salts of mercury.
The former test is performed by putting a few drops
of pure quicksilver on the gilt article, and either
rubbing it in or slightly heating it. If the gilding be
genuine, though ever so thin, the mercury combines it-
self with it, producing white spots on the surface. This
does not occur in the case of sham gilding, and in
rubbing mercury in no change of colour whatever can
be noticed. Another test consists in the application of
a watery solution of nitrate of mercury. In this case
the exact opposite takes places as in the former, for
genuine gilding remains intact, while a " duffer " at
once takes a white colour when brought in contact
with the precipitate of mercury.
To Prevent Wood from Shrinking.— Care-
fully conducted experiments have shown that wood,
well saturated with oil, when put together, will not
shrink in the driest weather. Wheels have been
known to run for many years, even to wearing out the
tyres. Much money might be saved annually if this
practice was adopted. Boiled linseed oil is the best
for general use, although it is now known that
crude petroleum, on even old wheels, is of great
benefit.
Varnish for Imitating Gilding. — A very
perfect imitation of gilding on brass and bronze
articles, it is said, may be made by means of a varnish
composed of 160 grains of gum-lac, 40 grains of dragon's
blood, 10 grains of turmeric, and 3320 grains of alcohol.
The metal should be brushed with the varnish in all
directions, by means of a sponge, and then immediate-
ly warmed over a gentle charcoal fire. The surface at
first will appear dead, but will soon resemble the
finest gilding. The varnish should be kept in well
corked bottles.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
283
A Simple Paint Remover.— The following re-
ceipt is very simple, cheap, and effective : — Take of
soft soap, one pound ; common washing soda, two
pounds ; and water, three pints. Boil together for a
short time till approaching a thin jelly, and apply
either hot or cold with a brush to the article from
which the paint has to be removed. Allow it to
remain on a few minutes before peeling off. — Delta,
Bar nai d Castle.
Tests for Water. — One of the readiest and sim-
plest tests for ascertaining if water is free from organic
pollution, is to cork up a small bottle nearly full of it,
in which a piece of lump-sugar has been put. If by
thus excluding the air, and letting it stand in the light
for two or three days, there is not a milky cloud seen,
but the water remains clear, it may be considered free
from the phosphates with which sewage-water is im-
pregnated. To ascertain if water contains iron, take a
glass of water and add to it a few drops of the infusion
of nutgalls, or suspend a nutgall in it by means of a
thread for twenty-four hours. If the iron be present,
the water will become of a dark brown or black colour.
Prussiate of potash is a still more delicate test for
detecting iron. If a crystal, or drop of it, when dis-
solved, be added to a glass of water containing iron,
it will immediately become of a blue colour. To ascer-
tain if water contains magnesia, take a quantity of the
water, and boil down to a twentieth part of its bulk,
then drop a few grains of carbonate of ammonia into
a small glass of water. No magnesia will yet be pre-
cipitated ; but on adding a small quantity of phos-
phate of soda, if any magnesia be present it will then
make its appearance and fall to the bottom of the
glass. In this experiment it is necessary that the car-
bonate of ammonia be in a neutral state.
Cement Floors. — A good cement floor may be
made by mixing together, just like ordinary morta^
one bushel of cement, five bushels of clean sand, and
two bushels of fine gravel, broken bricks, or foundry
slag. Cover the floor with this preparation to a thick-
ness of from three to six inches ; leave it a week or ten
days to harden, when it will be found that the floor is
as hard as a rock.
Stains on Glass. — These may be removed by
laying on the stains with a stick a mixture of three
parts of American potash and one part of unslacked
lime. The mixture, which will remove either tar or
paint, should be allowed to remain on the glass for
some time before it is removed.
Dead Finish for Black Walnut. — The most
soft and perfect dead finish is made as follows : —
Prepare the wood by filling, and then give three or
four coats of shell- lac or oil finish, and when dry rub
with a fine-ground pumice stone and raw linseed oil,
using a woollen cloth or hair-cloth ; clean with old
cotton rags. Care must be taken not to rub through
to wood. Another method is to mix together equal
parts of burnt umber and fine ground pumice stone,
and apply the mixture with a woollen rag or hair-cloth
dipped in raw or boiled linseed. Clean, as in the first
mode, with old cotton rags. This does not yield quite
so good an effect, but it can be easily done by any
amateur, it simply requires muscle ; the longer and
harder the wood is rubbed the better the results. If
the latter of these processes be adopted it is unneces-
sary either to fill or oil the wood.
Blackboards. — For imparting a uniform black
surface to boards that are to be used as blackboards
take of shell-lac six ounces and of alcohol a pint and
a-half ; warm the alcohol and digest the shell-lac in
it until the latter is dissolved ; strain the liquid through
a cloth, filter it, and then introduce about five ounces
of a mixture of bone-black and emery powder com-
bined in equal parts, stirring the whole together until
the ingredients are thoroughly incorporated ; the mix-
ture should have the consistency of very thin syrup.
Thin, if necessary, with more alcohol, and apply two
coats, using a soft, smooth-edged brush.
Emery Wheels. — A writer in The Metal Worker
asserts that tools can be ground on solid emery wheels
much more satisfactorily than on the grindstone, pro-
vided a little care is used. The advantage is in the
comparatively true surface of the wheel. It is faster
cutting, and, owing to the tool being kept dry and
clean, the operator can see much better when it is
brought to an edge. The great trouble in using emery
wheels is that workmen have been so long in the habit
of pressing against a wet grindstone, that it takes them
some time to learn to work lightly against an emery
wheel so as not to draw the temper. There is a great
difference in the working of solid emery wheels. Many
of them, being made of semi-glutinous cement, require
to be run at a high speed in order to cut at all. Others,
however, are not open to this objection. A wheel
which will operate satisfactorily at a low speed is most
advantageous for use in grinding tools, because it does
not heat them sufficiently to draw the temper.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
HOSE of the readers of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, who are interested in the
making and repairing of clocks and
watches, will do well to place on their
shelves The Watchmakers' Handbook, by
Claudius Saunier, a book which is "intended as a
workshop companion to all who are engaged in
watchmaking and the allied mechanical arts." As
may be judged from the name of the writer this work
284
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
is of foreign origin. It is indeed based on two of
M. Saunier's original works, the Guide Manuel de
I'Horologer, and the Receucil des Precedes Pratiques,
which have been incorporated in this translation, a
large amount of additional information having been
added by the translators, M. Julien Tripplin, Besancon,
watchmaker, and Mr. Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in
the Royal Mint. It is illustrated by numerous wood
blocks and copper plates, and is published by J.
Tripplin, 5, Bartletts Buildings, Holbom Circus, E.C.
That it is fully illustrated will be seen when it is said
that there are twenty-seven wood-blocks in the 498
octavo pages of which the book consists, and that the
folding plates are fourteen in number, and contain
more than two hundred carefully executed diagrams.
The price of the volume is 12s. 6d., for which it is sent
post free to any address by the publisher on receipt of
a post office order for this amount. Not having had
an opportunity of comparing the text of the volume
before me with the original treatises from which it
has been partly rendered into English, I cannot bear
testimony to the fidelity of the translation ; but judging
from internal evidence, the work of adaptation appears
to have been carefully done. I will pass on, however,
to a brief consideration of those points which tend to
render The Watchmaker^ Hajidbook especially valu-
able both to professionals who follow watchmaking as
a calling, and to amateurs who may be inclined to
take it up as an amusement and as an interesting
mechanical study, as in France, where there is a
wealth of literature on this subject, and where
amateur workers, being thus helped, are led to take up
watchmaking, or rather watch repairing, whereas it is
possible that those who are doing so in this country
at the present time might be counted on the fingers
without going over them twice. In England, other-
wise than it is in France, there is an absolute scarcity
of literature relating to watchmaking, and this must
tell much against the prosecution of watchmaking as
an art-trade in this country, for technical education can
never be efficiently carried out without a fair array of
technical literature as a means to the end in view. Nor
should it be supposed that this book is interesting only
to those who are engaged in or like to dabble in watch-
making, for it may be said that it cannot fail to prove
interesting to persons engaged in other mechanical
arts, such as clockmaking, and telegraph and
scientific instrument making, inasmuch as numerous
mechanical devices, methods of preparing and work-
ing metals, working in precious stones, smoothing and
polishing, lathe work, wheel cutting, as well as the
making and repairing of small mechanisms are fully
and clearly described in its pages.
It is possible that this magazine may come under
the notice of a few professional watchmakers, and to
these I may be permitted to point out that M.
Saunier's reputation on the continent, his works being
used as text - books in all continental horological
schools, is such as to render his books safe and
desirable works of reference for all who are engaged
in watchmaking. These consist of the volume now
under consideration and the Treatise on Modern
Horology, which was produced in an English form by
Messrs. Tripplin and Rigg in 1880, and which was
awarded a diploma of merit at Melbourne in the same
year, and a gold medal at Paris in 1 881, on account of
" services rendered to the cause of horology."
It remains only to give a brief synopsis of its
contents. It is divided into six parts, of which the
first is devoted to arithmetic, geometry, and measure-
ment as pertaining to watchmaking, with instructions
on the method of ascertaining true time. The second
treats on the materials employed in horology ; their
preparation, treatment, and application. The third,
on health, with special reference to the preservation of
the sight, and the position to be assumed by the
watchmaker when at work, and the manipulation of
the tools that are used. The fourth part treats of the
tools themselves and the various appliances used in
connection with the trade. The fifth part is devoted
to the examination and repairing of watches ; and the
sixth to practical recipes and instructions for carrying
out operations peculiar to the various branches of the
trade. An ample table of contents combined with
numerous cross references in the body of the work
affords the utmost facility in the use of the volume as
a work for every-day consultation.
I am reminded by Messrs. Kay Brothers, Opera-
tive Chemists, of Stockport, that they are the makers
of a specialty known all over the world as Kay's
Coaguline, which every amateur ought to keep among
his various appliances for making and mending. It is
in vain I urge that it is no " novelty " — that I have
used it for years, and would not willingly be without
it for a day, and that all amateurs who are acquainted
with it, and who are not, are probably of the same
mind with myself. They return to the charge by
declaring that in all possibility there are as many
who do not know its merits and good qualities as
those who do, and that it is in the interest of these
that I ought to mention it as it will be a novelty to
them if not to others. I believe this preparation will
mend anything except broken heads, arms, legs, ribs,
and hearts. I have used it instead of a needle and
thread for making two narrow blinds into one and for
forming the broad hem to receive the stick at the
bottom. It will unite wood, bone, ivory, glass,
porcelain, leather, cork, and cardboard; it is colourless
and sets at once, and will resist the action of fire,
water, frost, acid, and alcohol ; its utility, therefore, to
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
2S5
the amateur in making and mending, and mounting
drawings, cartes de visite, models, and specimens of
every description in natural history, and microscopic
objects must be self-evident. This preparation is sold
in bottles at 6d., is., and 2s., any size being sent free
by post by the makers and inventors for two stamps
extra.
Messrs. Kay Brothers, however, have something in
the form of a novelty — a novelty to me at least — which
they call " Lava." Not having seen this material, and
having had no opportunity of testing it, I can give no
positive opinion with regard to it, but if it answers all
the purposes for which it is said to be designed, and
possesses the qualities that are attributed to it, it is
likely to be of great service to many amateurs. " Lava"
is described as being a fusible, imperishable stone
that can be used for filling up, bedding, and solidifying
stonework, iron bearings, palisadings, etc., and for
making cisterns, without joints, for chemical and other
purposes, sanitary tiles, water troughs for birds, poultry,
dogs, etc., galvanic batteries, plugs for acid carboys,
and for models and casts of ornamental and useful
articles, with the utmost fineness and accuracy. The
directions for its use are as follows : " Crush a little to
powder and melt it in a covered ladle over a slow fire ;
as soon as it begins to run, withdraw it from the heat,
allowing it to melt itself j stir it a little while melting,
and run it at once into the cavity. It must not be
allowed to get too hot, or it will become thick, but it
■will thin again by careful stirring a few minutes away
from the fire. It is said that this material runs like
lead, which, indeed, it supersedes to a great extent,
unites chemically with stone, requires no caulking, is
never affected by the weather, and is similar in
appearance to stone and iron. If any readers of
Amateur Work, Illustrated, have used Kay's
" Lava," it will be useful if they will send a brief
account of their experiences with regard to it.
I have had from time to time various applications
from fret-sawyers with reference to finishing and
polishing their work. To these I may say that they
will find a most useful " fret-sawyer's companion " in
the Amateur French Polishers Cabinet, which has
been recently produced by Mr. James Parkinson,
Golborne Street, Warrington. The stains, polishes,
and other appliances contained in this cabinet are the
results of a long series of experiments made by Mr.
Parkinson with the view of enabling any amateur
wood-worker, however inexperienced, to finish his
work in a satisfactory manner and without the slightest
chance of failure. Nor is it to amateur joiners and
cabinetmakers only that Mr. Parkinson's preparations
will be of use, for they will be found to be of service
to the amateur photographer also, as the polish is
especially suitable for polishing and renovating
cameras, dark slides, etc. The cabinet in which the
preparations are kept is 6f inches high, 4J inches
wide, and 5 inches deep, that is to say, from front to
back. It is made in mahogany and deal, nicely
polished, so that it is as ornamental as it is useful. In
mahogany it costs 6s., including all its various con-
tents, in deal, 5s. ; and it may bought at these prices
at, or through, chemists and oil and colourmen, of
whom sample bottles of the various preparations may
be obtained at is. each. In each cabinet will be found
three bottles — one containing improved French polish,
another improved ebony stain, and a third improved
mahogany stain ; in addition to these are a box of
wood stopper, a packet of wood filler, two brushes
for staining and ebonising, one roll of specially prepared
cotton wool for French polishing, and one sheet of
extra fine sand-paper are given.
Mr. Parkinson's instructions for preparing the
'wood, staining, ebonising, and polishing may be epito-
mised as follows : — The wood must be evenly planed
and scraped, and well sand-papered, and all nail-
holes and holes of any kind must be filled with a paste
made by mixing a little of the wood stopper with as
much of the mahogany stain as may be found to be
sufficient for the purpose. If too dark a little water
should be added to the stain. When the paste is set
the stain must be laid on plentifully with the brush
along the grai?i of the wood. In ebonising, the ama-
teur must proceed in exactly the same manner. When
the wood is thoroughly dry it must be coated with the
wood filler. This must be dissolved in a gill of water
by the action of heat, and the solution applied while
hot with a brush. When the wood is quite dry rub it
gently with the sand-paper in order to produce a per-
fectly even surface, and then apply a little of the polish
to a pad of cotton wool, which must then be covered
with a piece of fine soft rag, free from soap. When
the pad is ready for use apply it along the grain of the
wood, moving it lightly backwards and forwards, and
not with a circular motion, which must be avoided.
The polish dries almost immediately, and when four
separate coats have been given, or thereabouts, the
work must be put on one side until the polish is per-
fectly set, which it will be in about an hour, or a little
more ; but if the wood is left untouched for a longer
period the final result will be all the better. The wood
must then be sand-papered once more and the polish
applied again in the same manner, and in a very few
minutes the operator will be amply repaid for his
trouble by the beautifully bright and even polish that
will be obtained. The polishing must be done in a
warm room, and if the pad does not rub smoothly but
sticks a little, a drop or two of linseed oil must be
applied to its surface occasionally. I need only add
that the specimens now before me of polished rose-
286
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
wood and mahogany veneer, ebonised white wood, and
pitch pine stained in one case to imitate mahogany,
and in the other of its natural colour, present a beau-
tiful appearance, and bear ample testimony to the
efficiency of Mr. Parkinson's preparations and his
method of applying them.
Messrs. R. Melhuish & Sons send me specimens
of some of the specialties manufactured by Messrs.
William Tonks & Co., of Birmingham, and figured in
the accompanying illustrations. Fig.
15 represents Tonks's Metal Shelf
Fittings which are specially adapted
for the shelves of book-cases or
other shelves, the adjustment of
which has to be varied from time
to time to suit the different require-
ments of a library. The method
hitherto generally followed for sup-
porting the ends of shelves has been
to rest them on moveable cleats fitting
into and sustained by toothed racks
screwed to the sides of the uprights
It has also been a common practice
to bore holes in the sides of the up-
rights for the reception of pins or
studs on which the ends of the shelves
are supported. These contrivances,
however, are thrown entirely into the
shade by the patent fittings, which
consist of metal strips of great
strength, \ inch wide and -fa inch
thick, perforated at intervals of \ inch
as at A, A, for the reception of simple
but strong metal plates whose form
and appearance, when detached
from the strip and when inserted in
it are shown at B and C. Grooves of
the form shown in section in Fig. 16
are made in the uprights or frames
for the reception of the metal
strips, which are held in place by
stout screws. The strength of the
patent fittings may be imagined when
it is said that four of the plates,
hooked into the strips and used with a shelf sufficiently
strong to bear the weight, will support, without strain,
more than half a ton. The strips, as shown in Fig. 15,
are sold in iron, bronzed, at 4d. per foot run, and in
brass at iod. per foot run ; the plates in iron, bronzed,
are 7s. per gross, in brass 10s. 6d. per gross.
Spring cleaning naturally calls attention to the
hanging, or re-hanging, as the case may be, of pictures,
and all who are doing, or about to do, this should
look at the " Piano-wire Picture Line/' manufactured
by Messrs. William Tonks & Sons on Hookham &
FIG. 18.— NIPPERS FOR STEEL WIRE.
Ludlow's patent. This picture line consists of a core
of one or more strands of steel wire covered with a
close binding of ormolu wire and waterproof cotton,
which can be washed and thus restored at any time
to its pristine brightness when it shall have become
dulled by dust and other deteriorating causes. Every
length is subjected to a testing strain, and the con-
struction of the wire renders it secure even when tied
in a single knot. The wire, which is of different sizes
distinguished by numbers, is sold in
lengths of 100 feet, Nos. 5 and 6 being
also supplied in lengths of 25 feet at
a slight advance in price. The cost
of each size per 100 feet, with its
breaking strain, weight of pictures for
which it is calculated, as supplied
post-free by Messrs. Melhuish & Sons,
is as follows : —
No. "Weight of Picture. Breaking Strain. Price
5 up to 20 lbs.
6 from 20 to 30 lbs.
7 from 30 to 40 lbs.
8 from 40 to 60 lbs.
9 from 60 to 80 lbs.
10 from 80 to 1 50 lbs.
45 lbs. 3s. 6d.,
70 lbs. 5s.
So lbs. 8s. 6d.
125 lbs. 12s.
200 lbs. 20s.
370 lbs. 35s.
FIG. 15. — METAL SHELF
FITTINGS FOR BOOK-
CASES.
FIG. 17.—
PICTURE
FASTENER.
1 1 from 1 50 to 300 lbs. 700 lbs. 60s.
Rings are attached to the pictures in
the usual way, but for convenience in
attaching the cord and hanging the
picture, fasteners are used, as shown
in Fig. 17. The picture ring is
placed in the loop of the fastener,
which is then closed and the wire
threaded through the holes in the
fastener, as shown in the illustration.
At least \\ inches of the end should
be left free, but it is better to leave
even more than this. The line can
be drawn easily through the holes
when the weight of the picture is re-
moved so as to prevent any
strain, but when the weight is
allowed to strain on the line it is
immoveable. The fasteners are sold at the following
prices per gross :— for Nos. 5 and 6, 2s. ; for No. 7, 3s. ;
for No. 8, 4s. ; for No. 9, 5s. ; for No. 10, 8s. ; and for
No. 11, 15s. For cutting the steel wire the American
Nippers, shown in Fig. 18, will be found serviceable.
The head of the nippers is constructed for cutting all
sizes of the wire, from the smallest to the largest. This
implement, which is sold at 2s. per pair, nicked plated,
is durable and useful for various household purposes,
such as cutting the wires of bottles containing cham-
pagne or soda-water.
16.— SECTION OF GROOVE IN WOOD
FOR METAL SHELF FITTING.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
287
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
rThe Editor reserves to himself the right of re-
fusirgareply to any question that may be frivolous
or Inappropriate, or devoid or general interest.
Correspondents are requested to bear in mind that
their queries will be answered only in the pages of
the Magazine, the information sought being sup-
plied for the benefit of its readers generally as well
as for those who nave a special interest in obtaining
it. In no case can any reply be sent by post.]
Organ-Building.
I. M. (Xew Cross). — It is much
better to make your pipes too long
than tt-o short ; you can easily cut them
shorter, but it is difficult to lengthen
them. Rub the leather round the
stoppers with Russian tallow, and you
will find they will %vork easily. The
thickness of the pipes is to be gradually
reduced, the smallest one, F, being only
three-sixteenths of an inch thick. It is
usual to plane them down after they are
put together. The fronts of all the
Clarabella pipes must, however, be
finished before they are put on as the
chamfer is inside.
H. S. (Argyllshire). — If the large pipes
are brought to the front, the small treble
pipes would be placed in two rows behind
them, and the remainder of the larger
pipes at the back of all No extra rollers
would be required. A diagram of a
roller is annexed. It runs on a wire at
each end, which passes through a fixed
stud in exactly the same way as a roller
blind is fixed. The roller arms are
generally made about i\ inches long, and
are pierced to receive the wire from the
sticker of the key or the sticker to the
■*- '/< INCH -
■VIEW OF ROLLER.
b ackfall. as the case may be. Metal pipes
are far too difficult for amateurs to make,
and are costly also. The pipes give a
much better tone if they are made deeper
than they are wide. Remember that in
a metal pipe the mouth is not nearly as
wide as the diameter of the pipe, so that
brings them to much the same proportion
as wood pipes.
Z. Z. (Derby).— See reply to T. R.
(Alders/tot).
T. R. (Aldershof). — See answer to
J. P. L. (Tenby). As you have made
the throats rather large, keep to that
scale, reducing them gradually for each
succeeding pipe. The Clarabella pipes
are made in a slightly different way to the
others. The block is made in the same
way as for the stopped diapason. Over
this, however, instead of the ordinary cap,
SECTION OF CLARA-
BELLA PIPE.
SECTION OF
FLUTE PIPE.
a flat piece of wood is glued, of exactly
the same thickness as the front of the
pipe. A round hole is bored through
this, opposite to. and of the same dia-
meter as, the throat. The cap is then put
on outside this, and the top of it should
be exactly level with the top of the block.
The chamfer for the mouth is cut before
the front is put on, as it is turned to the in-
side of the pipe. The mouth should be cut
up one-fifth of the width. The flute pipes
are made in the same way, except that both
the caps project above the block, as shown
in the sketch, about \ inch for 2 foot C,
and a little more than \ inch for top F.
The blocks for both sorts of pipe are the
same size, viz., 3 inch for 2 foot C,
2i inches for 1 foot C, and if inches for
6 inch C, and all above that. The throat
for Middle C is \ inch wide, for top F
^ inch wide. The scales are as follows :
Clarabella
Middle C.
1 foot C.
Top F.
Width
ig in.
if in.
Jin.
Depth
if in.
1 in.
A ™.
Flute.
Width
1 ft in.
fin.
t'u in.
Depth
1 ft in.
i« id.
\ in.
There is only room for one stop on this
organ, and I see you propose to have
three.
J. B. (Kentish Town). — See reply to
T. R. (Aldershot), as to Clarabella pipes.
Buy your keyboard, and then you will be
able to tell by actual measurement the
lengths of your backfalls and stickers.
W. C. (Gloucester}. — The lengths of
the blocks have been given before. They
may be as follows. C C 4 inches, Tenor
C 3 inches, Middle C a\ inches, C1 if
inches, C2 ij inches. The sizes of the
throats are given in reply to another
query. They should be cut through the
block to slightly past the centre hole
where the foot comes through.
Edinburgh Joiner. — See reply to
W. C. S. (Newburgh). A scale for the
Clarabella pipes is given in answer
to another correspondent, and in the
sketches accompanying that answer you
will get the information you ask for.
C. T. C. (Haverstock Hill) wishes to
make his longest pipes in two lengths and
join them in the middle, as he thinks it
would be easier than
making them in one length.
I am afraid he will find it
rather a difficult job to
make a good joint cross-
ways, but, if well done, I
do not think that it would
injure the tone much. If
he cannot make a long
joint he might find it
easier to construct the
pipes as in the accom-
panying sketch. It is like
two pipes back to back,
the sides running right
across the double pipe,
and the stopper being in-
serted at the bottom of the
back division. You could
thus reduce your pipes to
about half the usual length,
but they would take double
the room on the sound
board. C. T. C. also thinks
it would be easier to make
the blocks of two separate
pieces of wood, leaving a
gap between them for the
throat, and making a cham-
fer on the front edge of
,, .... .SKETCH 8H0W-
the top piece instead of TN(, M0I)E „,
hollowing the cap, which shortening
would be simply a flat piece plpl! s'
of wood. It is not usual to make wood
pipes of less than 6 feet in length in this
way, but it will answer very well. As to
its being less trouble than the solid block
I have my own opinion.
W. C. S. (Newburgh).— You will find
your pipe give the right note, viz., C, if
you push the stopper in far enough. It
is usual to make the pipes longer than
the true pitch length to allow for trim-
ming off, and for the length of the
stopper. I must caution you and other
amateurs not to blow too much through
the pipes as the breath soon spoils the
pipes, and, moreover, as you cannot
depend on getting the proper pressure of
288
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
wind, it is really no test of the correctness
of the note. The pipes shoutd be put by
till all are complete and, when you have
got your bellows and soundboard in
order, put the requisite weights on the
bellows, and make all your pipes to sound
easily on that pressure while standing
in their proper places on the soundboard.
Some may want the mouths cutting
higher, or the windway enlarged or
diminished : others may require plugging
at the foot to stop off some of the wind.
So you see it is best to leave the pipes
alone till you can try them all together.
H. I. D. (Osmington). — See other
replies. If you retain your bellows with
two inside folds you must keep the
reservoir full of wind when playing, for
if it goes down the pitch of the pipes will
rise. The pallet holes are the full width
of the channels and 4 inches long. If
you like you may fill in the channels
behind the pallets with \ inch pine, and
there will then be no danger of leakage
from damage to the paper roofing. The
printer unfortunately left out the figures
4 inches and 3^- inches that should have
appeared at the top of the scale, and the
divisions in the top section are anything
but equal. The way to use the scale is
as follows : The topmost cross line is
4 inches outside measure, this gives you
the depth of 4 foot pipe C C. The same
line is 3J inches long to its intersection
with the inner sloping line ; this is the
width of C C pipe. The next line gives
you the depth and width of C sharp, the
next the depth and width of D1, and so
on throughout the octave. We then
arrive at 2 foot C, and the space between
that and 1 foot C having been divided
into 12 equal parts, you have the depths
and widths of all those pipes. Measuring
upwards from the bottom line of all you
will get the lengths of every pipe at its
respective line. For the treble open pipes
you start at the cross line, marked Middle
C and Tenor C, and making that line the
length of the depth and width required,
draw the sloping lines down to the point
2 feet 6 inches below, and then divide
each section from 2 feet to 1 foot, 1 foot
to 6 inches, and 6 inches to 3 inches
into 12 equal parts, and draw the thick
line at 6 inches from the bottom point.
Now write the names of the notes oppo-
site each cross line, and your scale is
complete. The same method is adopted
no matter what scale you require.
J. A. H. [Askeaton) writes :— " While
very greatly pleased with the organ
department of your excellent publication,
still, as an amateur who has actually
built several organs, I take the liberty of
making one or two suggestions. The
small organ which has just been described,
is too small. An organ of one stop is
not worth the trouble of making. No
one ought ever make an insttument of
less than three, one going through to C C,
and the others to Tenor C. I have, in my
study this moment, a little instrument of
one stop of wooden pipes all through,
which, by the way, I would be glad to
dispose of to gain space, but it possesses
two features which seem to me to be
important additions: (1.) All the pipes
are inclosed in a swell box, the Venetians
of which are moved by one of the knees
of the player, a la harmonium ; and (2.)
The bellows has two feeders, worked by
alternate strokes of the feet, exactly as in
the ordinary harmonium. The swell-box
imparts a certain amount of variety to the
instrument which otherwise, with only one
stop, it could not possibly have." Any
offers that may be made to purchase
J. A. H.'s organ shall be forwarded to his
address, and perhaps. J A. H. will name
the sum that he is disposed to take for it.
Violin Making.
H. J. Neash is thanked for his valu-
able suggestions.
Leslie Thair. — Full directions will
be given in these articles, how to copy
old violins, and all requisite information
with regard to varnishes and stains. As
to tools and wood, and where to get
them, with their prices, see the paper
on '' Violin-Making " in the present part.
J. J. Gilbert. — Many thanks for your
correction ; it was a slip of the pen, and
shall be corrected.
Stradivari. — I have myself been in
the difficulty you find yourself, and had a
new belly affixed by a true artist in the
manufacture of fiddles. If you will oblige
me with your name and address, I will
put you in communication with the
maker, to whom such a delicate operation
may be safely entrusted.
Nicholas Amati. — It is impossible to
recommend any particular fiddle dealer,
not only because it would be invidious to
do so, but also that each maker is
superior for a certain branch of his art.
For instance, after a long and varied ex-
perience in the wares of all the London
dealers, I divide my custom as follows :
For bows I go to J. Tubbs ; to have them
haired, George Withers ; gut strings,
extras, all general wants, and fiddles of
all kinds, W. E. Hill; for repairs, George
Chanot ; for covered strings, G. Hart ;
minor necessities, Edward Withers. And
thus I get the best of their respective
kinds.
J. W. Briggs, Mr. W. E. Hill, 72,
Wardour Street, IV., could give you this
information if you are one of his customers;
if not, Mr. E. Withers, Wardour Street,
W. , could ; his fee for examining and
ascertaining the true makers of fiddles
being 10s. 6d.
Joseph Withers. — An entire chapter,
if not more, will be devoted in Amateur
Work, Illustrated, to the all-impor-
tant subject of varnishing and colouring a
violin.
Work on Architectural Drawing.
G. S. {Renfrew).— "The Illustrated
Architectural, Engineering, and Mechani-
cal Drawing Book," published at as. by
Messrs. Ward, Lock, & Co., gives the
information you require.
Bar Frame Hive.
R. D. P. {Sunbury). — The arithmetical
expression, ii'. inches, means, of course,
one inch and seven-sixteenths of an
inch, just as in the preceding sentence,
ij inches means one inch and a half, or,
to be precise, one inch and half an inch.
The bottom of the hive, which is also the
bottom of the original tea-chest, is fixed,
not movable. A swarm of bees is easily
hived, by placing the hive on the ground,
and spreading an open newspaper over
the flight board, its one edge coming up
to the entrance ; the swarm is shaken out
on the newspaper, and they quickly find
their way, through the entrance into the
hive. In America, floor-boards are
usually fixed, the only advantage of mov-
able ones, is that they are easily cleaned.
Photographic Studio.
I. D. {Moreton Hamjistead).—\i the
studio that you propose to build is to be
20 feet in length, or thereabouts, the
width should be from 3 to 4 feet. If
narrower, the building would be com-
paratively useless. The door should be
to the east of the window. A north
light would do, but an east light is the
best. With regard to material, feather-
edged weather-boarding would suit your
purpose well. It is difficult to cay what
may have caused the weak negative that
you speak of. It may have been caused
by an imperfect condition of the dark
room, or the camera, or, even by the
changing of the dark slide.
*#* The articles on "Photography:
its Principles and Practice," are unavoid.
ably discontinued for the present, owing
to the serious illness of the writer.
Boot mating.
Snob has not read his instructions care-
fully, or he would not have sent to aleather-
sellers for uppers of 22's size. On page
28 he will find it stated that the sizes of
men's boots are seldom longer than 10's.
To measure the length a size stick
should be used, it is practically impossible
to measure with a tape. The joint and
other girth measures appear to have been
correctly taken. No further explanation
of the size-stick will be necessary if before
using it, Snob will go over the arrange-
ment of sizes marked upon it, compar-
ing them with the explanations already
given.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
289
Horology.
TuRO. — There is no particular rule by
which all the axes in a clock movement
can be got into their respective bearings
without any trouble. The process is
essentially tentative, and varies in every
clock movement The only system that
can be suggested is to get the longest
axes in their holes first, and as soon as
one of the comers of the plate will go
sufficiently far on to a pillar to allow it,
put a pin through it. This will secure a
certain number of axes, and the others
are got in successively in accordance with
their lengths. The axes are all put into
the holes in one plate first and not re-
moved again ; all the pivots are then put
in the holes in the other plate success-
ively. With respect to the chime clock :
the arrangement for stopping the chiming
train is probably out of order, and does
not stop the train at the correct position.
If the train is put together correctly, of
course the error you name should not
exist, and the only plan to rectify the
error is to put the train in proper order.
Ticker {Peckhani). — You should have
stated how much the clock gains per
hour, day, or week. If only a little, lower
the bob of the pendulum ; if it " gallops, "
as your query suggests, probably the
pendulum is not fitted on the crutch. In
this case the crutch would be free to
oscillate independent of the pendulum.
If you have not shortened the pen-
dulum to less than its original length
there is no necessity to add to the length
of the rod.
Lathe.- — The cheap wooden clocks,
mentioned in the articles on "Household
Clocks," can be purchased from most
importers of Swiss and German clocks
and fancy goods. Messrs. De Solla &
Son, 68, Waterloo Road, S.E., make
them a specialite.
\Y. H. L. (Haverstock Hill). — The
adjustment of the date circle will depend
on the means provided for the purpose.
If none exist your only plan is to shift the
circle by means of the fingers.
Blackboard for Workshop.
H. S. S. (High^ate^.—(i.) Paint your
board with black paint in which there is
much more turpentine than oil, this pro-
duces what painters call a fiat, namely, a
dead colour without any shine. You
would find a sheet of carbon paper which
may be purchased in Paternoster Row for
5d. or 6d. equally useful when fixed to
the board with drawing pins. (2.) You
will find a complete description of the
Eureka Lathe and its various appliances
in the Catalogue issued by Messrs Church-
ill & Co., Wilson Street, Finsbury. The
prices of the different sizes are given
therein. (3.) I cannot tell you how to
make a blowpipe to work with a treadle.
Electrotyping Coins, etc.
B. E. A. (Devizes) writes : — " Respect-
ing electrotyping I would suggest pre-
pared gutta percha as being the best for
taking the impressions of coins, etc. I
have taken many scores with it, and much
prefer it to either wax or plaster for the
following reasons : it can be readily dis-
solved in hot water, is very clean, does
not crack in cooling, becomes cold in
about ten minutes, so that the result can
be soon ascertained, is not liable to injury,
any number of impressions can be taken
from it, and air bubbles are easily expelled
from its surface. In taking an impression,
I cut a strip off a tin canister, about half
an inch wide, bend it round, securing it
with a piece of fine wire to prevent its
expanding, leaving a margin of a quarter
of an inch round the coin so that its edge
may be moulded at the same time, the
coin having been laid on a piece of thick
glass surrounded by the circle of tin. I
then take a piece of softened gutla percha,
roll it into a ball with the palms of my
hands, and press it on to the coin, putting
extra pressure on it by squeezing it in a
vice or by putting a weight on it. I never
solder the obverse and reverse together,
but leave the two halves quite separate so
that they may be both shown in the cabi
net at the same time, otherwise they would
have to be handled when one wanted to
examine them, and the whole arrangement
disturbed. I think the advantage of the
former will at once recommend itself to
all collectors. Impressions of leaves, lace,
etc., etc., may be taken with the gutta
percha, as it is capable of retaining the
faintest lines. In making my battery I
impregnate the zinc with mercury when
the former is in a molten state and just
as it is being run into a bar, one ounce of
mercury to a pound of zinc being suffi-
cient to prevent all local action, and pre-
vent it from requiring all further amalga-
mation, thus saving an infinite amount of
unpleasant trouble and time. "
Silvering Glass.
F. G. P. (Norwich). — A series of articles
on Painting on China will be commenced
shortly. Looking-glasses are silvered
with an amalgam of mercury and tinfoil,
but the process is a difficult one and
beyond the powers of an amateur.
Working Drawings of Lathe.
G. J. C. (Rochdale).— It it be found
possible eventually to give full-sized work-
ing drawings of lathes and other machines,
it will be done, but drawings of this kind
require far more careful treatment than
the class of patterns you mention.
Practical Model Engineering.
I. W. (Nuneaton). — This subject will
be treated as fully as possible when op-
portunity offers, but just at present it is
not possible to comply with your request.
Electrotyping on a Large Scale.
A. N. (Uckfield) wishes to meet with
some one who can help him over a diffi-
culty which he explains as follows : Some
of your expressions in the introduction to
Amateur Work, Illustrated, lead me
to think that you may be able and willing to
assist me in a matter about which I am in
some difficulty. I have some rather large (3
feet by r foot 6 inches) models which I wish
to reproduce in electrotype, and find
much difficulty in getting them done on
anything like reasonable terms in London,
and have therefore been thinking of doing
the electrotyping here, but I require the
assistance of a thoroughly experienced
electrotyper. It occurred to me that you
may perhaps know of some one who
would be competent and would undertake
the job. He should be able to advise as
to the kind of battery to be procured, and
thoroughly understand the making of
moulds; all vats for depositing and the
like I can have made here. I trust you
will excuse me for asking you to take this
trouble, but it may be the means of
putting some pounds into the pocket of
some ingenious and deserving artisan. It
may perhaps interest some of your readers
to know that the Romans in the time of
the Empire, used a method of forming
pictures in glass, identical in principle
with that suggested at page 54, of
Amateur Work, Illustrated, but
with the difference that they employed
not transparent but opaque coloured glass.
This was broken into small fragments
which were arranged so as to form the
required design, and a mass of hot glass
pressed upon them which held them firmly
together, as by this process the bits were
softened and in some degree blended, the
result was to produce a picture less hard
in effect than a mosaic and more resemb-
ling a painting.
Simple Silvering.
R. J. C. (Plymouth) will find the
following recipes taken from Gore's
Electro Deposition useful to him : r. Take
equal parts of chloride of silver, and
bitartrate of potash. 2. Take chloride of
silver 1 part, alum 2 parts, common salt
8 parts, tatar 8 parts. 3. Take chloride
of silver 1 part, prepared chalk 1 part,
common salt i£ parts, and pearlash 3
parts. 4. " A Novargent " solution for
resilvering old plated goods : hyposul-
phite of soda 100 parts, chloride or any
other salt of silver 15 parts. The solutions
in the proportions named, are used by
adding a small quantity of water, suffi-
cient to form the ingredients into a pasty
liquid of the consistency of cream, stirring
the articles thoroughly about in it or rub-
bing them over with it until they have
acquired the desired degree of white-
ness.
290
AMATEURS IK COUNCIL.
Turnery.
H. J. {London). — The cost of lathes
varies very much, the machines may be
bought at all prices from a few shillings
up to several hundreds of pounds. Any
of the lathes that have been illustrated
maybe purchased from the manufacturers
whose names are given, and who would
furnish prices and any other further par-
ticulars. The price of Fig. 1 on page 4
is given on page 5, as reference will show.
The handbook mentioned in the reply to
"J. D." contains illustrations, descrip-
tions and prices of about two dozen foot
lathes. If you contemplate purchasing a
lathe you would do well to invest a
shilling and learn the peculiarities of
various machines.
E. H. A. (Sporle).—A very useful fret
saw suited for use on a lathe, is made by
the Britannia Company, Colchester. Full
instructions for making a division plate are
given in " Lathe-Work." These hints may
help you to get the information you seek.
Lathe. — A wooden fly wheel is not
suited for a lathe. A cast-iron wheel
would suit your purpose much better, and
a plain one would cost about 4s. That is
for the castings which need not be turned
true. If you determine to make a wooden
wheel it will require to be weighted with
metal, lead is very suitable, near the
periphery.
J. D. Llanelly. — Any suggestions
will be appreciated by the writer of the
articles. The paragraph on page 64
refers to the lathe (Fig. 6) on page 65.
This is particularly a good machine for
the work usually done by amateur en-
gineers. To letter every part of an illus-
tration would involve much more than
you appear to surmise. The plan has
been adopted in many instances, especi-
ally in the sectional views of clocks. A
shilling handbook on " Metal Turning,"
written by the author of the articles on
" Lathe-making for Amateurs," and pub-
lished by Messrs. Lockwood & Co.,
Stationers' Hall Court, London, contains
much information that would interest you,
including illustrations of 10 or 1 2 slide-rests.
Injector Gas Furnace.
The instructions for the use of this
furnace are given in full in the lists of
the maker T. Fletcher, Museum Street,
Warrington. It is, of course, impossible
to melt iron or brass in a ladle, and
practically nothing but a plumbago
crucible can be used, as the heat is so
rapid and intense that except with the
greatest care a clay crucible flies to bits
in a few seconds if thick enough to carry
a full charge of melted metal. Thin clay
crucibles may be used for any purpose
except carrying heavy weights of metal,
and if sufficiently thin will stand sudden
heat. A wrought-iron ladle or crucible
would most probably melt before its con-
tents could be poured.
Photographic Transparencies.
B. E. A. {Devizes) writes : — " I send
you a method of making photographic
transparencies. Prepare a plate with
collodion in the usual way, sensitise it,
and whilst wet place the film side against
that of a negative, and expose for about ten
seconds to the rays of a candle, develope
slightly and fix ; this can be done during
the dark winter evenings, and be the
means of affording a fund of amusement
and profit. I may mention that the
unevenness of the surfaces prevent their
sticking together, and that the result will
not be quite so good as when taken in the
camera, still, good enough for ordinary
purposes, especially for magic-lantern
slides, and such like. If agreeable to
yourself I shall be pleased to send you
occasionally some well-tried recipes for
different things, which I think many of
your readers will find useful. '' B. E. A.
is thanked for his contribution ; his offer
of more recipes, etc., is gladly accepted.
Gas-Heating Apparatus.
Your correspondents A. B. and A. S. S.
ask for complete instructions for the manu-
facture of gas-heating apparatus. To
give these in full, as desired, would take
a special book. If whole numbers of
Amateur Work, Illustrated, could
be devoted to this one question, there
would be no difficulty, but still, with a
large proportion of the things, the cost of
patterns and speeal apparatus required
for manufacture would be so great that
no amateur would attempt the manufac-
ture. Further than this, several of the
things described are patented, and could
not be made for this reason. So far as
the others are concerned, they can be
seen in thousands of places, and those who
have the wits and do not mind expense,
could easily see and copy them. If an
amateur were to attempt to make a glass
bottle which he would buy for a shilling,
he would find his tools which were neces-
sary, would probably cost £20 or ^30,
and he would perhaps spoil a hundred
before he made one fit to use. The same
remarks apply more or less to gas- heating
apparatus which, with a few exceptions,
can only be made with special tools and
appliances, which would be not only
expensive but would be useless for any-
thing else.
Cheap lathes Wanted.
W. H. R. is requested to send his name
and address, as offers have been received
from two or three correspondents to sup-
ply him with the article he requires.
W. F. (Wisbeack). — A communication
from I. H. M. {Sheffield) has been
received for W. F. , who is desired to
forward his name and address.
Tailoring-.
L. T. B. is thanked for his long and
able letter. His suggestions shall receive
attention, and articles on most of the
subjects that he asks for shall be given in
due course. Tailoring cannot be touched
on. It is necessary to draw the line some-
where. I do not think any amateur
would run the risk of appearing in public
in a suit of clothes cut out and made by
himself. Tailoring done at home is
essentially women's work, and is sufficiently
treated in fashion magazines. This is a
magazine for men, and is sought to touch
only on such work as men may, can, and
ought to do.
Sculpture and Plaster Casts.
S. A. {Rothesay). — Arrangements are in
progress for articles on these subjects. At
some future time a paper shall be given
on " Medallion Portraits in Wax."
Information Wanted.
A. M. A. asks for "some instructions
as to making an ^Eolian harp."
W. M. {Blackburn) wishes to know
how and from what to make gelatine
suitable for taking moulds from deeply
under-cut models.
W. M. (Manningham) has in his
possession a coin on one side of which
he can distinguish the letters "penny"
forming part of the word "half-penny,'*
and on the other a large ship. It is an
English coin, and he would "very much
like to know to what age it belongs." It
is probably what is called a "token."
Can any collector help W. M. ?
Electric Lighting.
Eli-xtric wishes to know whether
we are likely to give any articles on
Electric Lighting ; states, that he pro-
poses to use an incandescent lamp sup-
plied by a Bunsen battery ; and asks
whether or not the carbons of the
batteries should be immersed in water
when not in use. Articles on Electric
Lighting will be forthcoming when we
are satisfied that a system can be adopted
and maintained by an amateur ; but at
present all systems of electric lighting are
far too costly and troublesome. We will
not discourage your attempt, since you
have determined to try the experiment,
but for our own part should shrink from
the trouble, cost, and nuisance of main-
taining an electric light with the current
from a Bunsen battery. The carbons
should be taken out of the nitric acid
(this should be poured into a jug for
future use} and both carbon and cells
well washed in clean water and allowed
to drain dry. But the zinc cylinder or
platec will give most trouble to keep in
order. They must be well brushed in
clean water, and will probably require to
be re-amalgamated with mercury after
each time of using them.
{'
,
PRESENTED WITi PART VII. OF
IP'
bS-i
DBSCBIFTION OF ILLUSTBATIONS : Figs. 1, 3, 3, 4.— Designs for Corners, forming Centres when quadrupled. 5, 6, 7, 8,— Panels and Centres of Panels. 9, 10.— Ornamental Centres In form of Orchids. 11, 13, 13, 14— Borders 15 -Corner for Large Panel
la-Ornament for Comer or Centre of PaneL 17, 18.-Oentre and Small Panele or Ornaments for Diaper Work. 20, 21, 32, 23.-Oentres of Small Panels. 24— Section of Circular Border. 25.-Ornament for Panel or Frieze. 26, 27.-Oorners of Panola
28-64.— Corners suitable for Panels, Ceilings, etc., and appropriate for the Decoration of Panels of Doors.
DESIGNS 'N STENCILLING EOR PANELS, BORDERS, CENTRES, CORNERS, ETC., FOR DECORATION OF WALLS AND CEILINGS.
WiHWICK HOUSE. 9AL19BUHI SQUIRE
I
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
291
FILTERS :
THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
By ALFEED W. SOWAED.
Ill— Maintenance of Charcoal Filters.
|AVING in my two preceding articles de-
scribed the method of construction of
various forms of simple filtering appara-
tus, employing charcoal as the filtering
medium, I shall now, before proceeding
to consider those complex airangements, wherein more
powerful agents are used, devote a short time to the
exposition and discussion of the subject of the main-
tenance of charcoal filters in proper working order.
It is a fallacy,
very widely dif-
fused, to suppose
that a filter, once
fitted up, will re-
tain, for ever, its
power of separating
impurities from the
wa t e r passed
through it. We see,
in shop-windows,
filters made up in
neat stoneware
cases, with an open-
ing at the top for
water to go in, and
an opening at the
bottom for it to
come out, but the
filtering material it-
self is out of sight,
and out of reach.
Cistern filters, too,
we see, which, by the aid of the plumber, we fix in
our cisterns, and then, year after year, draw water from
them by special taps, fondly believing that to all the
impurities of the water our filters act as impassable
barriers. Never was there a more mischievous fallacy.
In the first few months of their existence, doubtless
they exercise a beneficial influence upon the water
submitted to their action ; but there is soon an end to
that : day by day they become less and less useful, as
the impurities taken from the water collect and clog
the charcoal ; soon they become useless, and then
even worse than useless. So far from purifying the
water sent to them, they actually vitiate it.
If anyone should doubt this, let him take one of
these filters that has been in use, uncleansed, for years.
Let him examine the interior (by breaking open the
case with a hammer, if necessary, for the filter is of no
FIG. 20. — IRON
CRUCIBLE AND
COVER COM-
PLETE.
FIG. 19. — PIECE OF THIN SHEET-
IRON FOR LID OF CRUCIBLE,
SHOWING NICKS CUT IN EDGE
TO FACILITATE BENDING INTO
SHAPE.
value). The whole inside of the stoneware case, the
surface of the filter, everything in fact, will be found
coated with a slimy deposit, a mass of t'lick mud
having a most disgusting odour. Examined under the
microscope this filth will be found to swarm with
minute life, not with animalcules alone, which are to be
found in the purest water, but with vegetable organisms
of a higher type. Not only with living matter, which
in general, is perhaps harmless, but with dead and
decaying matter also.
The necessity, then, of periodically examining and
cleaning out our filter is evident.
But before we enter into practical details, let us
briefly consider what the usual impurities of water are,
and how it is that a filter possesses the power of re-
moving those im-
purities. We shall
then be better able
to determine what
steps to take to
preserve our filters
in proper working
condition.
First then, water
as ordinarily sup-
plied to our houses
contains solid mat-
ter floating in it ;
dust and dirt of all
sorts, rust from
the iron mains, and
various otherthings
too numerous to
mention.
To these sub-
stances, the filter
acts as a mere me-
chanical strainer ;
and it is apparent that, after a time, the fine pores
of sand and charcoal must become clogged. The
filter, instead of being a porous mass, will be more
or less solid.
In the second place, we have various substances
dissolved in the water. Thus the hard water from the
Kentish wells is laden with chalk. And water drawn
from other localities contains, dissolved in it, in greater
or less quantities, those substances which form the soil
of the district.
For the most part, these dissolved matters pass
through an ordinary charcoal filter, as indeed through
most filters, without being very sensibly acted upon ;
but, in a way that is not altogether easy to understand
and therefore difficult to explain, a small portion of
them is withdrawn ; and this portion goes to help to-
wards the clogging of the pores of the charcoal.
N
FIG. 18. — PIECE
OF THIN SHEET-
IRON FOR BODY OF
CRUCIBLE, SHOW-
ING HOLES IN
EDGES FOR IRON
WIRE LACING.
292
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
In the third place, and most important of all, there
is organic matter, living and dead. The living we do
not so much object to. Under ordinary circumstances
none but the small animalcules can reach us, and these,
as before stated, are harmless ; but with dead organic
matter it is another thing. Matter in that period of
decay when it is passing from the organised state of
the living creatures, plant, or animal to the unorganised,
inorganic state of the bodies, carbonic acid, water, and
ammonia, into which all living matter is ultimately
resolved, may be, and often is, highly injurious, nay,
poisonous. Worse even than this decaying matter are
those invisible germs of disease which too frequently
accompany it. Diluted sewage, although not pleasant
may be harmless, but when that sewage is drawn from
a district where typhoid fever or Asiatic cholera is
raging, the chances are very much in favour of the
persons drinking it, drinking germs of the disease at
the same time.
It is in the removal of such dangerous impurities
as these that a charcoal filter ceases to be a mere
strainer. No mere strainer would be of the slightest
avail.
In nature, when life ceases, the process of destruc-
tion immediately begins, and is effected by the action
of the air, or rather of the oxygen contained in the
air.
Charcoal has the power of condensing within its
pores enormous quantities of air, and this condensed
air acts by virtue of its concentration in a more rapid
manner than air under ordinary conditions. It is to
this condensed air, and not to the charcoal itself, that
a charcoal filter owes its power of destroying organic
matter.
We see then that a charcoal filter acts, firstly, as a
strainer, and secondly, as a condenser of air, to be used
in oxydising organic matter. How are we to treat our
filter so that it may retain its powers ?
It is evident that however great its store of con-
densed air may be at starting, that store will not
last for ever. We must then give it the oppor-
tunity from time to time of laying in a fresh supply.
This we do by permitting the filter, occasionally, once
a day perhaps, to run dry ; and further by leaving it as
much as possible open, and exposed to currents of
fresh air.
But organic matter of a coarser nature frequently
lodges in the filter, and is removed, in fact, very much as
dust would be, more by the mechanical action than the
chemical action of the filter.
To destroy this a more powerful oxidising agent
than air is required. We find it in a substance called
" permanganate of potash." Some of this should be
taken, and dissolved in water until the latter has as-
sumed the colour of port wine. A very little of the
permanganate will colour a great deal of water. Or-
ganic matter, when brought into contact with this red
solution is destroyed, the colour of the permanganate
being at the same time discharged.
About once a week the filter should be allowed to
run dry, and a quantity of the red liquid poured in.
Issuing from the bottom, it will, in all probability, be
found to be colourless. If so, a further supply should
be added, and, if necessary, still a further supply, until
the liquid running from the filter retains its colour.
Then water should be run through in quantity to
thoroughly cleanse the filter from the products of the
operation.
Permanganate of potash may be purchased at any
of the chemical dealers, whose names have been given,
for about sixpence per ounce. Those of my readers
who may not chance to live in the neighbourhood of
an operative chemist, and who do not care to pay the
fancy price of an ordinary chemist and druggist, would
do well to go to the nearest oil-shop for a bottle of
Condy's Patent Fluid (red). It is the substance they
require.
But the two operations already described are not
alone sufficient to preserve a filter pure and wholesome.
At intervals of a few months, say once a quarter, the
whole filter should be pulled to pieces, the charcoal,
sand, and pebbles separated from one another. The
sand and pebbles should be well boiled, as when first
preparing them for use, then baked, and finally washed.
The charcoal should be placed in the crucible, covered
up, and ignited, and allowed to cool. When cold, if
caked together, it should be broken up.
When the filter is a large one, and the quantity of
charcoal used is consequently great, the operation of
igniting it in a small crucible is rather tedious. Re-
course may then be had to an iron vessel, formed by
rolling a piece of thin sheet iron into the shape of a
cone, very much in the way that a grocer forms a
sugar-bag of paper. It may be fastened in position by
means of iron wire. The iron crucible thus made
should be provided with a piece of sheet iron as a lid.
The flower-pot, or other containing vessel should
be thoroughly scrubbed and cleaned. In the case of
the flower-pot it would be better to use a fresh one
Everything being perfectly clean, the materials may
be repacked in their case, as when first making the
filter.
At still longer intervals, say once a year, the whole
of the filtering materials should be thrown away, and
their place supplied by fresh pebbles, sand, and char-
coal.
If these precautions are taken, the filter so treated
will be as efficient as it is possible for any charcoal
filter to be.
I have entered in this article somewhat more fully
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
293
into theory than is usual in the pages of Amateur
Work, Illustrated ; but the general misunder-
standing as to what a filter is, and why it purifies water,
which prevails among those who have not the advan-
tage of chemical knowledge, together with the great
practical importance of the subject, must be my excuse.
In my next article I shall consider the question of
the collection and filtration of rain-water.
If any of my country readers intend making a
cask filter, as described in my last article, and do not
care to go to the expense of buying the large quantity
of animal charcoal required for it, they should collect
all the family meat-bones, break them up into small
pieces, place them in the iron crucible described above,
cover them up, and ignite them. When vapour ceases
to be emitted, the crucible should be removed from the
fire, allowed to cool, and its contents turned out and
pounded up. The experiment should not be attempted
by anyone whose olfactory nerves are delicately con-
stituted.
{To be continued.)
=4-=
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
By B. W. BBNNISS.
II.— Iron Tubes and Fittings, Chandeliers, Gas Fires.
(/-\£ ^vT1 S chandeliers are hung from iron tubes)
SKSft&igr and on an entirely different plan from
that adopted for pendants, it will be best
to begin by giving some information con-
cerning iron tubes, their size, and method
of use. They are made in the following sizes (internal
diameter in fractions of an inch) : — \, %, f, J, £, and
upwards ; but it is only with the sizes mentioned that
an amateur would probably have anything to do.
Each piece of tubing is joined to another by a
socket, which is a short tube, having an internal screw-
thread, corresponding with an external thread cut on
each end of the pieces of barrel to be joined. These
sockets are "made either "equal" (Fig. 13) — that is,
made for joining two pieces of barrel of the same
size — or "diminished (Fig. 14), for joining tubes of
different sizes. Thus a f equal socket will join two
pieces of f barrel, whilst a $ socket diminished to i will
join a piece of \ and a piece of 3-inch tubing. When
the pipe has to be bent sharply at a right angle, an
"elbow" (Fig. 15) is used; this is a fitting like two
sockets joined together at a right angle. If one tube
has to branch out of another, a T-piece (Fig. 16) is
used ; this is like one socket with another attached to
one side in the shape of a T. For uniting four pieces
of tube, a " cross " (Fig. 17) is employed, which is like
a socket with a branch on each side.
All the above fittings are made " equal " or
" diminished " to any size.
When the end of a pipe has to be stopped up, a
" cap " is screwed on ; this is a socket closed at one
end. If, however, a socket elbow, T-piece, or cross
has to be stopped, a "plug" (Fig. 18) is used, which is
a solid piece of wrought-iron, of the same size as the
pipe for which the fitting is made, having at one end a
cubical projection for holding it when screwing up.
A nipple (Fig. 19) is a short piece of barrel, having
an external thread cut on its whole length, and is used
for joining two sockets or other fittings having internal
screw-threads. A bend (Fig. 20) is a piece of iron
barrel, bent round till the ends are at right angles, and
is joined to other pieces of barrel with sockets in the
ordinary way.
We may now pass on to the use of the gas-tongs,
of which a sketch is given in Fig. 21. They vary
entirely in principle and action from the cup and ball
pliers, and are also much more powerful. Each pair
fits one size of pipe and the socket of the one a size
smaller. Thus, to screw a f socket on to a 1- pipe, a
pair of & tongs will be required for holding the tube,
and a pair of j-inch tongs for the socket. In Fig. 21
a is called the hook and B the tongue, and it is the
latter which moves the pipe or fitting held in the tongs.
The hook and tongue are faced with hardened steel,
to prevent their wearing away. The power of moving
the pipe is not the pressure of the two parts together,
as is the case with the cup and ball pliers, but by the
tongue making a slight dent in the pipe, thus getting a
hold and pushing it forward ; for which reason, when
once the tongs have been pressed together, the hold on
the handles may be slightly relaxed, and the simple
pushing against the one marked C will be sufficient.
The tongs must always be moved in the direction of
the arrow in the sketch ; that is, the hook goes first,
the tongue following after, from which it is evident
that, in screwing a socket on to or off a pipe, the tongs
must be put one way on to the pipe, and the reverse
on to the socket. (See Fig. 22.)
As $ iron barrel is chiefly employed in hanging
chandeliers, a pair of | and a pair of i-inch tongs will
be required, costing at Buck's is. c;d. and 2s. respec-
tively.
Chandeliers. — This name is now improperly em-
ployed to designate an ornamental pendant, having
two or more burners for gas. It, of course, used to
mean any contrivance hung from the ceiling holding
candles, and the name has been kept on and applied
to those for gas. Gaselier has partly come into use,
but it curiously seems only applied to plain kitchen
pendants, or those which can be pushed up and down
without weights or counterpoise.
Chandeliers, then, so called, consist of a tube end*
294
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
ing at the lower end in two or more branches, and
almost always at the other or upper end in a fitting
called a " cup and ball " (Fig. 23) ; hence the name of
the pliers mentioned in Chapter I., which are used for
screwing the cup and ball on to the iron tubes. The
cup and ball is to allow the chandelier to move round
or from side to side. It consists of three parts — A the
cup, which is a hollow hemispherical piece of brass,
having a hole in the centre of the lower part, through
which is passed the stem or tail-piece of the ball B,
which swings in the cup, the surfaces which touch
being " ground in," that is, ground together with sand
to fit closely together. The part c is screwed into A,
and the complete fitting is screwed on to the top of
the chandelier by the tail-piece P..
Fig. 24 shows a section of a hydraulic chandelier ;
that is, one that slides up and down with a counter-
poise, and in which water is used to prevent leakage
of gas. A A is a small tube, terminating in a globular
vessel B, from which issue the branches with the
burners. This tube slides inside a larger one C c,
which is screwed into the cup and ball, and which is
surrounded by the bell-mouthed tube D D, which is
brazed on to the globe B. Now as the gas comes down
through the cup and ball, it will enter the tube A, and
pass into the vessel B, and thence to the burners ; but
as the three tubes slide loosely in one another, gas
would escape between A and c, and would issue from
the bell mouth, for which reason water is poured into
the external tube, so as to nearly fill it, thus covering
the lower end of the pipe c, when the chandelier is
pulled down as far as it will go ; and as gas is lighter
than water, it cannot pass downwards through the
latter, and therefore cannot escape.
The mode of hanging a chandelier can be seen in
Fig. 25. a is a I "equal" T-piece, into the ends
of which are screwed pieces of i barrel, B and C
which rest in notches cut across the joists E E. F is
another piece of f barrel, screwed into the side of the
T-piece, and projecting about an inch and a-half be-
low the ceiling, and to this the chandelier is screwed.
On the tube b, a cap D is screwed, and the tube c is
connected with the gas supply. In the event of the
f tube not fitting the cup and ball, a nipple (Fig. 19)
must be screwed half its length into the latter with
the fingers, and a socket, diminished from that size to
f, must be screwed on to it, and tightened up with
the tongs, and the chandelier must then be screwed
on to the f tube with the cup-and-ball pliers, taking
hold of the top of the cup and ball and not the socket.
The chandelier is to be connected with the gas
supply by means of composition tubing, as in the case
of a pendant described in the last article, page 199,
the difference being that a union (Fig. 12), is used
instead of a nose-piece, the part B being blown into
the tube, and the nut screwed on to the tube c (Fig. 25),
the part A of the union not being used.
Hall lights, it may be said, are hung in a precisely
similar manner.
We shall now pass from lighting to heating, and
shall proceed to describe the best and most usual
methods of employing gas in ordinary grates for heat-
giving purposes.
The system of Messrs. Verity, of Regent Street, is
one of the best, and is also the easiest for an amateur
to fit up. It consists of an atmospheric burner, made
of fire-clay, which is supplied with gas by a tube fitted
with an air-bulb, passing into it from underneath.
This burner, when in the grate, is covered over with
pieces of patent indestructible fuel, which, when
heated by the gas, has the appearance of an ordinary
coal fire.
In order to fit up one of these burners in an
ordinary grate, it will first be necessary to remove to
the centre fire bar at the bottom, to allow for the air-
bulb to enter. This can be best done by filing it
half through at each end, and giving it a sharp tap
with a hammer. The nut of the air-bulb (B in
Fig. 26) supplied with the burner must then be un-
screwed, and one of the iron rings taken off, and the
top of the bulb placed between the fire-bars, the ring
dropped on to it, and the nut screwed up, letting the
other end of the air-bulb point towards the side from
which gas is to be obtained. A J-in. " equal " elbow
C must be screwed on to the air-bulb pointing down-
wards, and a piece of |-in. barrel D, 2i in. longer
than the distance from the elbow to the hearth must
be screwed into this, a channel 3 in. deep having been
previously cut in the hearth towards the gas supply.
Then screw another ^-in. elbow E on to the tube,
letting it point along the channel, and into this screw
a piece of barrel F about 6 in. longer than the
distance between the elbow E, and the edge of the
hearth, measured along the channel. To this must be
screwed a valve G, and the tubing must be continued
from this towards a pipe coming direct fiom the
meter, the connection being made as follows : The
pipe from the meter will generally be found outside
the back of the house. This must be unscrewed, and
a T-piece, with a J-in. side, must be inserted, so as to
point between the floor of the room in which the gas-
fire is made and the ceiling of the room below, a piece
of ^-in. barrel must be screwed into it, and brought
through the wall, so as to meet the pipe from the gas-
fire. The piece of barrel which meets the latter piece
must have a " connecting-thread " cut on it, that is a
screw-thread half as long again as the socket, and a
back-nut (Fig. 27) must be screwed on to this long
thread before the socket, which must be screwed so
far on as to be " flush," or level with the end of the
PRACTICAL GAS-FIT J ING.
295
H E A R T h
FIG. 26. — VERITY'S ATMO-
SPHERIC BURNER FOR Ef
GAS FIRE.
296
HO W TO JOIN A LEAD PIPE.
pipe. The socket is then to be screwed off the long
thread on to the tube from the gas-fire, thus connect-
ing the gas-fire and the meter, and the back-nut must
then be screwed up to the socket, with a little painted
tow between the two. The socket alone would
connect the tubes, but the back-nut is to prevent
leakage.
Some putty and whitelead must now be mixed
together, and pressed into the wider part of the hole
at the bottom of the burner, which must then be
dropped on to the top of the air-bulb, and pressed
firmly down, and covered with patent fuel. A brass
trap-door must then be placed in the floor, over the
thumb-screw of the valve, having first cut a hole
through the board.
It now only remains to fill up the channel cut in
the hearth, which must be filled up as described in
the last chapter for a channel cut in the plastering of
a wall ; but the amateur must bear in mind that for
filling up the hearth he must use Portland cement
instead of plaster.
The object of using a valve instead of an ordinary
gas-cock, is to prevent whistling in the burner when
the gas is turned down low.
All the fittings can be obtained of Messrs. Verity,
of Regent Street, at the following prices : —
1. Fireclay burners from £1 17s., including air-
bulb and patent fuel.
2. Valves, 4s. 6d. each.
r" 3. Brass trap-doors, with "gas" cast on, cost
about is. 6d. each.
There is another method of making gas-fires,
which is much cheaper but is not nearly so good. It
is, however, very much used, and will therefore be
now described.
Procure a piece of A-in. barrel (Fig. 28), about 3 in.
shorter than the front of the fire-bars when bent to the
same shape. Five holes must be drilled at equal dis-
tances along the top side of the pipe, and tapped
similarly to the one described in the last article, p. 199.
Then screw a cap on to one end of the pipe, and an
elbow pointing downwards on to the other, and into
each of the six holes screw what is called an atmo-
spheric burner (8d. each), that is to say a burner in
which air is mixed with the gas before burning
(Fig. 29). The pipe is then to be placed in the grate,
having removed a fire-bar, to allow the elbow to go
through, and is to be connected with the gas supply
as described for Verity's system. Patent fuel, which
costs 3s. per dozen pieces, at Verity's, or pumice-stone
is then to be packed into the grate, so as to cover the
burners, having first placed a fire-brick at the back
of the grate to fill up a portion of the space, and thus
economize fuel.
( To be continued.)
HOW TO JOIN A LEAD PIPE.
By AN AMATEUR.
N amateur who can do one thing tho-
roughly well, and who understands the
reasons for each step in the process, will
easily extend his knowledge and skill to
analogous cases. Now, there is scarcely
a more useful handicraft in the home, especially in
frosty winters, than plumbing ; and the amateur who
possesses even moderate knowledge of the craft will
save his household a vast amount of inconvenience,
and himself no small expense. The object of this '
paper is to describe the method of making a joint in a
lead pipe running down the angle of a room, or in any
similar position in which there is no side strain. Such
a pipe is often split open by the frost, and it becomes
necessary to cut away the damaged piece, and to re-
place it by a new length, involving the making of two
joints, one at each end of the new piece.
In making such a joint, there are three distinct
stages in the process : —
1. Shaping the ends of the pipe.
2. Putting in the solder.
3. Making the joint.
Where the amateur has most likely gone wrong has
been in not attending to the distinction between 2 and
3, or perhaps in ignoring 3 altogether. The conse-
quence is his joints leak, or even come apart without
effort.
1. Shapmg the Pipe. — The two ends to be joined
should be cut off square with a small-toothed hand-
saw. Then the open end of the lower pipe is to be
spread out funnel-wise, by driving into it a cone
of box wood made for the purpose. It is something
like an elongated peg-top, and may be had for a few
pence at a tool-shop. A few blows on the top of it,
when placed in the open pipe, will soon produce the
funnel shape. The end of the upper pipe must now
be rasped all round, so as to fit easily into the funnel
opening of the lower pipe. This rasping will reduce
the thickness of the pipe at" its opening to perhaps
one-sixteenth of an inch, but care must be taken not
in any way to crush up the pipe, so as to choke the
waterway through it, or stoppages may occur when it
is in use.
The end of the upper pipe now drops easily into
the funnel of the lower one, so as to leave a narrow
channel all round the top of the funnel outside the
upper pipe.
2. Putti?ig in the Solder. — The tools and ap-
pliances for plumbing and soldering are very few and
simple. The chief tool is heat, and the chief operation
applying that heat under the proper conditions for it
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
297
to do its work in uniting the pieces of metal. Now,
for the solder to take to the lead, it is essential that
the parts of the lead pipe to be united should be per-
fectly bright and clean. If they are at all oxidised or
dulled, as lead always becomes after exposure to the
air, the solder will not take. With a pocket-knife
scrape the inside of the funnel-shaped pipe-end per-
fectly bright ; if the lead pipe is old, there will be
seams of corrosion in it that must be carefully cut or
scraped out, otherwise the joint may leak. Take care
not to drop the chips of lead down the pipe, or they
may cause trouble elsewhere. Then the outside of
the rasped end must also be scraped perfectly bright,
unless the rasping has done this sufficiently. The
proper tool for this scraping is a "shave-hook," a
triangular piece of steel at the end of a short handle
(see Fig. 3, page 196) ; but a pocket-knife will answer
every purpose. The bright surfaces soon get dull on
exposure to the air, but as the joint is going to be
made at once, there is no need to protect the scraped
lead in waiting.
When the metal is highly heated, the action of the
oxygen of the air upon it is much more rapid, and as, in
making the joint, the solder itself is melted, and thelead
surfaces nearly so, it becomes necessary to protect the
bright surfaces with what is called a " flux," to keep
the air off them when they are raised to the high tem-
perature required in the operation, and thus to prevent
the rapid oxidation, which would frustrate the solder-
ing. The flux usually employed for such joints as this
is powdered resin, but tallow is also used.
The funnel and pipe end being scraped perfectly
bright, and dropped into each other in position,
sprinkle some powdered resin into the channel formed
by the upper part of the funnel and the pipe that fits
into it. Then put the melted solder into this channel
all round. This may be done in two ways — melt the
solder in a small iron ladle and pour it into the joint,
or heat the copper soldering-bit, and holding a stick
of solder against it, drop the solder as it melts into the
joint, taking care that there is enough solder all round.
The soldering-bit is a pointed piece of copper, fitted
into an iron shank with a wooden handle (see Fig. 2,
page 1 96). Some prefer the copper end at right angles
to the handle, but the bit is usually made all in the
same line. The stouter the copper, within reasonable
limits, the more heat it will hold.
3. Maki?ig the Joint. — The joint is in position,
and the solder is run into it, but the joint is not yet
" made." As the solder dropped into the channel, it
was immediately chilled by the cold lead on both sides,
and at present it is only like run into a mould. There
is no amalgamation between the solder and the sur-
faces it is intended to unite, and it would be quite easy
to pull the joint asunder in its present condition.
Enough heat has to be brought to bear on the joint to
melt the solder, and to raise the adjoining lead sur-
faces to such a temperature that they shall amalga-
mate with the solder, and form one continuous mass
of metal. The solder used with any particular metal
is always such as to melt at a rather lower tempera-
ture than the metal itself, so that the solder can be
melted into the joint without melting the sides of the
joint.
Heat the soldering-bit hot enough to melt the
solder easily ; then put the pointed end of it down-
wards into the solder that has been run into the joint,
and melt it thoroughly. Carry the point of the bit in
this way slowly all round the joint, thoroughly melting
the solder at every point. When this has been effec-
tually done the joint is "made." The heated bit has
melted the solder, and at the same time raised the
bright surfaces of lead on both sides to such a tem-
perature that they have amalgamated with the solder,
and the joint is one solid piece of continuous metal
throughout. At the same time, the resin melting has
kept the air from the joint and prevented oxidation.
The amateur will now let the water into his pipe,
and watch with anxiety whether there is any of that
exudation which tells him that his work is not perfect.
If he sees those tiresome water-beads begin to stand
about his joint, he had better let the water off, and
when the pipe and joint are thoroughly dry, paint the
joint well with any ordinary wood-paint : this will
make it water-tight. But with moderate pains, and
careful attention to the reasons of the thing, he will
soon find himself able to make reliable joints, and will
be, so far, independent of the plumber. It is an excel-
lent plan to get a piece of lead pipe and practise
making joints, cutting them open with the saw to see
how the work has been done.
BOOTS AND SHOES:
HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
By ABEL EARNSHAW.
V. — Hand-Sewn Boots.
Hand-sewn Boots — Preparing the Inner Soles — Making Threads
— Lasting — Sewing in the Welt — Sewing the Seat — Filling up
— Putting in the Shank — Bedding the Sole — Building the
Heel — Sewing Down the Heel — Paning up the Seat.
N previous papers the newer systems ot
shoemaking have been explained, the
precedence given them being due to the
fact that they afford a readier, if rougher,
means of accomplishing the object the
amateur may be supposed to have in view. The sys-
tem with which I am about to deal, that of hand-sew-
ing, is a slower and more complicated one, requiring
298
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
a far greater amount of attention, and calling for the
exercise of even greater care than any of the others,
much as the necessity of care has been insisted on in
the directions which have been given earlier in regard to
other modes of manufacture. The essential difference
between this and other systems was given at length in
my first paper ; but at the risk of incurring the reader's
displeasure by repetition, I may shortly define the
hand-sewing method, as an indirect mode of fastening
the sole to the upper, first by making fast to the upper
and inner sole a strip of leather known as a welt, and
next by attaching the sole to the welt. There are thus
two rows of stitches, or " seams," as they are termed,
running round the boot, in lieu of the one row of pegs,
rivets, or machine stitches, which are sufficient to hold
together boots made by the direct methods of attach-
ment before explained. It must not be supposed from
this that it is intended to imply that the two seams
are a disadvantage to the boot in any sense, beyond
the slight additional risk of breakage by imperfect
workmanship. On the contrary, the hand-sewn boot
is lighter, and, as a rule, more flexible than other kinds;
and it possesses the very great advantage of being
free from the inequalities beneath the foot which are
produced by the use of pegs, rivets, etc., as attach-
ments ; for as these must penetrate to the inside of
the boot, while the sewing does not come through, the
face or grain of the insole is left smooth and unbroken,
except by the holes made by the insole pegs and lasting
tacks ; and these are of no consequence.
In preparing to make hand-sewn boots, it is neces-
sary to choose a clean, level, flexible piece of leather
for the inner soles. It must not be hard, or the worker
will not be able to use it properly ; and if it is too
soft, and loose in texture, it will continually expand
while the work is being done, and so throw the boots
out of shape. For men's boots, such as the amateur
is most likely to try his hand upon first, he will do
well to ask the leather-seller to supply him with a
piece of English " crop belly," or light " shoulder," for
this purpose. The leather should first be carefully
wetted. (It will be remembered that, under the other
systems, the inner soles have to be kept dry.) When
the moisture has thoroughly penetrated it, which in a
few minutes it will have done, it may be left a short
time to allow the water to drain off, and it may then
be tacked on the last. With a few shoemaker's
tacks (which are small smooth nails with square heads,
and bodies tapering off the whole length) the leather
maybe temporarily secured to the bottom of the wooden
last (Fig. 5). The grain side must be downwards. The
first tack may be driven in a short distance from the
toe, and the next two in the broadest part, one on each
side. The waist part is also to be secured by one tack at
each side, and three will be needed for the heel portion,
The " stretch " may now be taken out of the inner
sole as far as possible, by taking hold of its edges
with the pincers, and giving them a steady outward
pull. When this has been done all round, the inner
sole has next to be blocked to the last by giving it a
gentle hammering all over, so that when it is complete
there will be no space whatever between it and the last.
The position of the tacks may be changed as necessity
requires ; and they may, if there is any superfluous
leather beyond the edge, even be driven in at the side
of the last, so as to make the leather fit closely. In
this state the inner soles may be left for a time, until
they have become three-parts dry, when they will be
ready for the next operations. These are " paring up,"
" feathering," and " holing."
First of all, the tacks will be found in the way ;
and as there is now no fear of the leather going back
to its original shape, or attempting to rise out of place,
they may be dispensed with, or placed as shown in
the illustration. Of course, the inner sole needs
something to hold it to the last ; so, before the tacks
are drawn, five or six short wooden pegs are driven
through into it. The tacks having been drawn, the
inner sole is carefully pared round to the edge of the
last at the fore-part and heel, and in the waist, where
there is no edge to go by, slightly under the curve. It
must be borne in mind that the shape of the sole
is now being determined. If the inner sole is left wide
in the waist, there is no alternative but to leave the
sole wide afterwards ; if, on the contrary, the inner
sole is pared under, so as to give it a narrow appear-
ance, the sole must also follow the same contour. Of
course, this should be the case in all kinds of shoe-
making, though it is not always ; but in hand-sewn
work it must be so.
We will suppose the inner sole to have been care-
fully and evenly pared round. It is now ready to be
"feathered." " Feathering" the inner sole means sim-
ply bevelling it off at the edge in a gradual fashion, so
that the full substance is left rather less than a quarter
of an inch from the edge, while the actual edge is left
about as thick as a halfpenny. The "feathering"
commences from the " corner of the heel " (a point the
whereabouts of which is shown on the diagram in page
84, Part II.), and is carried round to the opposite
corner, the heel part being left untouched. And now
the inner sole has to be grooved and holed for stitch-
ing. Commencing at the corner of the heel — always
the right hand corner, by the way — and full §• of an
inch from the edge, the workman makes a small per-
pendicular cut through the flesh of the inner sole, and
into the solid part, but using every care not to get too
deep, so as either to cut through or weaken perceptibly
the inner sole. Then, holding his knife at an angle of
45 degrees, he makes another cut further inwards,
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
299
adjusting it so that the leather bevels away from the
centre of the inner sole to the bottom of the perpen-
dicular cut. This has the effect of taking a small
piece of leather out, and of leaving a ridge which, for
nearly a quarter of an inch, is the full substance of
the leather, and on the outer side falls away gradually
while on the inner side it stands up sharply. Next,
the worker takes his sewing-awl— one with a curved
shoemaker's wax. The stitching thread is a somewhat
finer one, and is made from threads of flax ; but the
method of making them is practically identical. To
make a thread the worker must take a ball of hemp
and measure off from it a length about twice that of
his outstretched arms. As the thread to be made
needs to have a tapering point, means have to be found
of separating the strands otherwise than by a cut or
FIG. S-— THE INNER SOLE OF A HAND-SEWN BOOT.
blade, somewhat flattened towards the point — and, in-
serting it at the bottom of the groove, takes a hold
through the body of the leather, but without going
through to the last, and brings the point out at a mark
on " the feather" j\ of an inch from the edge. These
holes have to be made at intervals of about J of an
inch all the way round from corner to corner, and with a
stouter awl at intervals of f of an inch round the heel,
the holes in this latter case being in the edge itself, the
hold being taken a little further in. This completes the
preparatory process, so far as the inner sole is concerned.
sudden break, which would leave the points compara-
tively thick and stumpy. This is done by untwisting
them near the point of separation. The worker, hold-
ing the thread in the left hand, and allowing it to fall
across his knees, rolls it downward, until the twist
which it has received in manufacture is entirely out of
it at that place. Keeping it firm on the knee with the
right hand, he now pulls gently with the left, with the
result that the fibres separate gradually, and both the
ends thus formed have finely-tapered points. This
process is repeated as many times as the sewing-
FIG. 6. — THE EOOT WITH THE WELT SEWN IN.
The stiffening is skived and fitted in the way pre-
viously described in the account of the other processes,
except at the bottom ; in hand- sewn work it is left the
full substance there.
Another preliminary operation is " making the
thread." The waxed threads used in hand shoemaking
are of two kinds, one being used for sewing the welts,
and the other for stitching on the soles. The sewing
thread consists of a number of hempen strands, or
cords, twisted together, and waxed with the ordinary
thread is to have cords; that is to say, separate hempen
strands. Each cord, as it is taken from the ball, must
be placed alongside the others, but with the point an
inch or two in advance of that of the previous one.
Ordinary sewing-threads have from eight to ten and
twelve cords, according to the strength and weight of
the boots to be made. It is almost needless to say
that, in exceptionally heavy goods, such as shooting
boots, very stout threads have to be used, sometimes
running as high as twenty cords.
N 2
3°°
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
Having all the cords placed in position, they
must now be laid across the knee, and a few sharp
twists given them at each end, to cause them to bind
together. The thread has simply to be rolled slowly
over the knee to give it these twists. It is now ready
for waxing, this process being done by passing it over
a piece of shoemaker's wax held in the hand. It is
advisable not to do this in a hurried manner ; for if
the thread is well and evenly made, it will work far
more easily, and the time ultimately gained will more
than repay the extra preparation. Care must be taken
that every part of the thread receives its proportion of
wax, not even forgetting the tapering ends. When
this has been done, the thread has to be thoroughly
twisted by rolling it once more over the knee with the
palm of the hand until it is found that there is a ten-
dency to uncoil again when it is not held fast. The
wax may now be caused to penetrate the interior by
subjecting the thread to a gentle friction. A good way
to do this is to take both ends in the left hand, put the
centre over a nail fixed in the wall, and, with a piece of
moderately soft leather, to rub backwards and forwards
until the warmth produced partly liquifies the wax, and
causes it to reach the innermost strands. When this
has been done, the thread should be smooth, even,
and solid, having no sign of irregularity about it any-
where.
Putting on a bristle is, at the first look of the thing,
a very easy job to do. Like a good many other opera-
tions, however, it is not quite so easy as it looks, as
very many shoemaker's apprentices find to their annoy-
ance. The bristle has in shoemaking to take the place
the needle takes in ordinary sewing ; but it has to take
curves in leading the body of the thread through,
which could not be taken by the needle. It is very
strong, pliable in its length, but stubborn at one point,
and separates easily at the other. There are different
methods of attaching the bristle, but the one most
approved by practical men is the following : — First,
select a hair of medium thickness, even and round —
flat hairs do not work well — take hold of it at the stiff
end, between the fourth and little finger of the left
hand ; then with the thumb and first finger of each
hand split the bristle for about a couple of inches.
Then, holding the divided part wide open, insert the
point of the thread (which, it is understood, must pre-
viously have been well and evenly waxed) at the bottom
of the split, and allow the bristle to close. Keeping
the point where bristle and thread join between the
thumb and forefinger, a rotary motion is given to the
bristle, which has the effect of binding the fine part of
the thread round the outside of it. Three or four
turns will be sufficient, and these turns must be close
together. From this point the two ends of the bristle
and the thread must be plaited, a slight twist being
given to each split portion of bristle before it is worked
in the plait. By the time the ends are nearly plaited
in, a thicker part of the thread will have been reached,
and at this point a puncture must be made through it
with a very fine straight awl. Through the hole thus
made the stiff point of the bristle is passed ; and it
being pulled through, a kind of knot is formed, one
which adds in no way to the bulk of the thread, nor
causes any unevenness. The loose ends may now be
trimmed off, the join smoothed by passing the thumb
and fingers over it — any roughness at the point of
the bristle smoothed with sand-paper — and the thread
is ready for use.
The process of lasting, next to be proceeded with,
differs but little from that made use of in other sys-
tems of manufacture, except that shoemaker's tacks are
used, they being driven through the upper and inner
sole into the bottom of the last, where they hold. The
upper is drawn over first at the end of the toe, next at
the sides, and afterwards at the joints. Each separate
toe-plait has to be pulled in by the pincers and tacked
in place as before described, and the sides drawn over
in the same fashion, as is also the waist leather, but
the upper is not pulled over at the heel. Here it is
left just more than level with the inner sole. Very
great care must be taken that during this process the
position of the inner sole is not affected ; that portion
of the boot is like the foundation of a house — if secure,
the subsequent work may progress — if insecure, it
proves a source of endless trouble afterwards. And
now, supposing the lasting to have been done in satis-
factory fashion, the upper seams being straight oppo-
site each other, the plaits of the toe carefully smoothed
in, the sides evenly lasted, and the waist — always a
difficulty — pulled in tightly, the boot is ready for
tewing.
The seat, or back of the heel, has first to be sewn.
Except that they are overcast, the stitches are put in
in the same way as they are upon the welt, as here-
after described, but that being absent they appear in
regular line at the bottom edge of the tipper. When
this operation has been completed the upper and
stiffening must be gently hammered round at (not over)
the edge, in such a manner as to give it a rounded
appearance (Fig. 6).
The reader will do well at this point to turn to
the description of the welt, given on page 30, Part 1.
After carrying out the instructions there given as to its
preparation, and having been careful not to leave it
weak and uneven at any point, but solid enough at the
bevelled edge to enable it to hold the stitches, without
fear of their pulling through — a not uncommon oc-
currence, if the welt is not properly prepared — it may
be slightly "skived" at the end, and attached. The
attachment begins at the right-hand corner of the heel.
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
301
The worker holding it there in place, and the boot
secure on his knee by means of the endless stirrup, or
strap, which is used for this purpose — and the correc-
tion of the apprentice as well, when occasion requires
— passes his awl through the first hole in the inner
sole, and at the same time through the edge of the
upper, and the end of the welt. Next he takes his
sewing thread, and passes one bristle and the thread
following it through the hole, and having drawn one
half the length of the thread through is ready to make
the next pass with the awl. The hole again serves as
guide, and now the maker — who has affixed a piece of
1 eather to his left hand, something like the palm and back
of a glove, but stout enough to prevent the thread from
cutting the flesh — makes the pass, and after the awl is
withdrawn inserts simultaneously the points of both
the bristles from opposite sides, and having pushed
them a short distance through, seizes them, and draws
them a little further through. Next he takes hold of
the thread below, pulls it the length of his extended
arms, winds it round the end of the awl handle in
his right hand, and round the thick part of his left
hand, and pulls sharply until the stitch is made per-
fectly taut.
Placing the welt carefully in position before each
pass with the awl is made, allowing it to protrude
beyond the edge a little over the eighth of an inch, he
continues to sew it in the same way all round, until the
opposite corner is reached, pulling out the tacks as he
finds them in the way, and when he arrives at the last
stitch brings through the thread which happens to be
on the outside, ties both together, and cuts off the ends.
Then, with a smooth bone, tapered off, so as to leave
a broad, blunt point, the welt must be pushed away
from the upper, all round the boot. The stitches are
now to be hammered gently, and the welt made to lie
as fiat as possible. Some portions of the upper
leather may be found irregularly projecting from under
the welt seam, in the direction of the centre of the
boot. These must be pared away carefully, not cut
off suddenly, but " skived " away, so as to leave
nothing uneven between the inner edge of the welt
and the inner sole. The edge of the welt will now
need to be pared round full 5 of an inch, being left
beyond the upper.
Putting in the " bottom filling " is the next opera-
tion, and on this depends, to a great extent, the com-
fort of the boot-wearer. The boot, at its present stage,
has a considerable depression in its centre produced
by the welt, and this hollow has to be filled up with
perfect evenness, so that when the sole is put on, there
may be a perfectly level bed, on which it may rest.
Pieces of waste upper leather are usually made use of
for this purpose. The worker first covers the bottom
of the inner sole with strong paste — that made from
rye-flour will hold best — and next selecting pieces of
waste leather of equal thickness, trims them so that
they may meet closely, or, if he prefers to do so, skives
the edges, and lays the pieces evenly together in the
hollow, where they are held by the paste. This bot-
tom-filling does not extend below the joints. Should
one layer not be sufficient, and probably it will not be, a
second may be added, taking care that sufficient paste
is used to hold it fast. When the paste has had time
to set, the bottom-filling is levelled by paring all in-
equalities away, the worker taking great care not to
cut the welt stitches.
The shank, as it is called, has next to be put in.
A piece of light sole or insole leather is first taken.
This must be broad enough to cover the whole of the
hollow portion of the waist, and long enough to reach
from under the heel to beyond the joints. The lower
end of the bottom-filling having been "skived" away,
this piece is fastened in with three or four wooden pegs,
and above it is placed, by means of more pegs, a nar-
rower piece of solid material. These pieces together
form the shank. They must now be carefully " skived "
at each end, and at the sides, so that when this is com-
plete the shank has the appearance of a sharp ridge
for some distance, but gradually flattening at the ends.
The upper and stiffening have also to be pared at the
seat, just above the seat stitches, so that at this point
the inner sole and upper will be left flat, and a sewing-
awl is next passed under each seat-stitch, this being a
preparation for a later process.
The sole has now to be rounded to the shape of the
welt. Supposing it to be in the " mellow " condition,
spoken of in previous articles, it may first be ham-
mered on an even surface, such as that of a large
smooth stone, or flat iron, and next be temporarily
fastened to the boot by a lasting tack, driven through
an inch and a half from the end of the toe, two other
tacks being placed one at each side of the heel. Soles
bought ready (roughly) cut, at the leather-sellers',
usually need sole-piecing, that is to say, joining under
the heel. This system is adopted for cheapness, but
the manipulation of sole-pieces is so difficult for a be-
ginner, that I would advise the amateur to buy his soles
long enough to go through: the difference in cost is not
generally more than twopence in the pair, taking the
value of the sole-pieces into consideration.
The sole having been prepared as directed, it
may now be "bedded" down. This is done by a
process of gentle hammering and rubbing until it lies
closely over the shank, and evenly on the bottom-filling
and welt. This part of the work will be aided by putting
the stirrup leather over the sole in the waist, and thereby
obtaining foot-pressure. Should it not fall into place at
once, no severe measure should be adopted — leather,
like some individuals, is easier coaxed into the right
302
HO IV TO MAKE A SET OF PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS.
way, than violently forced into it. It next has to be
" rounded " by the shape of the welt, as far as the welt
extends, and at the seat or heel by the upper itself. As
a general rule, an allowance of a full eighth of an inch
s sufficient — the worker must be on his guard, not
to cut too much away, for mistakes in this direction
are irremediable.
After the sole is rounded, it is then taken off and
" fleshed," that is to say, all the loose and useless
fibres on the back of it removed, and, in the waist, a
small portion of the most solid, but here superfluous
leather, towards the edges taken away. The sole is
now replaced, and held by means of a tack or peg, in
the forepart, and the heel is secured by seven or eight
pegs, placed a considerable distance from the edge of
the sole. Without further fastening the seat of the
sole, the heel is built upon it. First, the grain is
rasped away, and a small quantity of paste put on, and
next the split-lift, it having previously been put in
shape, is added. Pegs are again used as the fastenings ;
they should not be long enough to go through to the
inner sole, and half a dozen will be sufficient. Above
this the lifts are added, one by one, until the height
of heel required is nearly reached, when the " sewing
down " takes place.
The operation of sewing down consists in bracing
by means of a very stout waxed thread, the whole of
the thicknesses of leather to the seat-stitches, which
confine the upper and stiffening at the back. I would
not, however, advise the amateur to attempt to sew
down the whole of the heel-lifts. In the first place, he
may find himself in considerable difficulty in forcing
the heel-awl, which is a thick and very strong one,
through so many substances ; and, next, it is not at all
necessary that he should make the attempt. A much
easier plan is to sew down the first-lift, and fix the re-
mainder with metal heel-screws, or rivets. Whichever
lift he decides to sew to should have a groove cut in it
to contain the top of the stitch. This may be about
half an inch from the edge, when the leather is in the
rough. The thread to be used here must carry plenty
of wax, and must be stout. The heel awl must now be
thrust through the leather, opposite the centre of each
seat-stitch, the point coming out in the groove, pre-
viously cut in the lift, and the thread passed, not
through the leather alone, but between each seat-stitch
and the upper, through the spaces which were made
before the sole was put on. This operation has the
effect of binding the whole firmly together, and when
it is complete, the projecting seat-edge of the sole is
" paned " inwards by gentle blows with the thin part of
the hammer, until the stitches are completely hidden
from sight. The top-piece may now be bradded on,
and the heel pared in the way previously described.
(To be continued.)
HOW TO MAKE A SET OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
APPARATUS.
By JAMES PARKINSON.
I.— The Double Dark Slide.
HERE is nothing so pleasing to the
amateur, in whatever department his
" hobby " may be, than to be able to
construct his own apparatus and appli-
ances. I intend, therefore, in the follow-
ing articles to give complete instructions (from practical
experience) on the manufacture of a complete set of
photographic apparatus, consisting of improved
tourist bellows camera, double dark slides, tripod
stand, instantaneous shutter, etc. For perspective
view of camera and tripod, see Figs, i and 2. I
shall endeavour to make the illustrations as plain and
complete as possible, so that the youngest member of
our fascinating art will be able to construct his own
apparatus. To begin with, I shall give full particulars
of tools, appliances, etc., that are necessary to turn out
satisfactory work. The amateur must have a good
strong bench to work upon. I find Morrill's " Perfect
Bench Stop," price 2s. 6d., a most useful little appli-
ance for planing against, as it can be adjusted for all
thicknesses of wood, down to a thin veneer.
Most of the tools required will be found in any
amateur's tool-box, viz., pair of tongue and groove
planes (for £ in. wood), smooth plane, rabbet plane,
tenon saw, marking gauge, cutting gauge, small
square, small spokeshave, small screwdriver, small
gouge, small American plane, one chisel, i in., ^ in.,
£ in. The amateur would do well, however, to pur-
chase Messrs. C. Churchill & Co.'s Amateur Catalogue
of Tools, in which will be found an endless variety for
all purposes. One mitreing block and two shooting
blocks, as Figs. 4, 5, 6, will be required. These must
be made to the greatest nicety, or the joints of your
slides, etc., will be open.
My method of working is to draw every part full
size on paper before commencing work, as it saves
much time and prevents mistakes (see Part I.,
page 8, on "Working Drawings"); then it is easy to
calculate, in a very short time, the length, breadth,
etc., of timber required.
The size I am about to describe is for plates
7 4 by 4£ in.; the slides are so constructed that they
will take (half plates 6i by 4'| in.), without the use of
carriers, which will be found of great advantage to the
amateur, and are also suitable for taking photographs
for the stereoscope.
We will commence work with the dark slide first,
as I have found from experience that it is easier to
HOW TO MAKE A SET OF PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS.
3^3
s
\
2
/
171 [7
Ivl L
K
^ ., /
>X
FIG. 3. — GROOVING FOR SLIDE
SHOWN IN SECTION.
FIG. 7. — SHl'TTER FOR DARK SLIDE.
FIG. 2.— PERSPECTIVE
VIEW OF TRIPOD.
FIG. 4. — SHOOTING-
BLOCK, WITH STOP
AT RIGHT ANGLE
TO BLOCK.
FIG. 10. — HALF-PLAN AND SECTION OF SLIDE WHEN COMPLETE. SCALE, 6 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
3°4
HOW TO MAKE A SET OF PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS.
make the camera from the slide, as then you have the
exact dimensions to work from.
For three double dark slides we shall require about
1 8 feet of grooving, as Fig. 3, drawn full size, which is
made of good, seasoned, straight-grain baywood. I
would not advise the amateur to make this himself, as
it can be bought at much less price than he can make
it, and grooved to the greatest nicety by machinery.
Mr. Marcus Waine, 39, Legh Street, Warrington, has
kindly consented to supply amateurs with grooving in
quantities of 20 feet, price 5s., and mitreing and
shooting block, as Figs. 4, 5, 6, price 5s., which will be
forwarded on receipt of P.O.O.
Cut a plate of glass -j\ by 4'f in. full ; cut the
mitres in block (Fig. 6), and shoot up with a plane in
block (Fig. 5.) These blocks are so made that the
cuts will be exactly at an angle of 45 °, thus, when the
two pieces are placed together they will form a perfect
angle of 90°, cut so that when all four sides are keyed
together the plate y\ by 4J in. will fit easily on the
rabbet. Now make the rabbet, as shown at a (Fig. io\
for the tin plate to fit upon. This rabbet must only be
cut on one half of the slide. Now plane the top piece
down, so that it will leave a clear passage for the
shutter to slide in the groove ; now key at the corners.
My method of keying is as follows (which I find better
than in the vice) : — Screw a piece of wood — previously
squared in the block (Fig. 4) — near the edge of the
bench, then glue the two ends to be jointed and place
against the wood, then you have a very firm support.
To saw the key cuts, when perfectly set, smooth down
the frame with the smoothing plane.
Now measure the lengths and breadths for the
shutter (as shown in Fig. 7, which is i size), to be
made out of (full \ in.) baywood. Allow about I in.
all round larger than required, in order to leave
plenty of margin for making the tongues, saw cuts, etc.
Tongue and groove together, as shown by the cut
(Fig. 7). I find the cutting gauge most useful for
cutting lengths of wood up to £ in. thick, as you can
cut it in much less time than by the saw. When set
smooth down, do not plane it down to its proper thick-
ness till fitted in the slide, as then you have a gauge
all round to work by.
Shoot up in the block (Fig. 4) and measure the
exact depth of grooves. Mark with the marker the
exact size of tongue, and plane the rabbet with the
rabbeting plane. Be very careful in making this
rabbet, for if you take the least shaving more than
necessary, it will spoil the appearance of your slide.
Now mark the shutter about if in. from the bottom,
where the cut has to be made in order to hinge, shoot
up in the block, then make a rabbet — half the
thickness of the wood, and about 5 in. deep — on oppo-
site sides, so when the shutter is closed one will over-
lap the other, and entirely shut out all light. Bevel
the front edges, so that when the shutter is drawn the
hinges will fall back. Mark the place for hinges and
hinge.
Now glue the corner pieces on top of slide, as
shown in Fig. 7, to be made out of the same grooving,
mitred in block (Fig. 5). Now key the frames, as
shown at A, Fig. 7, which gives strength, and, if the
slides should get damp, will prevent them from
opening. There are no such keys at the top. Now
glue the tongue in the groove, as shown at B, in
section (Fig. 10), which must be mitred, in order to
make a perfect joint when set, and all glue removed,
it should fit easily in the groove, as shown in the
section of the other half of slide.
Now glue the corner pieces inside the slide, as
shown in Fig. 10. Cut one piece of glass, -j\ by 4J in.
and 6J by 4^ in. The former should fit easily on the
top and bottom rabbets ; the latter on the two side
rabbets ; and the corner pieces will keep the plates
from getting out of their proper positions. If you
have gone according to my instructions, the corner
pieces should be exactly $ by \ in., as shown in Fig. 10,
which are drawn half size. Always allow a little extra
room, so that the plate will slip easily in its proper
place, as sometimes the plates vary a little in size.
I have known them vary as much as ^ in. in one
particular make of plate.
Now place the two frames together. Plane true in
block (Fig. 4) all slides of exactly equal size. Next
make the rabbets to slide in the frame of the camera.
Now put the top pieces on the shutter, to draw it up
by; to be tongued and grooved together (top piece
tongued).
Now cut a piece of moderately-strong tin, to fit
very close on the rabbet A, Fig. 10, then solder a piece
of flexible clock spring, lengthways of the tin, on one
side only. By bending the tin a little, the other plate
will be kept in its place without the aid of a spring.
The small brass button, as shown in Fig. 10, will keep
it in its proper position. There are two such buttons
about lh in. from the top.
Now scrape with a wood scraper, and make per-
fectly smooth with the finest sand-paper.
All that remains now will be the fittings, which are
very few in the dark slides. You will require for three
slides : six clips, as Fig. 8 ; six pieces of brass wire, as
Fig. 9. I prefer the clips fastened on the side of the
slide, about two inches from the top. The brass
buttons (Fig. 9) are screwed into the top piece,
and keep the shutters from falling out. Hinge the
slides together with inch brass hinges. The hinges
for the shutter are made specially for that pur-
pose, and may be bought at most dealers in photo-
graphic apparatus. I shall give, in my next article,
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
305
price, and where they can be purchased, of a complete
set of brass fittings for camera, etc. — of course, just
what is beyond an amateur's power to make.
For the benefit of my more fortunate readers who
possess a small circular saw, I describe an improved
method of hingeing the shutters. Saw the slide in two,
same as described for ordinary hingeing ; set the gauge
so that the saw-cut will be exactly in the centre ; saw
both pieces f- in. deep and insert a piece of good strong
parchment. This method will be found very much
superior to the ordinary' hinges, and perfectly light-
tight. The saw-cut must be made with a very fine
saw.
{To be continued.)
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION
ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
OF
By MASK MALLETT.
I.— Characteristic Features of Ancient Furniture.
N dealing with the present subject, the
object of the writer is purely practical.
Having had much experience in these
matters, he proposes to give to the ama-
teur workman, who wishes to restore
dilapidated examples of antique furniture to use and
beauty, such hints as may be of service to him. But
as restorations cannot properly be effected without
some knowledge of the period and style to which the
article to be restored belongs, it will be desirable to
give some slight outline of the history of our old
English furniture as a preliminary step.
Such of our old English furniture as is of sufficient
antiquity and merit to be prized by the collector or
artist, is commonly made of oak, and more or less
decorated with carving. As art, it belongs, with few
exceptions, to the great Renaissance school. Its
production was not extended over a long period ; for,
roughly speaking, we owe the whole of it to the seven-
teenth century. Occasionally, indeed, the collector
will meet with articles and fragments of carving be-
longing to the earlier, or Gothic school ; but these, in
this country, will be exceedingly rare. Of those so
found, the greater number will prove, earlier or later,
to have belonged to churches ; some few will be relics
of our former conventual establishments, the rest will
have been brought from the Continent by the purvey-
ors for our London dealers in such wares. Of genuine
English domestic furniture, earlier in date than 1550
(which may roughly be set down as the close of the
Gothic period in this country), examples are so few
and far between, that, for the purposes of the ordinary
collector, they may be looked upon as not existing.
The cause of this scarcity is chiefly to be attri-
buted to the rudeness of the domestic arrangements
of our forefathers, till towards the close of the six-
teenth century. As an illustration, let me adduce a
MS. inventory of the year 1574, now lying before me.
The person whose household goods are minutely
particularized in it, was a member of the Shakspeare
family — a wealthy Warwickshire yeoman, whose per-
sonal chattels included " boots, spurs, and sword,"
and in whose dwelling were such stores of linen, meal,
malt, and salted provisions, as a modern housewife
could only hope to look upon in dreams. Yet in the
only sitting-room of this house there were but two
chairs ; and its other furniture consisted merely of a
" table-board " — -a huge plank, apparently, mounted
on trestles — and a number of benches. Chairs,
dressing-tables, and wash-stands, were altogether
wanting in the bed-rooms : one chamber had indeed
a moveable cupboard, or press ; but in the others,
beyond the beds themselves, a variety of coffers had
to serve all the other purposes of furniture.
This was in 1574 ; but a great change was npw
about to pass over the habits of the English middle
classes. In the reign of Elizabeth a craving for
domestic luxury began to be felt — in that of her suc-
cessor, James I., it became general ; and in all houses,
except those of quite the lower orders, a profusion of
richly-carved furniture appeared.
The two chairs mentioned as having a place in
Master Shakspeare's "hall," were probably of much
the same character as that shown in Fig. 1. This
form dates from the time of Elizabeth, and examples
of it may often be met with by the collector.
In the reign of James I., the strongly framed oak-
table (Fig. 2) on four or six massive pillars, takes the
place of the rude " board " of former times ; whilst
the rough bench gives way to the joint-stool (Fig. 3).
A joint-stool is not, to our modern thinking, a luxu-
rious seat, yet both in appearance and convenience it
was a great advance on its predecessor. Each guest
was now provided with a separate seat"; and, when
not in use, these joint-stools were ranged in rows,
out of the way, beneath the great table. Smaller
tables of this date are commonly on four legs, framed
together much in the same manner as joint-stools.
As we approach the middle of the century, the
square-built, solid chairs, without arms, which are
termed " Cromwellian," became plentiful. The more
light and elegant " high-backed " chairs, with their
cane-fittings and florid carving, are still later, and
belong properly to the period which followed the
Restoration. At this latter period also came in a
form of table still most abundantly to be met with.
3°6
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
This was the "eight-
legged " table, which has
two folding leaves, and is
generally round or oval
in shape (Fig. 4). Tables
of this type are occasion-
ally carved on the upper
part of the frame, but it
is when their numerous
legs are cut into twists
that they are most beau-
tiful and valuable. This
form of table continued to
be made through" the first
quarter of the eighteenth
century.
Chests of panel work,
more or less elaborately
carved, continued to be
produced in great abun-
dance throughout the
whole of the seventeenth
century ; and though a
practised eye can gene-
rally fix the date of any
of these chests pretty closely, it is not easy, in a
few words, to state the means by which conclusions
are reached. , Broadly, however, it may be said that
in the earlier examples bold effects in carving seem to
have been chiefly studied, and in the later specimens,
careful workmanship, which generally resulted in
tameness of effect. As the year 1700 approached,
few really fine chests were produced, though inferior
ones were still made in abundance. This was owing
m a change of fashion. It had now been discovered
that these primitive receptacles had their incon-
veniences ; and, in the better sort of houses, chests
of drawers had begun to take their places.
Throughout the seventeenth century the art of
inlaying was used in conjunction with that of carving.
At first this was done sparingly, but afterwards more
freely. About
the time of
William III., it
became very
abundant, whilst
such carved
work as was
produced be-
came tame in
e ff e c t, and
affected classi-
cal forms in its
ornaments. At
this date, it may
ELIZABETHAN CHAIR IN CARVED OAK.
a^^iM^^Mi^^^^
FIG. 2. — JACOBEAN TABLE IN CARVED OAK.
be said that the period
of our antique carved
furniture had well nigh
reached its close.
During the seventeenth
century, the material used,
in at least nine cases out
of ten, was solid oak. In
its first half, walnut or
chestnut were occasion-
ally used for lighter ar-
ticles. In its second
half, less enduring woods
were more freely em-
ployed. The high-backed
chairs are not unfre-
quently of mere beech,
coloured black. After
the close of this century,
oak can no longer be said
to have been the general
material for English fur-
niture.
Chests of drawers were
introduced at a time when
oak carving had ceased to be the fashion ; but good
early examples are often inlaid, or decorated with
mouldings, arranged in geometrical patterns. They
depend also, to a great extent for effect on the orna-
mental brass " furniture," with which they are fitted.
The " drop ''handle, shown in Fig. 5, is characteristic
of this time.
To follow English furniture into the next century
will not be necessary for our purpose. In what has
already been said, those classes of objects only have
been touched upon which will most frequently fall in
the way of the collector ; whilst as regards assigning
dates to the various classes, any absolute exactitude
is not possible. Fashion changed more slowly in the
seventeenth century than it does now, and often
lingered in one district after it had become obsolete
in another.
Furniture so
substantial as
that which has
been described,
could not readily
be broken or
worn out ; but
as the eigh-
teenth century
advanced, it
came to be re-
garded with
ever - increasing
HIXTS ON THE RESTORATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
307
disfavour. Being old-fashioned,
it was held to be ugly and
cumbrous. Discarded from
houses of the better sort, or at
least from their habitable por-
tions, it found its way to
cottages and lumber rooms.
Such was the ill-usage of every
kind to which it was subjected,
that except for its singular
powers of endurance, little could
have been left to us. This state
of things continued till about
forty years since, when persons
of taste began to see the interest
and artistic value of our "an-
tique furniture." From that time
it certainly has not been ne-
glected. It has been diligently
sought, and in many instances
only too much cared for, so far
as regards restoration. Yet, though much has been
collected, much still remains to be gleaned in the
rural districts.
Every lover of old oak, who knows London, is
aware that Wardour Street and its neighbourhood,
are the localities most favoured by the dealers in
antique furniture. In the shops of these persons
many things are to be found that are picturesque,
some that are really fine, and occasionally others that
are undoubtedly genuine. But, judging from my own
experience, the prices
at such places are at
least double or treble
those for which similar
articles may be picked
up in the country.
Moreover, the dealer,
in order to give his
wares a higher com-
mercial value, gene-
rally thinks proper,
not merely to mend
and restore, but to
alter and improve
whatever comes into
his hands, in such a
manner as will, in his
opinion, suit the re-
quirements of the
greater number of his
customers.
Not unfrequently,
also, under a fictitious
appearance of an-
FIG. 3. — JOINT-STOOL
FIG. 4. — EICHT-LEGGED TABLE.
tiquity, things altogether new
are palmed otf on the unwary
buyer. The making of such
forgeries is said to be a regular
branch of industry. In most
purchases, paying a fair price
gives the buyer a reasonable
chance of getting an honest
article ; but in buying things
of this nature, the reverse holds
good. Security lies rather in
the price being so low as to
make it evident that no modern
craftsman could have done the
work for the money.
Most of these forgeries are,
however, so clumsy as to be
easily detected by an experi-
enced collector. The power to
judge in such matters must
chiefly be the result of practice,
yet some hints can be thrown out which may be
found of use. A quality prized in old oak is the
dark colour which it acquires by absorbing ammonia
from the atmosphere, through a long course of years.
The forger commonly uses new wood, which is most
readily available, and stains it with an artificial
colour. He makes it even darker than the old, but
at the same time he fails to give the rich, mellow
hue which comes from age. His work has, if I may
so express it, a sort of metallic appearance, which
suggests the blacklead
brush, and may be
detected without much
difficulty.
Again, a want of
antiquarian accuracy
often exposes the imi-
tation. He does not
observe, or believes
that he can improve
upon, the rules of con-
struction followed by
the old workman. If
the reader will glance
at the four illustrations
already given, he will
see that in the tables,
chairs, and such like
articles, of the seven-
teenth century, the
legs are al ways
strengthened and held
together by cross-bars
near the floor. In
3°8
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
later days, these ties have commonly been dis-
pensed with, as inconvenient and unsightly ; and each
leg has, so to speak, been left to stand alone in the
world. The forger frequently does not remember
this ; and I have seen many elaborately-caned and
deeply-coloured tables, the independent character of
whose legs at once marked them as not genuine
antiques, but as " Wardour Street."
At other times we may see articles professing to
be old, of a kind on which old carvers were never
accustomed to spend their skill. Passing lately by a
London shop, I was attracted by a fine carved bureau.
That it was not modern I could see at once by its
general outline. The style of the carving and the
colour of the wood were such as at a superficial
glance might have passed for genuine Stuart work ;
but to see such carving on so late an object as a
bureau, roused my suspicions, and made me examine
FIG. 5. — THE DROP HANDLE.
closely. I soon saw that the thing, in its then state,
was a forgery. The bureau had been a plain oak
article of the earlier part of last century, and the
dealer, in order to enhance its value, had had it
carved in the style of the middle of the seventeenth
century. The fact of the oak being old had permitted
it to take a fine colour.
For dealings in Wardour Street, a well-filled purse
and much caution will be needed ; yet in the back
streets of London there are humble shops in which
genuine bargains may still be picked up. In the
slums of Marylebone, and at the shop of a broker of
the humblest kind, I have got treasures at prices
which I should have considered low in any part of the
country.
The rural districts are, however, undoubtedly the
best field for the collector. In farm-houses, old oak
work has indeed long since been banished from the
better rooms, yet much remains in garrets and
kitchens. Carved chests are especially abundant in
such houses. In the old period, chests were favourite
articles of furniture, and were made in great numbers.
As they are little liable to breakage, and are always
useful for purposes of stowage, most of them still re-
main ; and it is in farm-houses that the largest, the
most finely-carved, and the best preserved are to be
found. At farm-house auctions, a well-carved chest,
for which a London dealer would ask three or four
pounds, commonly sells for about a sovereign.
Large Jacobean tables, of the kind shown in
Fig. 2, are still not unfrequent in farm-house kitchens ;
especially in such houses as have been the mansions
of the smaller gentry, in Stuart times. Occasionally,
too, fine bedsteads and buffets in good preservation
are to be met with in farm-houses, but such treasures
are now rare.
Cottages do not, as a rule, supply large or im-
portant things, but otherwise they form the collector's
most useful hunting-grounds. They are readily
entered, and the cottager is glad to sell on reasonable
terms ; in this differing from the farmer, whose pride
forbids him to sell, unless he is tempted by high
offers ; hence it is that the treasures of farm-houses
are rarely available except at auction sales.
Chests abound in cottages, but they are generally
smaller, and less finely carved than those in farm-
houses. So do joint-stools (see Fig. 3). But more
abundant than either, in the homes of the peasantry,
are the eight-legged tables of the type shown in
Fig. 4. In cottages, also, and rarely elsewhere, we
meet with small boxes, commonly about 9 inches high,
by 2 feet long ; and richly carved. Antique chairs, of
any of the styles mentioned above, are now unfrequent.
They have been more zealously collected than other
things. But the smaller square framed tables of
James I. and Charles I. are occasionally to be seen in
cottages.
In these humble homes, also, we may often find
odds and ends of old carving, nailed up in partitions,
or otherwise, serving simply as so much old board;
and such fragments the amateur restorer will be able
to turn to good account. In search for such relics,
even the shed and pig- stye of the cottager should not
be neglected. So abundant and so little regarded was
old carved work at the close of last century, that in
pulling down or altering houses of that time, fine
carving is often discovered nailed face inwards, and
covered with plaster or whitewash. A country builder
who, in the course of his business, will frequently come
across such matters, is no bad ally of the collector,
and any one who is on the look-out for old carving
in order to work it up into furniture, will find it useful,
and profitable, too, to visit building-yards both in
towns and the country, when making inquisition for
material of this kind.
{To be continued).
VIOLIN. MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
3°9
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD 3. ALLEN.
VI.— The Varnish.
E have now reached the point at which
our fiddle is completed, " in the white ; "
there only remains, therefore, before pro-
ceeding to fit it up and string it, to dis-
cuss the question of varnish. So much
has been written on the subject of the " Lost Cremona
Varnish," with such infinitesimal result, that it would
be worse than useless to start a new theory to solve
an apparently insoluble difficulty. Mr. C. Reade, in
a letter in the Pall Mall Gazette, of August 31st, 1872,
has shortly epitomised all that is known of this lost
but glorious compound, and his remarks on the sub-
ject are, in the abstract, as follows : —
" It comes to this, then," says he, " that the varnish
of Cremona, as acted on by time and usage, has an
inimitable beauty; and we pay a high price for it in
second-class makers, and an enormous price for it in a
fine Stradiuarius or Joseph Guarnerius. No wonder,
then, that many violin-makers have tried hard to dis-
cover the secret of this varnish, many chemists have
.given days and nights of anxious study to it. More than
once, even in my time, hopes have run high, but only
to fall again. Some have even cried, 'Eureka !' to the
public; but the moment others looked at their discovery,
and compared it with the real thing, ' inextinguishable
laughter shook the skies.' At last, despair has suc-
ceeded to all that energetic study, and the varnish of
Cremona is sullenly given up as a lost art. I have
heard and read a great deal about it, and I think I
can state the principal theories briefly but intelligibly.
" 1. It used to be stoutly maintained that the basis
was amber ; that these old Italians had the art of
fusing amber without impairing its transparency : once
fused by dry heat, it could be boiled into a varnish
with oil and spirit of turpentine, and combined with
transparent yet lasting colours. To convince me, they
used to rub the worn part of a Cremona with their
sleeves, and then put the fiddle to their noses, and
smell amber. Then I, burning with the love of know-
ledge, used to rub the fiddle very hard, and whip it to
my nose, and not smell amber. But that might arise,
in some measure, from there not being any amber
there to smell. (N.B. These amber-seeking worthies
never rubbed the coloured varnish on an old violin.
Yet their theory had placed amber there.)
" 2. That time does it all ; that the violins of Stradi-
vari were raw, crude things at starting, and the varnish
rather opaque.
" 3. Two or three had the courage to say it was
spirit-varnish, and alleged in proof that if you drop a
drop of alcohol on a Stradivari, it tears the varnish off
as it runs.
" 4. The far more prevalent notion was, that it is
an oil varnish, in support of which they pointed to the
rich appearance of what they call the bare wood, and
contrasted the miserable, hungry appearance of the
wood in all old violins known to be spirit varnished
(for instance, Nicholas Gagliano, of Naples, and Jean
Baptiste Guadagnini, of Piacenza, Italian makers con-
temporary with Joseph du Jesu).
" 5. That the secret has been lost by adulteration.
The old Cremonese and Venetians got pure and
sovereign gums that have retired from commerce.
" Now as to theory No. 1. Surely amber is too
dear a gum and too impracticable for two hundred
fiddle-makers to have used in Italy.* Till fused by
dry heat, it is no more soluble in varnish than quartz
is ; and who can fuse it ? Copal is inclined to melt,
but amber to burn, catch fire, do anything but melt.
Put the two gums to a lighted candle, you will then
appreciate the difference. I have tried more than one
chemist in the fusing of amber ; it came out of their
hands a dark brown, opaque substance, rather burnt
than fused. When really fused, it is a dark olive-green,
as clear as crystal. Yet I never knew but one man
who could bring it to this, and he had special ma-
chinery invented by himself for it ; in spite of which,
he nearly burnt down his house at it one day.f I
believe the whole amber theory comes out of a verbal
equivoque. The varnish of the Amati was called
amber to mark its rich colour, and your a p7-iori
reasoners went off on that, forgetting that amber must
be an inch thick to exhibit the colour amber. By such,
reasoning as this, Mr. Davidson, in a book of greaf
general merit, is misled so far as to put down powdered
glass for an ingredient in Cremona varnish. Mark the
logic. Glass in a sheet is transparent ; so if you re-
duce it to powder, it will add transparency to varnish.
Imposed on by this chimera, he actually puts powdered
glass, an opaque and insoluble sediment, into four
receipts for Cremona varnish. But the theories, 2, 3,
4, 5, have all a good deal of truth in them ; their fault
is that they are too narrow, and too blind to the truth
of each other. In this, as in every scientific inquiry,
the true solution is that which reconciles all the truths
that seem at variance.
" The way to discover a lost art, once practised
with variations by a hundred people, is to examine
very closely the most brilliant specimen, the most
characteristic specimen, and, indeed, the most extrava-
gant specimen — if you can find one. I took that way,
* It must be bome in mind that amber is much cheaper and
commoner in Italy and the Tyrol than in the northern countries
of Europe.— (E. H. A.)
f This was the late John Lott (vide Chap. II.).
3'o
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS
and I found in the chippiest varnish of Stradiuarius,
viz., his dark red varnish, the key to all the varnish of
Cremona, red or yellow. (N.B. The yellow varnish
always beat me dead, till I got to it by this detour?)
Look at this dark red varnish, and use your eyes.
What do you see ? A red varnish, which chips very
readily off what people call the bare wood. But never
mind what these echoes of echoes call it. What is it ?
It is not bare wood. Bare wood turns a dirty brown
with age ; this is a rich and lovely yellow. By its
colour, and by its glassy gloss, and by disbelieving
what echoes say, and trusting only to our own eyes,
we may see at a glance that it is not bare wood, but
highly-varnished wood. This varnish is evidently oil,
and contains a gum. Allowing for the tendency of oil
to run into the wood, I should say four coats of oil
varnish; and this they call the bare wood. We have
now discovered the first process — a clear oil varnish,
laid on the white wood with some transparent gum,
not high-coloured. Now proceed a step further. The
red and chippy varnish, what is that ? ' Oh ! that is
a varnish of the same quality, but another colour,' say
the theorists No. 4. ' How do you know?' say I. ' It
is self-evident ; would a man begin with oil varnish,
and then go into spirit varnish ? ' is their reply. Now
observe, this is not humble observation, only rational
preconception. But if discovery has an enemy in the
human mind, that enemy is preconception. Let us,
then, trust only to humble observation. Here is clear
varnish, without the ghost of a chip in its nature ; and
upon it is another, a red varnish, which is all chip.
Does that look as if the two varnishes were homo-
geneous ? Is chip precisely the same thing as no chip ?
If homogeneous, there would be chemical affinity be-
tween the two. But this extreme readiness of the red
varnish to chip away from the clear marks a defect of
chemical affinity between the two. Why, if you were
to put your thumb-nail against that red varnish, a
small piece would come away directly. This is not so
in any known case of oil upon oil. Take old Forster,
for instance : he begins with clear oil varnish ; then
on that he puts a distinct oil varnish, with the colour
and transparency of pea-soup. You will not get his
pea-soup to chip off his clear varnish in a hurry, ex-
cept where the top varnish must go in a played bass-
Everywhere else his pea-soup sticks tight to his clear
varnish, being oil upon oil.
" Now take a perfectly distinct line of observation.
In varnishes, oil is a diluent of colour. It is not in the
power of man to charge an oil varnish with colour so
highly as this top red varnish is charged. And it must
be remembered that the clear varnish below has filled
all the pores of the wood ; therefore the diluent cannot
escape into the wood, and so leave the colour undi-
uted. If that red varnish was ever oil varnish, every
particle of the oil must still be there. But this is
impossible, when you consider the extreme thinness of
the film which constitutes the upper or red layer. This,
then, is how Anthony Stradivari varnished the instru-
ments such as the one we are considering. He began
with three or four coats of oil varnish, containing some
common gum. He then laid on several coats of red
varnish, made by simply dissolving some fine red
unadulterated gum in spirit ; the spirit evaporated,
and left pure gum lying on a rich oil varnish, from
which it chips by its dry nature and its utter want of
chemical affinity to the substratum. This solution of
the process will apply to almost every Cremona var-
nish. The beauty, therefore, of varnish lies in the
facts that it is a pure glossy oil varnish, which serves
as a foil to a divine, unadulterated gum, which is left
as a pure film on it by the evaporation of the spirit in
which it was dissolved. The first is a colourless oil
varnish, which sinks into and shows up the figure of
the wood ; the second is a heterogeneous spirit var-
nish, which serves to give the glory of colour, with its
light and shade, which is the great and transcendent
beauty of a Cremona violin. Gum-lac, which for forty
years has been the mainstay of violin-makers, must
never be used, not one atom of it. That vile flinty
gum killed varnish at Naples and Piacenza a hundred
and forty years ago, as it kills varnish now. Old
Cremona shunned it, and whoever employs a grain of
it commits wilful suicide as a Cremonese varnisher.
It will not wear ; it will not chip ; it is in every
respect the opposite of the Cremona gums. Avoid it
utterly, or fail hopelessly, as all varnishers have failed
since that fatal gum came in. The deep red varnish
of Cremona is pure dragon's blood ; not the cake, the
stick, the filthy trash, which, in this sinful and adulte-
rating generation, is retailed under that name, but the
tear of dragon's blood, little lumps, deeper in colour
than a carbuncle, clear as crystal, and fiery as a ruby.
The yellow varnish is the unadulterated tear of another
gum, retailed in a cake like dragon's blood, and as
great a fraud as presented to you in commerce ; for
the yellow and for the red gum, grope the City far
eastwards. The orange varnish of Peter Guarnerius
and Stradivarius is only a mixture of these two genuine
gums."
For this long extract from Mr. C. Reade's letter,
copied practically verbatim, I must crave the reader's
pardon ; but as it is, perhaps (to my mind certainly),
the most intelligent, practical, and scientific solution
of the fiddle-builder's greatest difficulty, presented to
a limited number of people by a great connoisseur,
and one eminently qualified to give an opinion, it is
far more honest and satisfactory to give the writer's
own words, than to adapt it (as so many "book-
makers" unblushingly do) to my own phraseology,
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
311
and call It original observation. " Pa/mam qui meruit,
feratP
So much therefore for the modus operandi of the old
Cremona varnishers so far as we can say, what were
the component parts of their material, it were very
difficult, nay, impossible to determine, for it must be
borne in mind that a period of close upon 200 years
has elapsed since it was last applied as we see it — a
time quite long enough to oxydise the gums, resins,
and their diluents beyond the reach of the most care-
ful quantitative or qualitative analysis, besides which,
the costliness of the operation of depriving a Cremona
masterpiece of its greatest beauty, would place it far
beyond the reach of the most enthusiastic experimen-
talist. This closely guarded secret had an existence ex-
tending only from about 1550 to about 1750, at the end
of which time it would seem to have vanished as com-
pletely and mysteriously as it appeared. All the data
we have to go upon are the printed works of some
few individuals, who have written pamphlets on the
various varnishes in common use for various purposes,
and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the varnish
used by the Luthiers or fiddle-makers, was to a certain
extent similar to them ; again, the reading and proper
construction of these formulas is rendered more diffi-
cult that many of the gums, resins, and solvents
mentioned no longer exist under the names by which
they were then known, and some would seem almost
entirely to have disappeared.
I will now recapitulate a few of the most likely
formulas enumerated in these ancient brochures. The
first I have been able to obtain is a treatise called,
"Secrets of the Arts," published in 1550, by one
Alexis, a Piedmontese. He gives the following
receipts : —
1. Place some powdered benzoin in a phial and
cover it with two or three fingers' depth of pure spirits
of wine, and leave it thus for two or three days. Into
this \ phial of spirits, put five or six threads of saffron
whole, or roughly broken up. With this you may
varnish anything a golden colour, which will glitter
and last for years.
2. Take white resin 1 lb., plum tree gum 2 oz.,
Venetian turpentine 1 oz., linseed oil 2 oz. ; break up
the resin and melt it. Dissolve the gum in common
oil and pour it into the resin, then add the turpentine
and oil, and placing it on a light fire, let it thoroughly
mix ; remove and keep for use ; apply slightly warmed.
This is a good picture varnish.
3. A quickly drying vamish. Take frankincense
and juniper gum, powder them and mix them finely.
Take some Venetian turpentine, melt it in a little
vessel, and add gradually, mixing thoroughly the
aforesaid powders. Filter through cloth and pre-
serve ; apply warm and it will dry very rapidly.
4. Take gum-mastic 2 oz., Venetian turpentine
1 oz., melt the mastic in a light fire, adding the
turpentine, let it boil some time, mixing them contin-
uously, but not long enough for the varnish to become
too thick. Put it away out of the dust. To use it,
warm it in the sun and lay it on with the hand.
5. Boil 3 lbs. of linseed oil till it scorches a feather
put into it, then add 8 oz. juniper gum and 40Z. aloes
hepatica, and thoroughly mix them ; filter through
cloth, and before using warm in the sun.
6. Gum-mastic 2 oz., gum-juniper 2 oz., linseed oil
3 oz., spirits of wine 3 oz.,boil in a closed vessel for an
hour.
The author cites as colouring matters sandal wood,
dragon's blood, madder steeped in tartaric acid, log
wood, Brazil wood all dissolved in potassa lye, and
alum, and boiled. Also saffron, cinnabar, and orpi-
ment. He says, " Linseed oil will dissolve mineral
and vegetable colours, but kills others."
Fioravanti in a brochure called " The Universal
Mirror of Arts and Sciences," published at Bologna in
1 564, gives the four following formulas : —
1. Linseed oil 4 parts, spirits of turpentine 2 pts.,
aloes 1 pt., juniper gum 1 pt.
2. Powder, benzoin, juniper gum, and gum-mastic,
and dissolve in spirits of wine. This varnish dries a1
once.
3. Linseed oil 1 pt., white resin 3 pts., boil together
and colour as you will.
4. Linseed oil 1 pt., resin 2 pts., pine resin \ pt.
boil till it thickens. Juniper gum must never be added
to the linseed oil till it boils or else it will be burnt.
The oil should be boiled till it scorches a feather
dipped into it.
He gives the same directions as to colours, and the
solvent powers of linseed oil.
Beyond these two authors formulae become rather
scarce, being chiefly brought from China. All these
last, and the coming, formulas are not to be taken as
invented at the dates given, for they are from works
in the nature of Encyclopaedias, and consequently con-
siderably post dated.
A priest of the name of Anda, in a pamphlet
entitled " Recueil abre'ge' des Secrets Merveilleux,"
published in 1663, gives the following receipt : — Oil
of turpentine 2 oz., turpentine 1 oz., juniper gum
\ dram ; to be mixed over a slow fire.
One, Zahn, in 1685, in " Oculus Artificialis,'
Vol. III., p. 166, gives two receipts : —
1. Elemi, anime, white incense, and tender copal,
2 drams each ; powder and dissolve in acetic acid in a
glass vessel, adding 2 drams of gum tragacanth and
4 drams crystallized sugar ; dry off this mixture and
powder finely. Take 1 lb. of oil of lavender or turpen-
tine and 6 oz. Cyprian turpentine, and boil them on a
312
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
water bath. When the turpentine is well dissolved
add the powder and mix thoroughly ; boil for three
hours.
2. Oil of lavender 2 oz , gum-mastic I oz., gum-
juniper 1 oz., turpentine i oz. ; powder the mastic and
juniper, and boil the oil, then add the turpentine, and
when dissolved add the powders and mix thoroughly.
The Rev. Christopher Morley in 1692, in " Collec-
tanasa Chinicaea Lydensia," gives under the name of
" Italian varnish," the following receipt : —
Take 8 oz. turpentine and boil on a fire till it
evaporates down to I oz. ; powder when cold, and dis-
solve in warm oil of turpentine. Filter through a
cloth before use.
And, lastly, a Jesuit named Bonanni, in his " Traite
des Vernis," published at Rome in 1713; gives a list of
substances used, in which he includes — 1. Gum-lac in
sticks, tears or tablets. 2. Sandarac or juniper gum.
3. Spanish or American copal, hard and soft. 4. Amber.
5. Asphalte. 6. Calabrian resin or pitch. 7. A little-
known gum which flows from the wild olive-tree,
resembling red scammonium.
Besides these he mentions as gums not used for
varnishes, elemi, anime, arabic, pear-tree, cherry-
tree, azarole-tree, and other tree gums. He also
alludes to gamboge, incense, myrrh, opoponax, am-
monia ; oils, such as turpentine, copaiba, etc. It will
be observed that he omits benzoin and mistakes
when he classes amongst useless gums elemi and
anime, which (especially the former) are much used
for spirit varnishes on account of their tender qualities,
otherwise his list is practically one of the modern
ingredients of varnishes for all purposes. He gives
many formulas, the basis of which are principally
mastic, juniper gum, copal, linseed oil, oil of lavender.
It would be easy to multiply these old formula;,
but time and space forbid it, the foregoing are
doubtless the most important and useful of them, as
giving us a good idea of what materials the old
Cremona varnishers had at hand ; their varnishes, of
course, had to be most carefully suited to their peculiar
requirements, and properly to ascertain this it is
necessary to ascertain (a) what part it plays in the
construction of a fiddle, and (b) what qualities it must
necessarily possess. Its first and great function is, of
course, the preservation of the wood ; without it no
fiddle could attain an age of more than a very few years,
and the tone would lose sweetness and power after
a very short existence of harmony. In its nature also a
great deal depends, it must be tender, in a manner soft ;
that is, it must yield to the movements of the woodj
and not encase the fiddle like a film of rigid glass.
It is well known that in hot weather the wood ex-
pands, and in cold weather contracts on a violin,
imperceptibly perhaps, but none the less actually, and
the nature and quality of the varnish must be such as
to allow of its following these movements of the wood
to which it is applied, without checking them in any
way, as it certainly would if too hard. It is this that
gives the oil varnishes such a vast superiority over
spirit varnishes, though the former are more difficult
to compound and apply, and take weeks, months, nay,
years, to dry properly. Gum-lac has this same
hardening effect upon varnishes, though it has been
most freely and disastrously used. In the receipts
given above I have specially excluded all such, and
all spirit varnishes. To obtain this suppleness, the
gums must be dissolved in some liquid not highly
volatile like spirit, but one which mixes with them in
substance to counteract their own extreme friability
permanently. Such are essences of lavender, rose-
mary, and turpentine, combined with linseed oil.
If these conditions are borne in mind, a glance at
the above formulas will show that they are all adapted
for application to musical instruments in a greater or
lesser degree, though most of them would require, at
any rate, diluting. For instance, among those of
Alexis, the Piedmontese, No. I, is hardly more than
a stain, and would require the addition of gum mastic
and juniper to give it consistency. No. 2 would be
tender, but too heavy ; the same remark applies to
Nos. 3 and 4 ; they all require diluting with essence of
turpentine, and so on throughout. A moment's con-
sideration of each will suggest the dilution or altera-
tion required to make it useful for the purposes of
the fiddle-maker. Again, by a looseness of diction
the old masters have been cited as covering their fiddles
with an " oil-varnish," without stating whether the
oil employed were an oil properly so called (as linseed
oil and the like) or an essential oil (such as oil of
turpentine). It has appeared in the foregoing remarks
that the old varnishers used to begin by boiling
their oil to a sufficient extent to render them siccative,
and then after cooling they mixed in the necessary
powders, having reheated the oil to a lesser degree,
otherwise the high temperature necessary to boil the
oil would burn the delicate resins and gums which
they employed. And in this they differed from the
manner in which the hard glassy oil varnishes of to-
day are made.
M. Savart has made the extraordinary mistake
of preferring, in some cases, a hard spirit varnish
of gum-lac, but it is difficult to imagine by what
circuitous route he can have arrived at such an
erroneous conclusion. It has been said that Stra-
divari and his predecessors varnished with amber, but
strong evidence against this is brought by the fact that
the secret of dissolving amber was not known until 1 744,
when letters patent for the discovery were granted to
one Martin. His operation was to fuse amber and
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
3i3
hard copal by dry heat, and dissolve it in boiling oil,
which was diluted with an essence raised to the same
heat before it was added. This operation was indeed
invented in 1737, but as this was the year in which
Stradivarius died, he could never have used it, much
less his predecessors, as stated by Otto, and, besides,
such a varnish would be much too hard to use on
violins for the reasons before stated.
It was towards the decline of the Cremona violin
manufacture that gum-lac was introduced, and with it
J. B. Guadagnini spoilt the tone of many of his in-
struments. It is impossible to impress the fact too
strongly, that the vehicle in which the resins are dis-
solved must be and remain soft, so as to keep soft the
resins, which by themselves are naturally hard ; and
consequently any varnish from which the diluent has
completely dried out must of necessity become hard
and glassy, and chip off. On the other hand, if the
varnish be too soft, and, in fact, remain tacky, it will
in time cake, and destroy the tone of the fiddle. The
hard spirit varnishes might be improved by oil of
turpentine, castor-seed, lavender, etc. ; but surely it is
better to use these at once than use them merely to
counteract faults in an inferior composition. It is
impossible to say how the old Luthiers dissolved the
highly-coloured resins which tint their deeper coloured
varnishes ; but the means of dissolving the most
delicate gums has already been discussed, and certain
it is that now-a-days varnishes of the highest colour
can be prepared without a vestige of cloud or sedi-
ment; and such receipts are given below.
( To be continued?)
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR
AMATEURS.
By A. J. W. TAYLER, C.E.
II.— Hand and Foot-Power Band-Saw Machines.
OOT-POWER is applicable to most small
machines for working in wood, where
very light work only has to be per-
formed. Its application to small saw-
benches is attended by the difficulty of
attaining the great velocity at which it is imperative
that a circular-saw should revolve without producing
too much friction, to be overcome by foot-power, with
any degree of ease. In a circular-saw bench, such
as already illustrated, fitted with a self-acting feed
motion, foot-power would be of no advantage, as the
machine can be easily worked by one man. Motion
obtained from a lever or pedal worked by the foot is
somewhat variable, for supposing the angular velocity
of the pedal uniform, that of the fly-wheel will be
variable in all its points ; but these inequalities will
become the less sensible in proportion as the angle
gone over by the pedal or lower lever is less, and the
greater the distance between the centre of the fly-
wheel and that of the rotation of the pedal.
Any small machines that are required to run only
at a slow degree of speed, and where no intermediate
gearing is therefore necessary, can be advantageously
worked by foot, as band-saws, fret-saws, etc., where
the power required to drive is small, and the desired
number of revolutions can be obtained by means of
a belt or band ; but where the resistance to be over-
come is considerable, and the speed has to be multi-
plied by means of toothed gearing, and consequently
a large amount of friction is engendered, next to
steam, hand-power is the most desirable.
We illustrate in Fig. 3 a small band-saw machine
adapted to work by foot-power, or, if desired, it can
be arranged so as to be capable of being worked either
by hand or foot. The machine is well designed ; the
column is very substantially constructed, well propor-
tioned, and elegant in shape. It is fitted with a
swinging table, which can be set to any angle by a
simple and complete arrangement, for cutting on the
bevel. An improved tension apparatus is fitted to the
top pulley slide, thus obviating breakage of the saws
from contraction, or from any sudden strains they may
be subjected to during work. The saw-pulleys are
20 inches in diameter, and are very accurately turned
and balanced, and the brackets that carry the top and
bottom spindles for the saw-wheels are bushed with
gun-metal. The back thrust of the saw is received on
small metallic guide-wheels; it is also fitted with adjust-
able wooden side-guides. As will be easily perceived by
glancing at the illustration, motive power is obtained
from a treadle or pedal coupled direct by an inflexible
rod to a crank attached to the lower saw-wheel.
Though it is scarcely possible to obtain the same
amount of power out of an ordinary pedal of this
description as from an arrangement to work by hand-
power, still it presents to an amateur the immense
advantage of enabling him to do light work unaided,
having his hands free to guide the wood to the saw.
The machine, as shown in the sketch, will take in
work up to 6 inches in depth, and can be obtained for
,£10 1 os. ; it can also be fitted with fast and loose
pulleys to drive by a small steam or gas engine for
.£1 is. extra.
Another excellent foot-power band-saw machine is
shown in the illustration Fig. 4. It is of American
make, and suitable for amateurs requiring an easy-
running machine for light work. The framing is
formed of a heavy 2-inch tube, 4 feet in length, stand-
ing upon an A-shaped base ; into the upper end of
314
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
this is telescoped, by means
of a cap and set screw, a
piece of i}-inch tube, thus
providing an adjustable and
secure arrangement for fas-
tening the machine either
against the ceiling or to the
side of the room. The saw-
wheels are of the flanged
pattern, 14 inches diameter,
and accurately balanced.
Speed is obtained by means
of a belt, working from a 2-
feet fly-wheel on to a 4-inch
pulley fixed on the lower saw-
wheel spindle. The bearings
are of Babbitt metal, nicely
fitted. The saw-table is of
black walnut, 15 inches by
18 inches. An adjustable
combination friction - roller
and side-guide, made of steel,
is attached to the upper arm
of the bracket carrying the
saw-wheels ; another friction-
roller is also fitted to the
table, to withstand the back thrust of the saw. This
machine cuts 3 inches deep, and is of a total weight
of 200 lbs. The price complete, as shown in sketch,
FIG. 7. — SIMPLE COMBINED CIRCULAR AND BAND-SAW MACHINE.
FIG. 6. — BAND-SAW ATTACHMENT FOR HAND POWER.
with three saws, is ,£8. A very useful little band-saw
machine is shown in Fig. 5. This machine can be
adapted to work either by hand or steam-power. The
column is of the flange
pattern, and cast all
in one piece. The
slide bearing the top
saw-wheel spindle is
mounted on a plunger
resting on a thick
disc of india-rubber,
this is a simple and
cheap arrangement for
affording elasticity,
without the interven-
tion of springs or
weighted levers. A
plate iron saw-guard
is also fitted to the
front of the top saw-
wheel, and a wooden
guard at the back, as
shown in sketch, thus
preventing accidents
in case of breakage.
Where this guard is
not supplied, the saw
has been frequently
thrown in the operator's
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
3i5
;t6
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
face, sometimes inflicting serious injury. The table
is mounted either on a ball-and-socket joint, which
allows the table to cant in any direction, or on a
quadrant fitted with a pointer which gives the exact
incline at which the table is placed. Should it be de-
sirable to saw at an extreme bevel, instead of canting
the table, the top saw-wheel can be mounted on a
slide with a lateral motion.
A band-saw attachment for hand-power is shown
in Fig. 6. It is so constructed that it can be easily
fixed to a wood bench, thus economising space,
and reducing the prime cost of the machine. It is
an extremely useful little article, and for light work
will be, found just as serviceable as any larger hand-
power machine ; it will also cut equally well any
irregular curved or ornamental design. The table is
square, of ample area, and made to cant for cutting
on the bevel. The upper saw-wheel is fitted with
a patent arrangement for securing the equal ten-
sion of the saw at all times. It has also gun-metal
bushes in saw-spindle brackets, friction rollers for
receiving the back thrust of the saw, and wooden
side-guides. This little machine will take in work up to
6 inches in depth ; it can be obtained either in parts,
or complete as shown in the illustration, fitted with
one f-inch saw, brazed, set, and sharpened ready for
use, for £g ios.
Most undoubtedly, any hand or foot-power wood-
working machine of a complex nature is a great
mistake ; and people who will have machines very
composite in their character must not be surprised if
they find some serious drawbacks attendant upon their
use. As a general rule, except in special cases, combi-
nations do not supply the place of the various machines
contained in them to anything like an equal degree
of efficiency, and in cost they generally equal, if not
exceed, the price of the machines procured separately.
In designing a combination machine, the chief point
to be secured is simplicity of the mechanical arrange-
ments, combined with a ready adaptability to the
variety of work to be performed, the whole being
under the easy control of the operator. A great fault
is often made in the constructing of combination ma-
chines by making the general details of too compli-
cated a character ; so that even when efficiency is
obtained, it is more or less counterbalanced by the
first cost, the cost of working, and that of keeping in
repair. The above remarks apply, of course, more
particularly to the designing of a general joiner, or
other complicated machine for steam-power. Where
economy of space is a desideratum, and where it is
not required to use more than one of the machines
at the same time, a simple combined circular
and band-sawing machine, such as that depicted in
Fig. 7, would present many advantages. This ma-
chine can also be fitted with a boring apparatus when
required. The circular-saw bench and band-saw are
similar in their details to those already described.
The band-saw is so arranged, that the fly-wheel of the
circular-saw forms its third wheel, thus considerably
simplifying its construction, the usual plan being to
have it entirely distinct. The bench will carry saws
up to 14 inches, and will cut 4A inches in depth; the
b^nd-saw will take in work up to 6 inches in depth.
The whole machine is exceedingly portable, and occu-
pies but little room. The price complete, with one
9-inch and one 14-inch circular-saw, and one 7-inch
band-saw, brazed, set, and sharpened, is' ^25 ; if fitted
with boring apparatus and one patent auger, £2 extra.
It can be also so arranged as to work by steam or gas
power, as well as by hand, if desired.
In purchasing a band-saw machine, we should
strongly advise the amateur to see that the following
essential conditions are secured : — The column of the
machine should be of sufficient weight and rigidity to
obviate any vibration when the machine is at work.
The pulleys carrying the saw should be turned both
inside and out, and as exactly balanced as possible :
they should likewise be covered with rings of india-
rubber or leather, or any other suitable material, which
must be finished off on the pulleys perfectly true. The
saw-wheels or pulleys should be of sufficient diameter.
Some simple and convenient arrangement should be
provided in order that the top saw pulley can be readily
canted, thus rendering it possible to run the saw upon
any desired part of its periphery. The saw-blade
should be provided with suitable rollers to receive the
back-thrust, both above and below the table, and also
with adjustable side-guides. These packing-pieces
should be so arranged as to prevent the saw from
twisting when the timber which it is cutting is turned
to give the desired curve ; they should also be pro-
vided with some efficient means for lubricating them.
The top saw wheel should be bushed with gun-metal,
and provided with a lubricator for keeping it constantly
oiled ; and should be fitted with some handy method
for raising and lowering it, in order to take in saws
of various lengths. The slides should be accurately
fitted, and be kept clean and well oiled, so that they
may work with perfect freedom.
In sawing woods of a resinous description, it is an
excellent plan to have a small brush attached to the
machine, and so arranged as to constantly sweep the
saw-blade, and thus keep it clear of sawdust. If the
saw-blade be kept well lubricated with grease, it is
also advantageous, as it very much facilitates the
removal of the resin.
The utility of the first band-saw machine was en-
tirely neutralized by the inferior quality of the blades
then manufactured ; otherwise, though somewhat primi-
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
3i7
tive in form, it contained all the elements of practical
usefulness. Of late years, great advance has been made
in the manufacture of band-saw blades, especially in
France, from whence the rest of the world derive
nearly all their supply. This superiority is due to a
peculiar method employed in tempering, which renders
the blades extremely tough, as well as hard. Very few
band-saw blades are made in this country, the method
of successfully tempering them being, to a great ex-
tent, kept secret, and there being besides a universal
predilection in favour of those of French manufacture.
When in work, band-saw blades are subjected to a
variety of strains. There is the expansion and con-
traction of the blade, due to the amount of friction to
which it is exposed whilst in operation ; this friction
has a tendency to alter in a great degree the fibre or
granular construction of the steel, and, consequently,
to produce breakages. There is also a very severe
torsional or bending strain in curved work. There is
no way of judging by looking at it of the quality or
temper of a saw-blade. By bending the blade, its
elasticity to a certain extent reveals its temper. Users
must, however, be always, to a great extent, dependent
upon the /manufacturer to supply them with a proper
article ; and, indeed, these latter are generally under-
stood to be responsible for the proper tempering of
the blades they supply. Either too hard or too soft a
blade is comparatively valueless ; a first-class saw-
blade should be elastic in its temper, but devoid of
hardness, and the gauge, width, and toothing should
be uniform throughout.
Band-saw blades running on three wheels are not
nearly so liable to break as those which only run on two.
Still, as, with every precaution, an occasional breakage
must be expected, and as blades are capable of being
rebrazed several times, and continuing their work until
too short to be again joined, we give a description of
the operation of brazing. It is a very simple process,
and may readily be performed by any one previously
totally unacquainted with this description of work.
Brass, spelter, German silver, and other alloys, can be
used for joining, which is done in two ways — soldering
or brazing. The soldering is somewhat easier to per-
form, on account of the lower temperature at which
the alloy melts ; but the other makes the stronger
joint.
'We give an illustration (Fig. 8) of a small charcoal
forge, for brazing band-saws. This, laying aside the
cost of the forge, is by far cheaper than solder-joints.
To make the latter joint well, it is necessary to have a
scarfing-frame for soldering, and a pair of tongs. The
silver solder used by jewellers, coiled in thin strips, so
that a piece the size of the lap can be easily cut off,
and laid between, is the most convenient. The saw
having been filed down to a taper on the opposite
sides of its ends, of from two to three teeth in length
it is fixed in the scarfing-frame with the solder between,
the joint having been previously well cleansed with
acid to remove all grease. The frame is so constructed,
as to allow the joint to be clasped with a pair of tongs.
These are now heated to a full red heat, and applied.
As soon as the solder runs, a wet cloth must be applied,
to restore the temper to the part. Brazing may be
also performed without the aid of the forge, or any
special appliances, in the following manner : — Having
filed a taper of two or three teeth, according to the
set, as before, taking care that when the two ends of
the saw are made to overlap each other, the joint,
when cleaned off, will equal in thickness the rest of
the blade. Secure the overlapping ends of the saw
well together by small hand-vices, and tie them with
fine iron wire ; over this bind tightly with brass wire
the entire length of the overlap ; moisten the joint
with water, and flux it with powdered borax. The
joint can now be either grasped by a large tongs,
made red hot, and held until the brass melts and
runs into the joint, or else placed in the small
charcoal forge fire shown in the sketch. Let the saw
cool gradually, and file the joint to the same gauge as
the rest of the blade, finishing it off with emery cloth.
It is difficult to distinguish the joint when this opera-
tion has been well performed. Especial attention
must be paid to have the overlapping ends of the saw
when brazed press well together. If a saw be made
thicker at the braze, it will, in that case, when in work,
be found to jump, and not run true on the saw-wheel,
and, in consequence, a breakage will occur. Should
it be necessary to cleanse the joint of grease before
brazing, dilute muriatic acid is the most suitable for
that purpose.
Figs. 9 and 10 represent saw-fences or guides for
circular-saw bench, which present many advantages
over those commonly in use, which very often are made
to extend too far past the points of the saw, thus
running the risk, by the spreading out of the timber,
of jambing and buckling the saw, besides doubling the
friction, and thereby increasing the power required to
drive. Another mistake is to have the guide made
with a plain flat face, which also increases the friction
of feeding. The fence shown in Fig. 10 is only
designed to extend three or four inches beyond the
points of the saw. Two wrought-iron strips, about
1 inch in width, are fitted on the face ; the top one is
arranged with vertical adjustments, so that it may be
raised or lowered according to the thickness of the
wood. For feather-edge work, the fence has a quad-
rant bracket fitted with an index and pointer, by which
plan almost any degree of angle may be obtained
without any trouble.
All the machines illustrated in this and the last
3i8
STENCILLED DECORATION.
paper can be obtained from Messrs. M. Powis Bale
and Co., 20, Budge Row, E.C., except the foot band-
saws, Figs. 3 and 4, the first of which can be obtained
from Messrs. Lewis and Lewis, London, and the second
from Messrs. Churchill and Co., American mer-
chants, Wilson Street, Finsbury. The small forge is
supplied by Messrs. Harry and Aublet, band-saw
makers, Spital Square, E.C.
{To be continued?)
=>=4^=»-=
STENCILLED DECORATION.
By L. L. STOKES.
(For Illustrations, see the Supplement to this Part.)
TENCILL1NG is a process, which, by its
simplicity, the ease and rapidity with
which it is executed, and the moderate
amount of artistic skill which it demands,
specially recommends itself to the ama-
teur decorator. The purposes to which it can be
applied are many. My present remarks, however,
and the designs which accompany them, are more
particularly intended to have reference to the adorn-
ment of walls, ceilings, panels, etc., and similar deco-
rations of the home.
Stencilling may be described as the reverse of
printing. In the latter, projecting parts of the type
or block are charged with colour, which is transferred
by pressure to the surface to be printed. Stencil-
ling, on the other hand, consists in laying a piece of
some thin material, perforated with a pattern, and
termed a " stencil-plate" against a surface to be de-
corated, and applying colour with a brush through
the openings.
The very simplicity of stencilling, implies that the
range of effects to be produced by it must be compa-
ratively limited. The ornament thus formed must
be bold and fiat. It cannot produce gradations of
hue or shade, and is not adapted for the reproduction
of delicate lines. Yet these very limitations tend to
give the process an artistic value of its own. It is
now generally admitted that all ornament to be good,
must be conventional in its treatment, and that all
purely stencilled ornaments should be conventionalised,
is a necessity arising from the very nature of the
process. Of the proper artistic treatment of designs
for stencilling, I shall have more to say presently,
after dealing with the subject from the practical point
of view.
Stencil- Plates. — In making stincil - plates for
various kinds of work, many different materials have
been employed— paper, metal, leather, oilcloth, etc.
For general purposes, that most us<?d is paper, as
being cheapest, best fitted to draw the design upon,
and most easily cut. The amateur will probably
wish to prepare his own plates. He will find a stiff
cartridge paper best suited to his purpose. On this
he can draw readily, and the design being carefully
sketched out, he can cut it with a sharp penknife
against some smooth firm surface, such as a hard
piece of wood. Care must be taken to cut clearly
and accurately, the curves must be true and bold, and
all angles well cleared out, for any slight imperfec-
tions in the stencil-plates will show in an exaggerated
form in the work.
To give solidity to the plate, and to keep it from
being softened, and consequently destroyed by the
moisture from the colour when in use, it must under-
go a special treatment. Some persons thoroughly
soak their plates in linseed oil; but a better plan is to
go over them with the composition known as "knot-
ting." This preparation is used by painters for
covering the knots in woodwork, previous to painting,
and may be bought at the colourman's.
Another useful material for plates is that known as
"oiled foolscap." This maybe described as a thick
tracing-paper. Its ordinary use is for placing between
the sheets in the copying-press, and it may be bought
at the larger stationers' shops. As applied to our pur-
poses, its special advantages are, that when laid over
a drawn or printed design, its semi-transparency will
allow of a tracing from the pattern below being made
through it ; and, also, that being already water and
oil proof, it needs no further preparation.
A more enduring plate, and one best adapted for
bending round curved surfaces, may be made from
tinfoil. This must be cut with a sharp knife — which
will want frequent whettings — on a piece of glass, or
a glazed tile. Sheet-copper is sometimes used ; but
unless an extremely durable plate is required, the cost
and trouble of cutting with a graver render it undesir-
able. When, however, the most delicate form of
stencil-plate is needed, thin copper must be used, and
the pattern produced by etching, the metal being
covered with wax, as in ordinary etching, and the
design scratched through it with a steel point, the
metal being afterwards eaten through by acid. By
this means the finest and most delicate work, other-
wise unattainable by means of stencilling, may be
accomplished. This, however, is rather beyond the
range of the amateur.
A necessary point to be observed in making sten-
cil-plates is to leave a sufficient number of "ties;"
that is, of bands crossing the openings at intervals,
and thus serving to hold the plate together. By re-
ferring to the illustrations, and observing the arrange-
STENCILLED DECORATION.
3i9
ment of one of the designs for pure stencilling (Fig. 3
is a good example), these ties will be more clearly
understood. Of the artistic value of ties in making
designs for stencilling, I shall have to speak hereafter.
I am now merely insisting upon their necessity for
mechanical reasons ; and if they are wanting in the
design, they will have to be introduced in an arbitrary
manner, though the work should have to be made
good with the pencil afterwards.
As regards size : for good and rapid work it is
better not to make plates so big that they cannot be
held firmly up by the left hand whilst the colour is
dabbed in with the right. But this rule cannot always
be observed. In a border, for instance, enough of the
pattern must be given on one plate to form a " repeat ;"
and if too large to be held, it can be pinned or
tacked up.
For the benefit of those who may wish to stencil,
but do not care for the trouble of making the plates, I
may say that a large variety of stencil patterns, work-
ing size, are published, and that there are shops at
which plates cut from them to order are to be had at a
shilling each. The addresses of such shops I shall
be happy to supply.
Stencil Brushes, specially made for this work, are
to be bought at the colourman's. They are flat at
the end for the purpose of dabbing, are made of short
stiff bristles, and are fixed in round metal handles.
A stencil brush about an inch in diameter will cost
a shilling.
Colours. — These may be mixed in various ways,
perhaps for the amateur, oil colours offer the fewest
difficulties. The surface to be decorated is, we will
suppose, a wall. Let this be painted to the required
shade, and flattened with turps. This, it is advised,
should be done by a professed workman. The
amateur can then proceed to decorate it. He will do
best to use tube colours, which are most cleanly and
convenient. Then he can thin with turps on his palette
— a plate will serve the purpose — and thoroughly mix
up with a palette-knife. The consistency for stencil-
ling should be moderately thin. To attempt to lay on so
much body-colour as will completely cover the ground
is a mistake, and will result in clogging the plate, and
making bad work. To protect and finish the work a
coat of varnish should afterwards be given to it. If
wood-work, as in doors, panels, etc., has to be deco-
rated, it should, like the wall, be previously painted
of the required colour, and not varnished till the sten-
cilling is completed.
If the work is large, and the expense of tube
colours is an objection, common powdered colours
may be used, which are anything but costly. These,
however, involve some trouble in grinding up, and
will scarcely be made to work so well or smoothly.
These need grinding up with linseed oil and a little
" driers " to make them dry properly. Some varnish
ground with them will answer the same purpose. For
use, these colours must also be thinned with turps.
If, instead of oils, distemper is decided on, the
amateur will still do well to have his background laid
in by a workman. For distemper, powdered colour
must be used, which will have to be ground and
mixed with water, in which a little size or glue has
been dissolved. The size should be boiled in the
water. These colours mix and work better when
warm, as the size, when cold, forms a thin jelly. The
object of the size is to fix the colours firmly. Some
stencil with colours mixed merely in beer or milk,
which give sufficient cohesion if it is not likely that
the work will be rubbed much. Distemper colour is
quickly dabbed on, but it has the disadvantage of
being much more liable to clog the plate than oil.
It may so happen that the amateur decorator may
choose, instead of having his walls painted or coloured,
to cover them with paper as a preparation for sten-
cilling. If so, he is advised to avoid the cheap and
often prettily tinted " lining " papers, for these
generally fade ; but rather to use " grounded " paper,
that is to say, a paper which has undergone the
first process of staining, and which may be got at a
paper-hangings-maker's. To this paper ground the
stencilled decorations may be applied in ordinary
water-colours.
Hitherto we have considered stencilling only as an
art to be used by itself, but it has another obvious
and perfectly legitimate use ; namely, as a help in
laying in decorations which are afterwards to be
finished by hand pencilling. If the reader will ex-
amine the sheet of designs, he will see that many of
them are intended to be finished in this manner.
When stencilling is thus made only a preliminary pro-
cess, the design may be treated freely. Breadth and
simplicity are no longer essentials, and in making the
plates ties may be put in at random, or wherever they
will give greatest strength, for all traces of them can
afterwards be removed by the pencil — a difficult matter
indeed, in purely stencilled work, as the pencil
will not give precisely the same texture as the stencil
brush.
Thus used, stencilling becomes an invaluable aid
to an indifferent draughtsman, who can by this means
get in all the main parts of his design, leaving only
unimportant details to be made good afterwards by
hand work ; nor is it less valuable as a means of sav-
ing time.
The central design, Fig. 5, is intended to be carried
out by this method. The ground which covers the
lower part of the panel may very well be applied in
stencil, in such a colour as will best relieve and har-
320
ELECTRIC BELLS.
monize with that in which the conventional plant in
the vase is to be given. And here, it may be observed,
that for backgrounds, the mottled effect left by
dabbing in with the stencil brush is more pleasing to
the eye than that given by any other method of
painting.
In cutting the plate or plates for the more distinctly
decorative portion, the vase, leaves, and flowers,
should be clearly made out, but the stems may be dis-
regarded. Such lines cannot be stencilled satis-
factorily, and they can afterwards easily be sketched
from point to point, and laid in with the pencil.
In the design given in Fig. 25, only the broader
masses are intended to be stencilled, thus the greater
part of its effect will depend on skill in pencilling.
Not so in Fig. 14. Here, though the straight
bands at the sides have to be marked out with line or
straightedge, and laid in by hand, the effect depends
on the stencilling exclusively. The ornamental scroll
should not be touched by hand. It has been designed
in accordance with those rules of fitness and good
taste which apply to purely stencilled ornament.
Those rules may be given in a few words. All
purely stencilled ornament, to be good, as such, ought
to be kept broad, simple, and distinct. It ought not
to attempt to imitate, or profess to be what it is not,
handwork. The difficulty of "ties" ought not to be
shirked by allowing them to come in places where they
will serve no purpose in the design, still less ought they
to be allowed in places from which their marks will after-
wards have to be removed. In the hands of a good
designer, the ties are a source, not of weakness but
of strength. He makes them increase and complete
the effect he wishes to produce. Look again at Fig.
14. In this scroll the white lines which border stem,
and leaf, and tendril, where they cross each other,
are ties. Such is their mechanical use. It will be
seen that artistically they are of no less value to
emphasize and give distinctness, character and beauty
to the design.
I cannot conclude these remarks better than by
quoting from a deservedly well-known decorative
artist and writer on design, Mr. Lewis Day : — " Used
as a decorative process, stencilling has a character
of its own, and an interest in proportion as it is
characteristic. The ignorant or timid decorator is
ashamed or half afraid of the stencilled look, and
seeks to obliterate the traces of the process. The
experienced artist values the character that comes of
stencilling, and would rather accentuate than blur it.
He prides himself upon the aptness of his design to
the method of its execution, and is best pleased with
it when he feels he has invented something that could
not have been so satisfactorily reproduced by any
other process."
ELECTRIC BELLS.
By GEORGE EDWINSON.
I.— Making an Electric Bell.
S I sit in my study, the sound of the
church bells is borne to me on the evening
breeze as they merrily chime in response
to the vigorous pulls of their ringers,
and, to a certain extent, attune my mind
to the subject I have in hand. The regular clang,
clang, of a great bell at a factory near, followed
by the far-distant tinkling of the tradesman's bell at a
neighbouring mansion, tells me plainly that we owe
many of the comforts of life to bells, and (may we add)
to belles also. What an immense amount of muscular
energy is expended every day in pulling bells ! What
a quantity of bell-wire and bell-metal also is yearly
converted into dust ! "And, after all," says paler,
" what costly, noisy things those house-bells are !
Can't you men of science devise some better method
of summoning our servants and making them ac-
quainted with the fact that some person desires their
presence?"
" Certainly, my dear sir, we can mitigate the
nuisance and provide, at least, a more musical sound
coupled with a less expenditure of strength, time,
and money, if you desire it."
" Well, I do desire it ; for I made my arm ache
this morning in ringing the bell to wake Mary, and
then had to get out of bed to do it, for I had broken
one of the wires.''
" Your troubles in this direction will all vanish if you
replace your present system of bells by those of an
electric system ; for you will then only have to press a
button by the side of your bed to ring a bell in the
servants' bedroom, which will go on ringing until she
waits on you, and you stop it. The system can also
be connected with the front-door or the side-gate, and
will instantly give notice when a visitor lifts the latch
or the knocker ; or it may be connected with every
door and window in the house at night, and will give
warning at once if a burglar attempts to open a win-
dow or a door. A fire-alarm may also be fixed in
every room, which will instantly ring a bell if the
temperature rises above what it ought to be. At pre-
sent, the servant has to distinguish each bell by
its tone, and this is no easy matter when, perhaps,
the tradesman's and the study bell ring together ;
but in the electric bell system an indicator tells truly
the room from whence the bell was rung, even if she
should be out of the kitchen at the time. You may
also adopt a system of pre-arranged signals, and
thus save time by signalling a message to the kitchen,
telling an intelligent sen-ant to bring what you require.
There are no bell-pulls, and, consequently, no broken
ELECTRIC BELLS.
321
wires, cranks, etc., from violent ringing ; and as all the
connecting-wires may be buried in the walls, or behind
the wainscoting, all unsightly appearances may be
done away with."
" But such a system must be costly to construct
and maintain, for it could only be put up by a skilled
workman, or repaired by an electrician."
" Far from it. I hope to show you how you may
make, fix, and repair all the system yourself, or in-
struct an average intelligent workman to do it for you.
All the various parts may now be bought at a low
price, and I will tell you where you may get them,
and the price you will have to pay for them."
There are several kinds of electric bells in the
market, each suited to as many requirements. There
are also various makes and qualities of bells, from the
cheap French bells to the best English-made bells of
well-known makers ; but it will not be fair to condemn
all bells of foreign make, since many of them are
superior to much of the cheap English rubbish passed
off on ignorant purchasers by unscrupulous dealers.
A good French bell is better than a badly made
English one, even though the latter may be sold at a
higher price.
The various kinds of electric bells may be classed
as — 1. Trembling or Vibrating Bells. 2. Continuous-
ringing Bells. 3. Single-stroke or Clapper Bells.
4. Electro-magnetic, or Electro-pneumatic Bells. 5.
Magnetic Bells. 6. Electric Gongs.
1. Trembling or Vibrating Bells. — These are so
constructed, as to give a rapid vibratory action to the
bell-clapper, and so produce a sharp ringing sound as
it rapidly strikes the bell. This sound is continued as
long as the electric circuit is kept closed, and is heard
as a series of strokes, corresponding in length to the
time the press-button is held down. It may, therefore,
be used to give the well-known " longs " and " shorts "
of the telegraphic system of signalling, and thus mes-
sages may be sent by it. The sound is not like the
clear voice of the single-stroke bell, but may be repre-
sented by ter-r-r-r-it trit trit ter-r-r-r-it. The prices
quoted by dealers for this class of bell varies with its
size and quality. In some lists, 2i-inch bells are
quoted as low as 4s. 6d. ; whilst in other lists bells of
the same size are priced at 10s. 6d. each. This variety
in prices is sometimes caused by some peculiarity in
the construction, and does not always indicate an
inferior or a superior article. Some dealers include
wire, push, and battery for the sum of 10s. 6d.; whilst
others merely sacrifice portability and a few conveni-
ences in the lower-priced bells, and allow the purchaser
to provide his own battery and wires. For instance,
Messrs. Archbutt, 8, Bridge Street, Westminster, offer
to supply a set, including a 2^-inch bell, a battery, and
twenty-five yards of wire, with the necessary push, for
10s. 6d. Mr. Dale, 4, Little Britain, London, sells a
really good 2j-inch bell alone for 8s. 6d., but supplies
bells of foreign make at a lower price, if required.
Mr. Mayfield, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C., supplies
cheap bells at 4s. 6d., another grade from 7s. 6d.,
whilst best English-made 2i-inch bells are sold by him
for 10s. Messrs. Gent and Co., Leicester, supply a
cheap " toy-bell " at 3s., another quality from 4s., and
a small 2-inch bell of best make at 6s. 6d. The prices
for parts of bells also vary ; but it must be understood
that I merely state prices and names of vendors to
enable amateurs to compare the prices, not as a direc-
tory to the best makers. It will be seen that a fair
price for a really good English-made bell of ih
inches in diameter is about 10s. ; but the amateur may
be able to procure the various parts, and, by the aid of
directions given him here, make up a bell at about
half this sum. And here I may suggest to vendors of
electric bell apparatus and materials that it would
prove advantageous for them to arrange with the pub-
lishers of Amateur Work, Illustrated, for the
establishment of a directory in the advertisement she( t
of this Magazine. Such an arrangement would be of
great advantage to all, and provincial readers would
then know to whom they could apply for wires and
other materials required in the home manufacture of
electric bells.
How to make the Bell. — The old method of doing
this was to take a piece of round iron, bend it into the
form of a horse-shoe, anneal it, wind on the wire, and
fix it as a magnet on a stout board of beech or of
mahogany ; a bell was then screwed to another part
of the board, and a piece of brass holding the hammer
and spring fastened to another part. Many bells
made upon this plan are now offered for sale and
exchange, but their performance is always liable to
variation and interruption, from the following causes :
To ensure a steady uniform vibratory stroke on the
bell, its hammer must be very nicely adjusted to move
within a strictly defined and limited space ; the least
fractional departure of this adjustment from its proper
position results in an unsatisfactory performance of
the hammer, and often a total failure of the magnet to
move it. In bells constructed on the old plan, the
wooden base is liable to expansion and contraction,
varying with the change of weather and the humidity,
temperature, etc., of the room in which the bells are
placed. Thus, a damp, foggy night may cause the
wood to swell and place the hammer out of range of
the bell, or a dry, hot day may alter the adjustment in
the opposite direction. Such failures as these, from
the above cause alone, has often brought electric bells
into disrepute. Best made bells are, therefore, now
made with metallic (practically unexpansible) bases,
and it is this kind I recommend to my readers.
322
ELECTRIC BELLS.
The Base, to which all the other parts are fastened,
is made of f-inch mahogany or teak, 6 inches by
4 inches, shaped as shown at Fig. I, with a smooth
surface, and French-polished. To this is attached the
metallic base-plate, which may be cut out of sheet
iron or sheet brass, and shaped as shown Fig. 2 ;
or it may be made of cast iron, or cast in brass ; or a
substitute for it maybe made in wrought iron or brass,
as shown Fig. 12, I present these various forms to
and adjusting the parts. A tinplate- worker may even
cut his base-plate out of block tin, and get as good
results from his bell as the engineer does from his. In
some makes, the base-plate is cut or stamped out of
thick sheet iron, in the form shown by the dotted lines
on Fig. 2 ; and when thus made, the part A is turned
up at right angles to form a bracket for the magnet
cores, the opposite projection is cut off, and a turned
brass pillar inserted at B to hold the contact screw.
— viii
■^
TO CAR BOM rt)S
m*<*~>9?-
FIG 3. — BRACKET MAGNET
(MODERN FORM).
FIG. 4- — HORSE-SHOE MAG
NET (OLD FORM).
i-x-sts"
ro zinc
FIG. 2. — FORM OF METALLIC BASE-
PLATE ATTACHED TO WOODEN
BASE AS SHOWN IN FIG. I.
FIG. 5.— ARMATURE FOR ELECTRIC BELLS.
FIG. T. — PLAN OF COMMON TREMBLING
BELL.
A, Armature ; B, Bells ; C, Contact
and Regulating Screw; H, Ham-
mer ; S + , Positive Binding Screw ;
S, Negative Binding Screw. Ar-
rows and dotted lines show direc-
tion of wires and currents.
FIG. 6. — ANOTHER FORM OF ARMATURE.
FIG. 7. — (A), CORE OF
MAGNET ; (B), CORES
RIVETED TO BRACKET.
suit the varied handicrafts of my readers ; for instance,
a worker in sheet metal may find it more convenient
to manufacture his bell out of the parts sketched in
1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, and 9 ; but, on the other hand, a smith
or an engineer might prefer the improved form Fig.
16, and select the parts numbered 4, 6, and 12,
choosing either to forge the horse-shoe magnet 4,
or turn up the two cores 7(a), to screw into the metal
base Fig. 12, or to be fastened by nuts, as shown. The
result will be the same in the end, if good workman-
ship is employed, and the proper care taken in fixing
The Magnet may be formed as shown at Fig. 3 or
4, or Fig. 12. The essential parts are — 1. Two soft
iron cores. 2. A base to hold the cores. 3. Two
bobbins wound with insulated wire ; and 5. A soft
iron armature.
The old form of magnet is shown at Fig. 4. The
cores and base in this form are made out of one piece
of metal. A length of round Swedish iron is bent in
the form of a horse-shoe ; this is made soft by anneal-
ing, as explained further on. Two bobbins of insu-
lated wire are fitted on the cores, and the magnet is
ELECTRIC BELLS.
323
held in its place by a transverse strip of brass or iron
secured by a wood screw passing between the two
bobbins. The size of the iron, the wire, the bobbins,
and the method of winding them, is the same as in
other forms. We will now consider the construction of
Fig. 3. To make the cores of a magnet to ring a 23-inch
bell, get two 2-inch lengths of five-sixteenths round
iron of best quality (Swedish, if practicable), straighten
them, smooth them in a lathe, and reduce \ inch of
fire to a red heat, then burying it in hot ashes, and
allowing it to gradually cool for a period of from twelve
to twenty-four hours ; or perhaps a better guide to the
process will be to say: bury the iron in hot ashes, and
leave it there until both them and the iron are quite
cold. Iron is rendered hard by hammering and by
being rapidly cooled, either in cold air or in water, and
hard iron retains magnetism for a longer time than
soft iron. As we wish to have a magnet that will only
FIG IO.— BINDING STUD. FULL SIZE
IN ELEVATION |A), AND SECTION (E).
FIG. 8.— CONTACT SCREW.
FIG. 9.— CONTACT SPRING. SHOWING
SPECK OF PLATINUM. HALF SIZE.
iSUX)
FIG. II. — DIAGRAM SHOWING METHOD OF
CROSSING WIRES ON MAGNET.
FIG. 16. — IMPROVED TREMBLING
OR CHATTERING ELECTRIC
BELL, SHOWING ALL ITS PARTS
WHEN PUT TOGETHER.
12. — ALTERNATIVE FORM OF BASE
PLATE FOR BELL.
one end to four-sixteenths of an inch, leaving a sharp
shoulder, as shown at Fig. 7(A). Next get a 2-inch length
of angle iron, drill two holes i| inches apart, of the
exact diameter of the turned ends of the cores, and
rivet these securely in their places ; this may be
done by fastening the cores or legs in a vice whilst
they are being riveted. Two holes should also be
bored in the other flange to receive two screws, as
shown Fig. 7(b). The magnet is now equal to the
horse-shoe form, and must be made quite soft by
annealing. This is done by heating it in a clean coal
act as such when a current of electricity is passing
around it, and return to a simple piece of unmag-
netised iron when the current is broken, we take the
precaution of having it of soft iron. Many bells have
failed to act properly because this precaution has been
neglected, the residual magnetism holding clown the
armature after contact has been broken. When the
magnet has been annealed, its legs should be polished
with a piece of emery cloth, and their ends filed level
and smooth. If it is intended to fasten the cores into
the base-plate, this should also be annealed, unless it
o 2
324
ELECTRIC BELLS.
is made of brass, when, in this case, a thin strip of soft
iron should connect the two legs before they are at-
tached to the brass base. It will also be readily under-
stood and conceded that the cores should be cut longer
when they are to be fastened by nuts, to allow a suffi-
cient length for screwing the ends to receive the nuts.
The length and size of the legs given above is only
suitable for a 2!-inch bell; for larger bells the size
increases one-sixteenth, and the length a quarter of
an inch for every half inch of the bell's diameter.
The Bobbins may be made out of boxwood, ebony,
ebonite, or any hard wood strong enough and dense
enough to allow of being turned down thin in the
body, a necessary requirement to bring the convolu-
tions of wire as near the core as possible without
touching it. Some amateurs use the turned ends of
cotton-reels or spools, and glue them on to a tube of
paper formed on the core. If this tube is well covered
with melted paraffin wax, the plan answers admirably,
but of course the bobbins become fixtures, and porta-
bility is sacrificed. There are persons who will defy
me on this latter point, and who are clever enough to
make good portable bobbins out of paper tubes and
reel-ends. To these I would say— By all means at
your command, do so if you can.
The size of the bobbins for a 2*-inch bell should be
— length, I A inch, diameter of ends, J inch ; the
length increasing a quarter of an inch, and the diameter
an eighth of an inch, for every additional half inch
of diameter of bell. The holes should be bored to
exactly fit the cores, and these should project an
eighth of an inch above the end of the bobbins when
they are fitted on.
The Wire to be wound on the bobbins is sold by
all dealers in electrical apparatus. It is copper wire,
covered with cotton or with silk, to ensure insulation.
A few words here respecting the meaning of insulation
may not be deemed out of place. The verb " to
insulate," as understood by electricians, means to pro-
tect from leakage of the electric current by interposing
a bad conductor of electricity between two good con-
ductors, thus insulating or detaching them from elec-
tric contact. The following list will enable my readers
to see at a glance the value of the substances men-
tioned here as conductors or as insulators, the best
conductors being arranged from the top downwards,
and the bad conductors opposed to them in a similar
order.
GOOD CONDUCTORS. BAD CONDUCTORS.
Silver. Paraffin wax.
Copper. Gutta-percha.
Iron. India-rubber.
Brass. Shellac.
Platinum. Varnishes.
All other metals. Sealing-wax.
Metallic solutions.
Metallic salts.
Wet stone.
Wet wood.
Silk and cotton.
Dry clothing.
Dry wood.
Rust, dirt, and oil.
It will be seen on reference to this list that copper
is a good conductor, being only superseded by silvei ,
and that silk and cotton are bad conductors. When,
therefore, a copper wire is bound round with silk or
cotton, and this covered wire is wound around a
bobbin, the bad conductor insulates one convolution
of the copper wire from the next. If the convolutions
were laid naked side by side, and touching each other,
the current would not circle round the core through
the length of the wire, but it would leap across from
one coil to another, and thus the desired effect would
be lost. A similar disaster follows the use of a badly-
insulated wire, i.e., a wire from which the insulating
material has been worn in patches, or badly wound
on, thus exposing naked copper wire. If the insula-
tion of a wire is suspected, it should be run through
hot paraffin wax, and thus made perfect ; the merest
film will suffice. The size of wire for a 23-inch bell
should be No. 28, the sizes falling two numbers for
each half-inch increase in diameter of the bell. The
highest numbers represent the finest size, and the price
per pound or ounce increases with the fineness of the
wire in the ratio of 6d. to is. per lb. from Nos. 18 to
28, and from 3s. to 5s. per lb. from 28 to 40 ; the
usual retail price of No. 28 cotton-covered being 5s.,
and silk-covered 8s. per lb. Silk-covered wire has
this advantage over the other, the convolutions lie
closer together, and thus insure better effects in small
bells, and the magnets admit of a better finish with
the silk-covered wire ; but for most purposes the
cotton-covered will give good satisfaction. This wire
must be wound on the bobbins from end to end regu-
larly, with the coils side by side, as a reel of cotton is
wound. This may be done in a lathe, but a little
practice will be necessary before the inexperienced
hand can guide the wire on in a regular manner. If,
however, the bobbin of wire be held on a piece of wire
in the hand, at a distance of a foot or more from the
running bobbin, the wire will almost guide itself on,
provided the guiding hand is allowed to follow its
course. With a slight care, the wire for those little
magnets may be wound by hand. To wind the wire,
first measure off 8 inches of it, and coil this length
around a pencil, but do not cut it off, on with-
drawing the pencil, a small coil will be formed, this
is termed a helix. This free end is destined to con-
nect the wire with one of the points of contact. At-
tach this free end to the end of one of the bobbins
by a small slit in them, as cotton is fastened off, and
wind one layer, then wind another over this regularly,
then a third, and fasten off the wire at the other end
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
325
by securing it in a slit with a bit of sealing-wax. The
wire must not be cut off, but wound on the neighbour-
ing bobbin in the reverse direction ; i.e., supposing the
first has been wound from left to right, the second
must be wound by crossing over the wire in the form
of the letter S, and winding it from right to left. This
is graphically shown at Fig. II. A free end must like-
wise be left on the second bobbin ; but this must be
longer than the first, for it has to lead from M to S +.
Make all free ends secure on the bobbins with a bit of
sealing-wax, then carefully press the bobbins on the
magnet-legs, and fix them in the positions shown at
Fig. 3 or 4. If it is found impracticable to continue
the length unbroken from one bobbin to the other, each
bobbin may be wound with its own length of wire, and
the two ends soldered together ; but in this case they
must be joined up after the manner shown at Fig. 11.
Mr. Dale supplies magnets fitted with bobbins, and
wound with silk-covered wire, at prices from 4s. to 6s.
each, according to size.
The next part for consideration is the armature,
with its fittings. This is made out of -f^ square bar
i.-on, of best quality, well annealed, and filed up smooth
and true. The proportionate length is shown at Figs.
5 and 6 ; and the size of iron for other bells is regu-
lated in the same ratio as that of the cores. Two
methods of making and attaching the springs and
hammers are shown. Fig. 5 shows the section of
an armature, fitted with a back and contact-spring in
two parts. Two strips of hard sheet-brass, as wide
as the armature, are cut off, and the edges filed. A
slot is then cut in the back end of the armature to
receive the two brass strips, and they are soldered
into it ; the top strip is then bent back over the arma-
ture to form the contact-spring, and the other strip is
soldered to a small bracket of angle-brass. At the
other end of the armature a hole is drilled to receive
a piece of stout brass wire, to form the hammer-shaft.
This is soldered in position, and a brass bead soldered
to the other end to form the hammer. Fig. 6 shows
the section of an armature fitted with a back and con-
tact-spring in one piece. This may be soldered to the
r.rmature and to the bracket, or it may be riveted with
f mall brass or copper rivets, or fastened with small
screws. The hammer-shaft is attached by drilling a
vertical hole in the end of the armature, and riveting
the end of the stout brass wire into it. This I con-
sider a better form of armature than the preceding
one.
The next part is shown at Fig. 8. It consists of
a brass bracket as shown, or a part of the base-plate
turned up to form a bracket, as Fig. 1 ; or a small
brass block attached by screws, as shown Fig. 16; or
a small brass pillar, through which a hole is bored, and
screwed to receive a small brass screw known as the
contact-screw. A small nut must also be made, to
act as a lock-nut on the back of screw ; for this is the
part of the apparatus before referred to as needing
nice adjustment. The size of this screw is immaterial
(a {-inch thread is a convenient one) ; but it must be
long enough to pass through the bracket, touch the
contact-spring, and have a few threads to spare behind
the lock-nut. Both the tip of this screw and the point
of contact with it on the contact-spring must be tipped
with platinum, to prevent the electric spark from
burning the brass, which it will do if not protected,
and thus soon spoil the contact. This may be done
by soldering a speck of platinum leaf, half the size of
a threepenny piece, on the point of the screw and on
the spring, or by drilling a tiny hole in the end of the
screw, and another in the contact- spring, and riveting
in a short bit of platinum wire in each hole. Which-
ever method is adopted, Ave must be sure to have the
platinum on the screw adjusted to touch the centre of
the speck of platinum on the spring, shown as a black
speck on Fig. 9. Armatures and hammers, ready for
mounting, cost from is. to 2s. 6d. ; pillars and contact-
screws from is. 3d. to 2S. The bell, and pillar for it,
as shown at Figs. 13, 14, will cost from 2s. 3d. to 4s.,
according to size and finish. The method of putting
the parts together is shown in the sketches, and
further details will be forthcoming in the next article.
( To be continued?)
=■*-=
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
By MERVYN KENNEDY.
III.— My Little Life-Boat.
Y last sketch was of one of the most deli-
cate and elegant kinds of boat made, and
one calling for more exact workmanship
than most others. I now, on the con-
trary, proceed to give directions for the
construction of as simple, easily made, cheap, and
withal serviceable a craft as any one can desire. Any
boy can make it, and no man need be ashamed to use
it. I shall first describe the method I once followed
in building such a boat, and then suggest whatever
improvements on this plan I now see to be feasible.
I first got an old box which had originally con-
tained Australian tinned meats. Its dimensions were,
— length , 2 feet 10 inches ; breadth, 1 foot 9 inches ;
depth, 10 inches ; thickness of side boards, about
I inch, and of bottom boards, about half an inch.
When sitting on a board laid as a seat across one end,
I found that I had just comfortable room for my legs
326
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
within. I tarred the outside of the bottom and comers,
to keep out any water that might make its way in to
them. I then got a quarter-inch 12-foot board, 9
inches broad, and another 7 inches, and, without
planing them, cut them each in half. One of the
9-inch halves I screwed to a corner of the box,
so that about an inch and a half projected behind the
latter ; while the remainder, running up alongside,
could be screwed to the forward corner also, and
doubled round in front to meet the second 9- inch
half board coming from the other side, where it was
similarly secured. The two were joined in front by
inserting between them a small straight triangular
ash stem-post, and screwing them to it.
The boat then, when viewed from
above, appeared as denoted by the
black lines in the accompanying
figure (Fig. 16). The 7-inch boards
were next put on all round on the top
of the others ; while, to secure their
upper edges to, four posts, M, M, M, M
were fastened to the four corners of
the box, outside it but inside the
outer boards. P is the stem-post,
and the dotted line across the stern
represents the top of the outside end-
boarding, the same height as the
sides, and sloping in to join the box
at the bottom, while the lower part of
the side boards is here sloped away
to match ; S S are the seats ; X x
smaller side-pieces, to conceal the
openings between the inner box and
the outer sides ; o is a brace across
the prow, to fasten the bottom to, and
itself secured to the sides.
Next came the bottom, quite flat,
and extending alike over the open
.and the bottom of the box. Be sure to nail the
bottom on outside the edges of the boards, and then
round it off. I foolishly rounded it off first, and then
fitted it inside j the consequence being that I had to
expend a small fortune on cement before I could
render these joinings water-tight. It will also be
found expedient to nail it on through a strip of flannel
or similar substance, which will thus act as caulking
for the bottom seam all round, while all precautions
here taken should also be observed with the outside
stern-boarding described above.
So narrow a boat will, of course, require outrigger
rowlocks, since it is to be propelled not by a paddle,
but by oars. The first necessary step is to discover
the proper length and bend for these appendages. To
do this, seat yourself in the boat on the ground, just as
if you were going to row, and work backward and
forward two sticks, the length the oars are to be, on
the top of two other sticks, forked at the end, and
stuck in the ground, one at each side of you, till you
find the exact spot for the rowlock. Then take a
piece of wire, and find the size arid bend of connect-
ing rod, which will reach from that spot to the side of
the boat, and extend down the latter inside to the bolt-
holes. Any country blacksmith can make a good pair
of outriggers, if you show him how ; or, if disposed
to do a little hammering, you may easily construct
them for yourself. To do this, get a bar of iron an
inch broad, an eighth of an inch thick, and abcut a
foot and a half more than twice the length of the wire,
which you found enough for one rowlock and connect-
ing rod. Cut this bar in half, split
one end of each piece exactly' down
the centre for about 4 inches, open
out the two claws, and either leave
them in a slightly rounded shape,
or, what is better, form with them
three sides of a square, A in Fig.
17. Then make in each piece the
bend e, according to the pattern
which you found suitable, and weld
on to the bottom of each a small
cross-piece c C. Make three bolt-
holes, one in either end of C C, and
one a little distance up the main
stem, at D. Next, with a rasp, round
off the inner edges of A, that they
may not cut the oars. You have
now a pair of outriggers, light and
neat-looking, and fit to stand any-
thing.
To fasten them on, pass each
through an aperture cut in the outer
board, at the spot which you have
found suitable, taking care that these
outer boards do not, from their bent form, split further
than you intended. Lay the T-shaped end against
the outside of the inner box, in which you make holes
corresponding to the bolt-holes in the irons, and pass
three bolts through both iron and wood on either
side, screwing on the necessary nuts inside the boat.
I have described these outriggers so particularly,
because, if thus made, they will suit any kind of boat
which requires them, as well as our little tub, provided
it has a side strong enough for them to be fastened to.
To suit a weaker side, the stem of the iron can be
split like the head, so as to form a two-legged support
for the oar, more resembling the ordinary outriggers
on a builder's boat, and thus distribute the strain over
a larger surface ; or two smaller bars may be crossed
and welded together at the rowlock.
Between 6 feet 6 inches and 7 feet 6 inches will be
DIAGRAM SHOWING PLAN
OF LIFE-BOAT.
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
327
found to be sufficient for the length of a pair of oars
suitable for this boat.
When I had got my boat finished, as above
described, I tried it in the water, but after some
fourteen upsets I felt it would not do. Had it been a
canoe, indeed, the beam would have been quite suffi-
cient for steadiness ; but it was, in fact a boat, to be
propelled by oars, and it makes a vast difference in
the stability of any small craft whether you
sit on the bottom, or on a seat a foot high.
There was nothing for it but to add some
floating power outside. Accordingly, I made
two wooden wings (w, w in Fig. 16), each
about 5 inches across in the broadest part,
and for three shillings purchased a piece of
cork large enough, when divided, to cover
the under-side of these, to which I proceeded
to nail it. I then secured the wings to the
sides of the boat, 8 inches from top and
bottom, by two L-shaped iron braces a
piece.
With two long bolts I then put on a false keel,
weighted with iron, and, to my delight, not only found
my boat quite steady, allowing me to sit or stand in it
comfortably, but discovered that it was, to all intents
and purposes, a life-boat. Not merely was it impos-
sible to upset it from within, as I proved by falling
overboard in the endeavour, but when forcibly upset
from without it at once righted itself. I also found it
easy to swim up to it, and get in over the stern. As,
however, its life-boat capabilities were not likely to be
required, and the false keel made it draw more water
than was always convenient, I took off this appen-
dage, and found it still perfectly steady.
I should be afraid to say how many good fish,
especially pike, I have killed out of this boat. It is
also specially useful for shooting, as while, from its
small size and quiet
colour, green, birds
are not afraid of it, it
allows one to stand up
readily, or can be
turned completely
round by a simulta-
neous forward stroke
of one oar and backward one of the other, — can
be kept, indeed, spinning round at pleasure, so as to
command any quarter.
And now for suggestions of improvements on this
model. I have carried a small boy with me in my
original tub, but would rather not do so again. It
follows that, to carry two comfortably, the beam must
be increased ; and as this alone would render the boat
too round, it would be well to construct it with stem
and stem alike pointed. It could thus move either
FIG. 17.— OUTRIGGER
ROWLOCK.
way, and the rowlocks should be exactly in the centre
of the sides. The fore and aft compartments cannot,
of course, be stood in, the bottom not being strong
enough, but they are most useful for keeping fish in,
or carrying a dog, and, being quite distinct from the
centre, can always contain several inches of water, if
desired. If wings are objected to, the beam should be
increased by 6 or 7 inches ; and a boat of this size,
pointed at both ends, could be finished in
two or three days, would carry two, and
could move at a very fair speed.
All these directions are on the assumption
that the craft is to be, not a canoe, but a
boat propelled by oars, and with raised
seats. Yet a canoe made on the same plan
would be, in many respects, a simpler, and,
in some, a much superior article. Any in-
crease on the beam of the original boat
would now, as we have seen, be quite super-
fluous, even without wings, and the craft
would thus be considerably faster. For
fishing, indeed, it would be inferior, as it would not
give so great a command of the water when sitting,
while it could not be stood in. But as an easily-made
canoe, to paddle about in, it would be unrivalled. For
such a purpose the dimensions might be as follows :
inner box, 3 feet by 2 feet, and outer boards 12 feet
long ; or for two people, 4 feet by 3 feet, and outer
boards 14 feet or 15 feet long. Both ends alike in
either case. As a shooting boat, this model would be
inferior for flying shots, but would conceal much more
of the person ; and, after all, long pot-shots are the
usual style in canoes. It would now be found con-
venient to have a couple of hooks placed along the
top of the inner box, by the right shoulder, to keep a
gun on ; and, for a heavy weapon, a similar support
might be placed in the centre of the front of the box,
admitting of being
i turned in any direc-
tion, and perhaps of
being raised and
lowered. This could
sustain the muzzle
when the gun was to
be fired. If the stock
needed support also, it could be supplied as follows :
Fasten an iron bar, forming a slight hoop, across the
boat in front of the body, with a rest for the stock
attached to it, and running freely in either direction
on it. The ends of this cross-bar could be made to
slide up and down in grooves on the sides of the boat ;
or, for a heavy flock-gun, they could be secured to
each side by a pivot, on which they would turn, and
below which their ends would hang, fitted with springs
or weights to check the recoil. For flock-shooting,
ELEVATION OF SIDE OF CARRIAGE FOR BOAT.
328
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
the sportsman could then lie on his back, working his
vessel within range with a small paddle. A heavy
gun, with a short round butt, secured to the slide on
the bow-shaped cross-bar, and its muzzle lying on an
easily-turned support in front, could, by simply shifting
the butt-rest, be arranged to any required elevation or
direction, while the eye, by a slight turning of the
head, could, without trouble, be placed in the position
necessary for aiming. The use of heavy weights, or,
what would be much better, strong springs, like those
on a hay-tedder, fastened as proposed above, would
suffice to check a very severe recoil, so that a stock to
the gun would be unnecessary, and the gunner would
be spared the trouble of shifting into the position
necessary for applying a stock to the shoulder. The
sliding butt-rest could be at once secured in any
desired spot by a turn of a screw.
For a boat such as I have described, which it
might often be desired to transport from place to
place, a simple carriage would be useful. The easiest
plan would be merely to nail two slight iron axles
across the flat bottom, which they would serve to
strengthen, each projecting on either side only far
enough to hold a wheel, to be secured by a linch-pin ;
or to secure two pieces of railway line reversed longi-
tudinally on the bottom, so that the boat could be
drawn along on them without wheels, while they would
serve as a double and heavy keel. If wheels be used,
and four iron ones cannot be bagged from a sheep-
rack or similar article, serviceable wooden ones can
easily be made by simply cutting sections of any large
log, rounding them exactly, and shoeing them with
hoop-iron. For a clipper-built canoe or other delicate
boat, a more elaborate carriage may be made as fol-
lows : Get some "quarter planks"— boards, that is,
3 inches by i^ inch. Take two pieces, each a little
longer than the boat, and two about a yard and a
half shorter, lay a short and a long piece on the
ground parallel to each other, and some 3 feet
apart, connect them by three supports — one in the
centre perpendicular, and one at each end necessarily
slanting, from one bar being shorter than the other.
The result will be one side of the carriage, presenting
the following appearance (Fig. 18).
Now prepare the other side in the same manner,
and join the two bottom bars by stout cross-pieces, well
secured, and slightly wider than the beam of the boat.
To the under-side of these cross-pieces fasten the
axles, and put on the wheels. Then fasten three
pieces of girth-web or similar stuff, from one top bar
to the other, loosely, and let the boat lie in these,
between the sides. To keep the latter from being
drawn together, secure a cross-stick by a hinge to the
centre of one top bar, and when the boat is in, shut it
down into a rest cut in the other. It will be advisable
to use screws, not nails, for all fastenings. Now round
the handles A A at one end, and perhaps fasten a bar
across the points at the other. Nothing remains but
to tackle a donkey, four-legged or two-legged, to your
carriage, walking behind yourself, ready to grasp the
handles on rough ground or when turning corners.
With a light carriage the whole affair may even be
pushed along like a wheelbarrow.
{To be continued.')
^f=—
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS:
HOW TO ADJUST, CLEAN, AND REPAIR THEM.
|By PAUL N. HASLUCK.
IV.— French Timepieces.
HE English market has been so flooded
with French timepieces, manufactured
in every style of ornamentation, and sold
at exceedingly low prices, that in a house
where more than one clock is to be found,
there is almost sure to be a specimen of the horologi-
cal productions of our continental neighbours. On
page 152 will be found a brief description of French
clocks, and we will now proceed with some further
particulars of their construction and adjustment.
The movements of French timepieces, as the
clocks are most generally called, are small, the
mechanism approaching that of the largest watch-
work. In striking movements there is a complication
of parts that render the task of taking entirely apart
and rehabilitating an undertaking not to be attempted
by the inexperienced amateur without due considera-
tion. A plain watch, of large calibre, is perhaps a less
delicate piece of mechanism to handle than a small
size French striking movement. The large number of
a^res, their small diameter, and the corresponding fra-
gility of the pivots, render extreme care absolutely
necessary in putting the plates together, or broken
pivots will inevitably result.
French timepieces are fairly easy to distinguish by
a cursory inspection, and when the movement can be
seen they may be identified at a glance. The Yan-
kees, however, not content with supplying an immense
number of their legitimate productions, send over
spurious imitations of the Gallic. The French move-
ments are used in those elaborately gilt ornamental
cases, usually kept under glass shades, that are seen
in drawing-rooms. These cases, very gaudy, albeit
substantial-looking are cheaply manufactured, being
made of zinc cast in moulds of the design required,
and subsequently gilt. Marble cases of every pattern
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
329
suited for the mantel have French movements as a
rule, and the well -known " drum " timepiece is essen-
tially French.
The pendulums of drums are always short so as to be
contained in the case. The same movements are often
put in cheap cases of more elaborate shape. The escape-
ment of these movements is a recoil which receives im-
pulse on one pallet only. The other pallet has its face
concentric with the axis of oscillation, and consequently
receives no impulse. The object of this arrangement
appears to be that the power of the mainspring when
fully wound up and exerting an extra force on the im-
pulse pallet, at the same time exerts the same extra
force as a drag on the other pallet. The long fric-
tional rest of the tooth against the face of the pallet
exercises a retarding influence on the vibration of the
pendulum proportionate to the force of the main-
spring. This compensates for the extra force of the
impulse when the going barrel is fully wound. When
the spring is nearly down the clock may stop from
insufficiency of power, and when fully wound the
pressure of the tooth on the resting-pallet may be
more than the weight, or active force, of the bob can
overcome, and stoppage will result in this case also.
Dead-beat and Brocot escapements are used in the
better kinds of French timepieces and produce much
better results. Long pendulums and heavy bobs being
then used.
The dials of French timepieces are generally
enamelled on copper, though white cardboard is used
for " drums " and the cheapest movements. A bezel,
encircling the dial, is fixed to the pillar plate, some-
times by three screws put in radially, and at other
times by dogs and a set screw. From this bezel two
arms extend nearly to the back of the case, being
riveted near the XI. and III. respectively. Another
bezel, or ring, is put at the back of the case through
which two screws pass and screw into these arms.
By screwing up these screws the two bezels are made
to clip the case firmly between them. This is all the
fixing the movement has ; the case always having a
round hole the right size to contain the movement. It
may be mentioned incidentally that all movements are
made to certain sizes and are consequently inter-
changeable.
This method of securing the movement in its
case allows both to be made independently, as they
always are, and the mere fitting, if simply screwing in
deserves to be so described, is the work of a minute or
so only. The movement is placed in the case with the
XII. on the dial uppermost ; the two screws are put
through the ring at the back and tightened up, and
thus the movement is fixed in the case. Through
being dependent on this fixing alone to prevent any
twisting round, the movement very often gets shifted
in the winding, and as a result the escapement is
thrown out of beat, and the clock stops. To this
insecure method of fixing the movement in the case,
French timepieces owe the greater portion of their
failures to perform accurately. It is by no means a
rare occurrence to see a movement twisted consider-
ably out of its proper position, and sometimes it is
impossible to fix the movement tightly by the means
provided. A small pin fixed in the case and project-
ing to fit in a notch in the movement will often
suffice to remedy this defect.
The importers in this country sell the new time-
pieces packed as they come from the continent; 1
manufactories. There the movements are seldom set
going in their cases. Some timepieces that reach the
retail shopkeepers possess evidence that the move-
ments never have gone since put together. A pin
driven through the plate and projecting far enough to
prevent the rotation of a wheel is not an unknown
occurrence. It may be assumed then, as a rule, the
movements of French timepieces, as supplied to the
retailer, require to be taken apart and properly
" examined." This is a technical term, which is used
to describe the process of carefully examining the
various component parts of a movement, to see that
each is suited to every other. When all the parts are
collected together and put into position to form a com-
plete movement, this is, or rather should be, examined.
The examiner has to see that each moving part has
sufficient freedom, and that all the bearings fit ; for
though the parts are all perfect as parts, yet as a
whole they may fail to act together perfectly. Many
sellers of horological instruments are glad to shirk the
requisite examination and adjustment providing the
timepiece will go.
Some of the more easily understood and glaring
faults of a new clock may be set right by a careful
amateur of ordinary skill. For the purely technical and
less conspicuous defects the movement of a French
timepiece will require to go through the hands of an
experienced man. Sometimes the pendulums are,
figuratively speaking, too large for the case. May be
there is not sufficient room for the bob to swing, or it
may touch the bottom, or some projecting piece.
Though it may appear scarcely credible to the inex-
perienced, yet movements having pendulums alto-
gether too long for the particular sized case are
occasionally sent out. When this occurs the clock
jobber will put a new escape-wheel pinion, having an
extra leaf in it. By this means a pendulum much
shorter than the original may be used. When the
error is but slight, the bob is sometimes made oval by
filing from the bottom edges ; this allows the bob to
be lowered. By filing from the top edge the centre of
gravity is lowered still further. The case should be
33°
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
cut away to allow the pendulum freedom if this is
practicable.
The crutch, that is the piece which is fixed to the
pallet staff, and in which the pendulum rod acts, is
generally put on the staff " spring-tight " only. The
object being that the clock may be set in beat by
giving it a good shake. The plan is perhaps to be
commended for clocks that are continually moved
and often stood on unlevel places. Yet it is by no
means desirable in a clock that is practically a fixture.
Unless fixed tightly, the crutch is liable to be shifted,
thereby causing many casualties, which result in an
unaccountable variation in the going qualities.
The suspension, by which the pendulum is hung,
is most generally that known as the Breguet ; which
is a thin steel spring. To regulate the timepiece a
sliding piece, firmly clasping the spring and moved
vertically by a screw, is used. This screw is actuated
by an arbor with a square end coming out close above
the XII. on the dial. A silk suspension is found in
some French timepieces, but this arrangement is now
very little used. It consists of a loop of silk thread by
which the pendulum is hung.
The regulation of these timepieces is often a very
perplexing process, on account of the large amount of
play, or backlash as engineers call it, between the
square that is turned by the key and the sliding piece
that confines the suspension spring. There is one pair
of wheels which transmit the motion at right angles, but
the teeth of the wheels are not cut on the bevel, hence
there is often considerable play here. The screw itself
is fitted in a bearing, and generally has more or less
end play, besides any slackness in the fit of the thread
in the sliding nut which also causes a loss of time in
transmitting the motion. The combined effect of all
these slacknesses is to quite baffle any estimation of
the actual result produced by a certain amount of
movement imparted to the front end of the regulating
axis.
Suppose the pendulum has been shortened till the
timepiece eventually gains slightly. Perhaps by mov-
ing the nut a distance equal to half a turn of the screw
would suffice to lengthen the pendulum the correct
amount. It is, however, quite possible that as much as
two whole turns of the axis will be necessary before
the screw itself commences to move the sliding nut.
Under these circumstances half a turn of the regulat-
ing axis in one direction will produce as much effect
on the going of the clock as two and a half turns in
the reverse direction. For this reason it is always
advisable to have a mark on the regulator itself, that
is on the sliding nut, and this will enable the operator
to observe the exact amount of the alteration he
makes.
The movements of marble timepieces are generally
protected from dust, etc., by a piece of sheet zinc bent
round to a cylindrical form, and having a piece cut
away to allow the pendulum rod to swing free. The
rings or bezels at both back and front are made to
open. They are fitted with glasses so that the works
are shut in fairly close. The gilt-case timepieces
under glass shades have no glass doors, and depend on
the shade only to keep out all dust, etc. When the
clock-jobber has to repair one of these French time-
pieces, he nearly always takes the movement out of
the case for convenience in carrying. The case he
leaves at the owner's house whilst the movement is put
in order, this is then tested in an adjustable frame or
horse. It is easy to understand from this that any of
the causes of stoppage that exist in the case only, may
be quite overlooked by the workman who has put the
movement in repair.
The striking mechanism of French timepieces is
generally arranged to strike one blow at the half hour
in addition to striking the hours. There are two forms
of striking work in common use. One is called the
rack and snail, and it allows the hands to be turned
forward to any extent, and the striking will not become
disarranged so long as the clock is allowed to strike at
twelve o'clock. The other form is known as the lock-
ing plate, and with this it is necessary to allow the
mechanism to act at each hour and half hour or the
clock will strike incorrectly. The snail is driven by
the motion wheels of the clock, and consequently
its position always corresponds with that of the hands.
The locking-plate travels with the striking train and it
only serves to regulate the successive number of blows,
and is in no way governed by the position of the
hands.
Considerable misapprehension exists with respect to
turning the hands of a clock backwards. Unless the
clock is a striker, or one that chimes, there is no harm
done by setting it back. When a striker, it may be set
back as much as twenty minutes or so, if done at the
right time, that is when the minute hand points to
about five minutes before striking time. Then it may
be put back to the point at which the last striking
occurred. The long hand, showing the minutes, is the
one always to be moved, and if it is particularly fine
extra care must be exercised so as not to break it. In
ordinary cases ordinary caution is all that is necessary
to guard against accidental breakage.
When the striking is wrong, that is if the clock
strikes a different number to the time to which the
hands point, the way to set matters right is simply to
turn the hour hand to the figure representing the hour
last struck. The hand is fitted spring-tight to allow it
to be moved for this purpose. If very tight be care-
ful not to break it. See that it is quite tight after
having altered its position on the minute wheel.
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
33i
The escapements of these timepieces have been
already briefly alluded to. It is interesting to notice
that those escapements which are " dead-beat " are
made to gain by increasing the weight of the pendulum
bob and by diminishing the motive force. The recoil
escapements are affected in the opposite manner.
This peculiar property is of course only very slight, the
effect produced being totally inadequate to the cause.
Practically there is no use made of the peculiarity.
The pendulums of French timepieces have solid
brass bobs always proportionately much heavier than
the pendulum bobs of English clocks. The rod is a
plain steel wire, which from motives of economy and
in the practical results, is much preferable to the flat
rod used in English clocks. The very small and
ridiculously cheap "tic-tac" drum timepieces are of
course excepted. They have a spherical bob screwed
on to a wire rod, itself fixed to the pallet staff and acting
without the intervention of a crutch. The performance
of these timepieces are excellent considering their low
price, and if the pallet holes are kept in good order,
that is to fit the pivots which wear very rapidly, the
" tic-tacs " will go and keep fair time till they are
literally cut to pieces by wear.
The process of cleaning the movements of a French
timepiece is one involving some amount of care. In
the early part of this chapter the delicate nature of the
mechanism has been mentioned. To dismount the
movement from the case, first open the bezels and see
how the movement is secured. Remove the pendulum ;
if a striking clock the bell must be removed first in
order to get at the pendulum. Unscrew the screws
which fix the movement and draw this out from the
front. In order to take it apart a small screwdriver
and a pair of pliers, such as have been already illus-
trated in a previous chapter, are wanted. Take the
dial off first ; this is done by withdrawing the pins,
which are put through the feet of the dial plate. The
hands must be taken off previously ; to effect this it is
only necessary to push out the small pin which is
driven in the hole diametrically across the centre
arbor. The hands will then lift off. Take notice of
the position of every pin, and recollect as it is removed,
so that it may be replaced correctly.
When the dial is off, remove those wheels that are
loose beneath it. If the clock is a non-striker there
will be only three motion wheels to remove, but if a
striking movement it will have numerous pieces of
mechanism beneath the dial. When these are off,
take off the pallet cock, remove the pallets carefully,
and the movement will run down if there is any
power left in the spring. See that the train has
thoroughly run down before attempting to separate
the plates, or breakage of a more or less serious nature
is inevitable.
Separate the plates by withdrawing the pins in the
pillars ; generally there are four pillars, and the pin of
each one must be removed before the plates can be
separated. Lift the upper plate off gently, leaving
all the wheels and pinions in their proper positions on
the pillar plate. Take out each axis separately, and
endeavour to fix the position of each in the memory
till the time comes for putting together again. A
striking movement contains a double quantity of wheels,
etc., and is very much more difficult to put together
than a plain movement, that is, to an inexperienced
hand. Until proficiency has been attained in manipu-
lating a plain movement, the treatment of a striker
should not be attempted.
Each part of the movement is carefully cleaned by
brushing with whiting, a soft cloth being used to hold
the parts. The pivot holes in the plates must be care-
fully cleaned out by means of a piece of stick cut to a
point and twirled round in the hole. Professional
clock jobbers use "peg-wood," which is wild cornel.
An amateur will find a skewer answer his purpose.
The spaces between the pinion leaves must all be
cleaned out carefully by the aid of a pointed stick.
The barrels which contain the mainsprings must
be opened by prizing the lid with a lever. A small
notch in the edge of the barrel lid is cut for this pur-
pose. The position of the barrel lid must be marked,
so that it will be replaced correctly. When the lid is
off, the barrel arbor may be taken out. Be very care-
ful not to disturb the mainspring. Beginners should
not attempt to take mainsprings out of barrels as
there is considerable difficulty in getting them back
if the operator is inexperienced. The holes in the
barrel itself, and in the cover, must be cleaned with
the wood. The arbor, which forms the axis of the
barrel, must also be cleaned, and these bearings oiled
when the barrel is put together. It may not be super-
fluous information to the beginner to mention that the
barrel rotates on its arbor when the movement is going,
consequently the holes in the barrel require to be
lubricated. The barrel arbor does not revolve in the
plate except during the process of winding. The
mainspring itself should have a little oil applied to it.
A drop or two on the upper edge of the coils will
amply suffice, it will distribute itself on the coils of
the spring when that is wound up. The oil must be
applied before the barrel cover is replaced.
The movement is put together after being cleaned
by carefully and exactly replacing the pieces precisely
in the inverse order to that in which they were
separated. It is scarcely possible to enumerate the
order in which the reconstruction is effected, as it
may differ in various movements. The pillar plate is
usually laid down as a foundation, the centre wheel is
the first to be put in its place. The plate being rested
332
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
on a small box or hollow structure, so that the arbor
may project as it should. The barrel, or two barrels,
are next put in, and the various smaller wheels are
subsequently placed in their respective positions in
the order that may best suit the workman. When all
are in, the upper plate is laid on. The longest pivots
are got into holes first, and this is continued till one
of the pillars project sufficiently to allow the pin to be
put in. As soon as a pin is put in the plates are to an
extent secured. It is easy to see which axis prevents
the plates closing, and it is then shifted till the pivot
comes under the hole, and so allows the plate to
close slightly, and another axis binds. This is moved
carefully to the hole its pivot should go in, and the
process continued till the whole of the axes are in posi-
tion. The pins are then all put through the pillars, and
by applying a little pressure to the edge of the barrel
the freedom of the train is ascertained. The whole
series of wheels should revolve freely, and continue
to spin round even when the propelling pressure is
withdrawn.
All the pivot bearings are carefully oiled. The
amateur clock-jobber should purchase a bottle of the
oil specially prepared for clock work. The various
parts of the movement that were removed previous to
separating the plates are next put in their respective
positions. Each bearing is oiled as the work pro-
ceeds, or some may be covered over by some parts
subsequently. The pallets, or the points of the escape
wheel teeth, should be oiled. When the movement is
put together complete it is replaced in its case, wound
up, set going, and after some slight regulation will
probably go well for two or three years without further
attention.
Any reader who may be interested in any particu-
lar branch of the subject of these papers is invited to
query on any point on which information is wanted.
{To be continued.)
o* .-§■■ -«=■
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
HAVE received from Messrs Crosby
Lockwood and Co., of 7, Stationers
Hail Court, E.C., two volumes, strongly
bound in cloth, which form Nos. 226
and 227 of Weale's Rudimentary Series.
These books, the price of each of which is 3s., are " A
Practical Treatise on the Joints Made and Used by
Builders, in the Construction of various kinds of
Engineering and Architectural Works, with Special
Reference to those Wrought by Artificers in Erecting
and Furnishing Habitable Structures," by Wyvill J.
Christy, Architect and Surveyor, and " A Treatise on
Mathematics, as applied to the Constructive Arts,
illustrating the Various Processes of Mathematical
Investigation, by Means of Arithmetical and Simple
Algebraical Equations and Practical Examples, also
the Methods of Analysing Principles and Deducing
Rules and Formulas, Applicable to the Requirements
of Practice," by Francis Campin, C.E.
The first of these books is strictly practical, the
second as strictly theoretical, and though both
are most useful and deserve a place on the book-
shelves of amateur workmen, the practical work is
undoubtedly that which will prove most interesting
and most eagerly sought after and read by those who
are of a practical turn of mind, and are seeking for
information on the practices of skilled artisans in the
various branches of the building trades. To make a
good joint as strong as it can possibly be, having
regard to the material of which it is made, the circum-
stances under which it is made and the requirements
it is bound to satisfy, is one of the best proofs that a
man can adduce to show that he is a good workman,
and under the tutelage of Mr. Christy, backed by a
necessary amount of practice, no careful and pains-
taking amateur can fail in accomplishing whatever he
may desire to effect in this line. The joints peculiar
to each trade are arranged alphabetically in separate
sections, and the sections are sixteen in number,
devoted severally, and in order, to joints used in drain-
age, and those used by bricklayers, masons, tilers,
slaters, carpenters, smiths, joiners, plasterers, plumbers,
zinc-workers, coppersmiths, glaziers, gas-fitters, paper-
hangers, and paviors. The book has a capital index,
and is illustrated with one hundred and sixty-five
diagrams which admirably elucidate the text and
render its meaning perfectly clear. Mr. Campin's
work, which has reached a second edition, covers the
whole field of mathematics, and being concise and
tersely written is superior to many received text-books
of far greater bulk.
If any amateur has anything that he wishes to
bronze, let him write to Messrs. B. F. Brown and Co.,
18 and 19, Norman's Buildings, St. Luke's, London,
for a sample bottle of " American Magic Bronze,"
which can be sent by post, as it is supplied in a tightly
corked, wide-mouthed bottle, which is enclosed in a
neat case, on which are the necessary directions for
using the fluid. On testing it, I find that it can be
used with good effect on ornaments of all kinds,
picture-frames, and iron and fancy work generally, as
well as on leather. Attached to the cork in each
bottle is a brush with which the bronze is applied.
All that is necessary in using it is to have the article
to be bronzed perfectly dry and warm. A light coat of
the fluid must be applied, and the article must not be
touched until the coating of bronze has thoroughly
hardened. The smell is not pleasant, being very much
ANOTHER SCALE FOR POLYGONS.
333
like that of naphtha, but this soon goes oft". When
first put on, the bronzing liquid has a dark purple
colour, which gradually changes to an excellent bronze
tint as it dries, having a fine metallic lustre. 1 tested
it on a piece of iron, on the end grain of a piece of
beechwood, and on paper. The effect on the iron and
wood was excellent, but not so good on the paper, owing,
I believe, to my having rubbed the brush up and
down over the surface of the paper too much, instead of
giving it a light coat, as directed. It can be obtained of
most chemists in the United Kingdom, and it ought
to be found at the oil and colour houses. I am unable
to state the price per bottle, which I regret, as the
preparation is clearly a most useful one ; but a post-
card to Messrs. B. F. Brown and Co., whose address
I have given, will soon elicit the desired information.
Mr. A. S. Lunt, Saw, Plane, Tool, and Cutlery
Manufacturer, 297, Hackney Road, London, £., sends
for notice a small handy mitre box or mitreing block,
similar to that which is shown on page 303, in Fig. 3
of the illustrations to Mr. Parkinson's paper on
making a double dark slide. This mitre box is sold
at a shilling ; and as the saw-kerfs in the specimen
before me are true, it is cheap at the money, and will
serve the purpose of a more expensive apparatus. It
is made of beech, and is 9 inches long by 24 inches in
width, and about the same in depth ; it is rabbeted to
the depth of 1 J inch each way, and has two saw-kerfs
to act as guides in mitreing the ends of a piece of wood
at an angle of 45 degrees, in opposite directions, and
another in the centre for squaring off the end of a
piece of wood, if necessary. It is chiefly serviceable
for dealing with pieces of wood not wider than the
rabbet or rebate — that is to say, 1 \ inches. To make
it available for pieces wider than this, it will be better
to screw down to the bench top a piece of hard wood
exactly equal in height, to the depth of the rabbeted
portion of the mitre box, and then bring this part of
the box tightly against the stop thus screwed on to the
top of the bench when using the box. The stop will
act as a support for the wood that is to be mitred, and
the operator need only hold the wood firmly down on
the combined surface of the rabbet end stop, pressing
it tightly against the side of that part of the mitre box
which projects upwards, and through which the saw-
kerfs are made.
From Messrs. R. Melhuish and Sons, 85 and 87,
Fetter Lane, London, E.C, I have received two
novelties in the form of fasteners for cupboard doors
and other light doors. Both are of bronze, neatly
finished, but as each has some special peculiarity in
its constructional must describe them separately.
The smaller catch, which is admirably suited for
cupboards in kitchens, bed-rooms, etc., consists of two
bronze shells, one of which is to be fastened to one
valve of the cupboard door, and the other to the other,
if there be double doors ; or one to the door and the
other to that part of the frame against which the door
falls and closes. Let us suppose that the two pieces
are fixed exactly opposite to each other, and close to
the edge of the door and the frame ; suppose, further,
that the door is open. In the part on the door frame
there is a projection in the shape of a quadrant of a
circle, hollow, and having the mouth outwards. In
the part that is screwed on to the door there is a catch
held in position by a spring made of coiled wire and
attached to the interior. The projecting part of the
catch is bevelled downwards and inwards. When the
door is thrown to, the bevelled catch strikes against
the projection on the other piece, and is pressed back
by it, the spring y ielding to the pressure. As soon as
the catch has passed the edge of the projection, the
pressure on the spring is withdrawn, and the catch
drops into the hollow within the projection, thus
closing and fastenin g the door until it is pressed back
by anyone who desires to open the cupboard. In the
larger catch the principle is the same, the catch being
acted on by a coiled spring, but in this the catch,
whose outer end is bevelled so as to be pressed back
by the hollow projection against which it falls, and
into which it enters, assumes the form of a bolt,
which moves backwards and forwards instead of
moving on a pin as in the smaller latch. It is fitted
with a knob by which the bolt can be drawn back
when it is desired to open the door. This larger catch
will be found useful as a latch for trellis doors, for it
may be opened from the other side by means of a
piece of copper wire having one end attached to the
knob of the bolt, and the other to a brass ring. If the
trellis be too small to permit the hand to pass through
it, the wire should be passed to the outside and be
left without a ring. The price of each catch is 3d.
ANOTHER SCALE FOR POLYGONS.
N the April part of this Magazine there
appeared a paper describing some scales
for polygons, by which the length of a
side, the diameter across corners (that is,
the diameter of the circumscribing cir-
cle), and various other dimensions of regular polygons
may be obtained by use of a pair of dividers or a
pocket rule. The diagrams illustrated are very good
in their way, and doubtless were of interest to those
who read them. In the accompanying diagram is
a similar device, which certainly possesses some
advantages over those which have already appeared.
It combines in one diagram what in the preceding
334
ANOTHER SCALE FOR POL YGONS.
description is obtained from
two, and as it represents the
full half of any given poly-
gon, it admits of the length
of a side being obtained by
one operation. In the dia-
grams already given only the
half of a side is shown, and
it is necessary to double
this in order to get the full
length.
Referring to the drawing,
a common centre line —
marked C S, as it shows the
centre of the side of any polj -
gon included in the figure — ex-
tends horizontally across the
scale, and is divided into
eighths of an inch. The ver-
tical line bounding the scale
at the left is similarly divided,
and the spaces are numbered
each way from the horizontal
centre line. Through the
points of division in each
of these, lines are drawn
horizontally and vertically
across the scale. From the
assumed centre O — marked
thus with the letter that most
resembles the sign which
denotes zero, or nothing in
arithmetic, because the
spaces are numbered up-
wards and downwards from
this as a starting-point —
radial lines are drawn at
angles corresponding to the
several polygons, dimensions
of which are to be obtained
by the scale. The horizontal
centre line, as it has been
already explained, becomes
the centre of the sides of
the polygons, the lengths of
which are shown by the dis-
tance between the proper
radial lines. It should be
said that vertical lines inter-
cepted between the radial
lines marked 6o° and 601,
represent the sides of equi-
lateral triangles ; those be-
tween the lines marked 450
and 450, squares ; those be-
A SCALE FOR POLYGONS.
Showing the Actual Measurement upon Equilateral
Triangles, Squares, Pentagons, Hexagons, Octagons,
and Decagons, up to and including Four Inches
diameter of Inscribed Circle.
tween the lines marked 360
and 360, pentagons ; those
between the lines marked
300 and 300, hexagons ; those
between the lines marked
225° and 225°, octagons ;
and those between the lines
marked 1 8° and 18°, deca-
gons.
The scale as shown may
be used for actual measure-
ment upon polygons up to
and including 4 inches dia-
meter of inscribed circle. Or
it may be used for larger
figures by reading an inch or
three inches, or some other
quantity, for the several
spaces into which the lines
are divided.
One or two simple ex-
amples will illustrate the ap-
plications that may be made
of this scale. What is the
length of the side of the hexa-
gon, the inscribing circle of
which is 3 inches in dia-
meter ? Look along the top
of the diagram for ii inches,
which is one-half of the dia-
meter, and follow down on
this line until the radial line
marked 300 is reached. From
this point measure upon the
same line to the correspond-
ing radial line in the lower
half of the diagram, which
will be the length of the re-
quired side.
Let it be required to find
the length of the side of the
hexagon whose circumscrib-
ing circle is 3 inches. Place
the rule upon the two radial
lines marked 300 and locate
points 1 1 inches from the
centre O. Then the distance
between these points will be
the length of the required side.
A diagram constructed
upon the principle here
shown, and drawn upon
metal with a very fine point
might be used for the most
accurate kind of work.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
335
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
[The Editor reserves t-> himself the right of re-
fusing a reply to any q"estion that may be frivolous
or inappropriate, or devoid of general interest.
Correspondents are requested to bear in mind that
their queries will be answered only in the pagea of
the Magazine, the information sought being sup-
plied for the benedt of its readers generally as well
as for those who nave a special interest in obtaining
it. In no case can any reply be sent by post.]
Organ Building.
Organ-Building and H. S. — Metal
pipe-making is too difficult for amateurs
to accomplish satisfactorily from written
instm-tions, as it requires great skill, and
also expensive tools and appliances. Ordi-
nary soldering-irons are of no use. See
the reply on page 290 as to gas heating
apparatus, the remarks in which are
applicable to the present query. It may,
however, be of interest to organ-builders
and many others, if I state that in Part I.
ofVoL II., instructions wih be given for
making most efficient substitutes for both
wood and metal pipes, at the very small
cost of 103. for a stop of 56 pipes. They
require but little skill and an ordinary
amount of patience to make them, and no
outlay for tools.
E. E. B. (Liverpool). — It is possible
for an amateur, possessing the requisite
skill and patience, to build a two-manual
organ, such as you describe, but it is not
possible to give instructions how to do
it in "Amateurs in Council." Full in-
formation on this head will be given in
Vol. II. The organ described by you
would, however, be much too large and
powerful for any ordinary room, and
would cost a considerable sum of money.
Pipes made exactly square do not give
such a good tone as those made deeper
than they are wide.
C. H. F. B. (Oldham).— If you read
the replies to other queries, you will see
that the length of the smallest pipe F
is 4j inches. The scale given, if fully
divided as directed, will enable you to
find the dimensions of a pipe only \ inch
long if required, so you will see that it
will also enable you to find the size of
the G above the F which you require.
The statement in the article about each
octave being half the length of the pre-
ceding one, refers to the speaking length,
and does not include the block which
varies in a different ratio.
Guy Fawkes. — The light wooden
frame of the bellows, or floating frame as
it is termed, is, as shown in the drawing,
made of \ inch pine, 4 inches wide. If
your pipes sound all right, leave well
alone.
Gamba. — Keys made by an amateur
would never answer, and it would there-
fore be a waste of tim e to give instruc-
tions for making them. The work
requires special tools and great accuracy.
Pin Lentos. — 1. The small organ
would not have much power, but at the
same time there would be more body in
the tone than in a small harmonium of
one row of reeds. 2. The pipes could be
made all open ones if you wish, but they
would run to 8 feet long and also require
more room on plan. They could be
shorted by doubling them as shown for
stopt pipes on page 287. Unless voiced
very lightly the bass would be too much
for the treble. 3. A small hand wheel or
a crank handle could be attached, so that
the organ could be blown by another per-
son if desired.
J. L. W. (Hull). — You can make the
treble pipes with the chamfer on the out-
side of the lip, but must voice them very
softly. The scale and mode of setting it
out has been given in other replies. You
would gain nothing by "making two sets
of pipes exactly alike, as there would be
scarcely any perceptible increase of power
in consequence of what is termed " sym-
pathy." The object of two sets of pipes
being to obtain variety of tone, why make
them exactly alike ? The scales at least
should be different.
Hector. — Your proposal of making
only one pipe for each octave with holes
for all the other notes, like a flute, is quite
impracticable. You say your object is
to learn to play the organ, but how would
it be possible to learn harmony as you
could only use one note at a time ? In
playing the flute the lips assume a differ-
ent form in blowing each note, and the
amount of wind is varied. It is obvious
that an organ pipe cannot be made to
comply with these conditions.
BLOWHARD. — The bellows will not give
sufficient wind for another octave of pipes
down to C C C, but, if you have not
already made it, you can have it as large
as you have room for under the two sound
boards, and it will then give sufficient wind
if kept well supplied. As stated in the
articles, you may arrange your pipes in
any way that will allow sufficient room
for them to speak.
H. J- D. (Osminglon). -Your query
was answered in Part 6. You may place
the 9 largest pipes on a separate board
at the back, if you wish. They will
speak just as readily, provided the con-
ducting tubes are large enough. As
some of them will be rather long, it would
be well to make them of 1 inch or even
ij inch bore. All joints must be per-
fectly air tight.
J. C. (Galway). — The holes through
the blocks are large enough for the feet
to be inserted, provided the tops of them
are thinned down a little. The wind
chest may be either the whole width of
the sound-board, or only just wide
enough to allow room for the pallets.
In so small an instrument it does not
matter which style you adopt.
Old Wattie. — You will find a way
out of your difficulty in the answers to
other correspondents.
Harger Bros. Sttutelng Board.
W. S. (Birmingham) writes : — Referr-
ing to the shuteing board of Messrs. Har-
ger Brothers, mentioned in Part III. of
Amateur Work, Illustrated, I
have purchased one of them. It is of
course for fret or small work only. It is
one foot long and very well and neatly
made, and I am pleased with it, and think
it will be very useful to amateurs. Messrs.
Harger Brothers have also made me
a larger one with which I am equally
Satisfied. It is two feet long, and of
course larger and stronger in every way.
The price of the larger board with appli ■
ancesfor purposes mentioned was 5s. 6d.
Colourless Varnish.
C. W. S. (Attleboro').-A colourless
varnish, suitable for prints, oil-paintings,
and hard white wood, may be made by
dissolving 2J oz. of shell-lac in a pint of
rectified spirits of wine. To thisaboutsoz.
of well-burnt animal charcoal, that has
been recently heated, must be added, and
the whole boiled for a few minutes. If, on
filtering a small portion of the mixture
through blotting-paper it is not found to be.
perfectly colourless, more charcoal must
be added until the desired result is ob-
tained. When this has been achieved,
the mixture must be strained through a
piece of silk, and filtered through blotting-
paper.
Chest of Drawers,
Amateur (Leeds).— You will find full
instructions for making a chest of drawers
in Every Alan His Own Mechanic, Part
VII., price 6d. Nothing is easier than to
make a frame for a screen. For each fold
take two uprights about seven eighths thick
and two inches wide, and connect these
by two, three, or four rails, according to
the height determined on. These rails
should be of the same substance as the
uprights and mortised into them, the top
and bottom rails must be flush with the
ends of the uprights. See answer to C.
W. S. (Altleloro') for a colourless
varnish for pictures.
Pipe-Clay for Modelling.
W, C. (Coppoquin). — Your experience
shows that pipe-clay is not so good a
material for modelling as the ordinary
china clay. You should have kept the
clay in a damp state previous to building
up, and not allowed the material to stand
to harden. You cannot work with clay
that is dry or growing dry.
Bookbinding.
R. S. C. (Leeds) will see that a series
of articles on this subject has been com-
menced.
33<5
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Canoe Building.
Would-be-Canoeist. — (i.) The usual
length of keel for a 13 ft. canoe is about
10 ft. ; but a couple of inches more or
less will not matter, provided the stem
and stern-posts are lengthened or short-
ened in proportion. The length of the
latter round the curve — viz., about 2 ft.
each, is given on p. 182. (2.) " Height
of side-boards on end-posts ? " The depth
of the sides at the point where the end-
posts begin to rise, will, of course, be the
same as the depth of the boat anywhere
else— viz., about 8^ inches. The depth
of the several boards at the ends — a quite
unimportant point — will be shown by the
line along the sections (pp. i8r and 225).
(3.) The ends of the boards are secured
to the end-posts by two screws each, as
sketched on p. 226. (4.) The boards
overlap at the ends, just like slates on a
roof. It is, in fact, the same joining as
that carefully explained on p. 181 (Fig. 3),
with the angle increased as the sides
become more perpendicular towards the
ends. A 13 ft. canoe would be quite
safe in any tidal river. If you weigh over
13 stone, it would be no harm to increase
the length half a foot or so ; or better,
increase the beam by an inch. For rough
water like that instanced, you should only
leave a short well opening in the centre,
say 2 ft. long. Indeed, many sea-going
canoes have the deck brought up round
the waist all round, leaving just room to
pass the body through, the deck being
stronger than an apron. In this case,
take care you make the depth from deck
to bottom-board greater than the length
of your foot, or the latter may catch,
finally, don't be discouraged by appa-
rent failures, and you will be richly re-
warded when your work is done.
Boot and Shoe Making.
J. T. C— (1.) The size of boots are
exactly the same as those of the lasts
they are made upon, and boots to fit a
man who required 7's or 8's could not by
any possibility be made on 4's lasts.
(2.) Read the instructions for self-mea-
surement again, and you will see there is
no need to enter into elaborate calcula-
tions as to the sizes. It has been ex-
plained that sizes run from o's to 13's,
and that a new departure is then made.
Beginning with o's at 4 in. , the increase
J in. per size will make 13's 8£ in. Con-
tinuing this, i's size will increase 8f in. ;
and so on. If your foot, measured off
the ground, is io£ in. long, it would be
said to measure a 6's size, and you would
need a o's boot, and should order o's up-
pers. If the measurement is taken with the
foot placed firmly on the ground (in which
position it expands a size), then an al-
lowance of two sizes extra will be enough .
(3.) Split lifts may be bought separately.
(4.) This last query being of some im-
portance, we repeat it. The correspond-
ent asks, relative to the length of the
shank (page 86), " Does it reach forward
to the middle sole, or back, so as to be
under the heel?" It reaches both ways,
and must come well under the heel, and
the tapered-off portion forward, so as to
rest upon the middle sole for a half inch
or more.
Cleaning Silver.
No NAME. — The correspondent who
asks for a good receipt for cleaning
silver to ensure the brightness of silver-
smiths' goods, gives no name, assumed
or otherwise. It is therefore not our
fault if he fails to find the answer to his
query. (1) It is not clear whether he
desires to have a receipt for making a
cleaning and polishing powder, or in-
structions for cleaning and polishing
silver. If the former is required, we may
tell him that the brightness on silver-
smiths' goods is not ensured by the use
of any special powder, but by the skilful
use of such common articles as prepared
chalk, fine emery powder, powdered
pumice-stone, rottenstone, crocus, or
rouge. Mr. Gee gives, in his "Silver-
smiths' Handbook," the following re-
ceipt for a good polishing mixture :
Equal parts of emery, pumice, and
crocus, with oil added to the consistence
of a thick paste. He also gives the
following plate-cleaning mixtures: (1.)
Carbonate of ammonia, 1 oz. ; Paris
white, 16 oz. ; water, 4 oz., well mix the
ingredients together, and apply to the
surface of the plate by means of a piece
of soft leather or sponge. (2.) Whiten-
ing, two parts ; white oxide of tin, one
part ; calcined hartshorn, one part. Re-
duce to a powder, well mix together, and
apply as usual. (3. ) Equal parts of the
finest rouge and prepared chalk, well
mix and use by dry means of soft leather.
If you do not find here what you re-
quire, ask again, and tell us next time
the condition of the silver, if you wish
to have full directions. But it is pro-
bable that we shall deal with the subject of
polishing silver and other metals in an
article in a future number. (2.) It is not
within our power to furnish receipts for
the specialties sold by Messrs. J. Barnard
& Son, or to give instructions with refer-
ence to the "Chrystoleum process."
Lubricating Oil, etc.
C. W. S. (Attlebord).— It is said that a
good lubricating oil that will not thicken,
even when exposed to great cold, is ob-
tainable by dropping olive oil in boiling
alcohol, until no more can be taken into
solution. When cool, the fluid portion
should be poured off, and filtered through
white blotting-paper. It is then ready
for use.
.ffiollan Harp.
C. C. (Hull) writes,— "To construct
an vEolian harp, first make a box of as
thin deal as possible, and of a length
answering exactly to the width of the
window in which it is to be placed, four
or five inches in depth, and five or six in
width. Glue on it at the extremities of
the top two pieces of oak, about half an
inch high, and a quarter of an inch thick,
to serve as bridges for the strings, and
within-side at each end glue two pieces of
beech about an inch square, and of
length equal to the width of the box.
Into one of these pieces fix as many pegs,
such as are used for pianofortes (but not
quite so large), as there are to be strings,
and in the other fix as many small brass
pins to which attach the strings, which
should be of catgut. These strings should
not be drawn tightly, and should be tuned
in unison. To procure a passage for the
wind, a thin board, supported by four
pegs, is placed over the strings at about
three inches' distance from the sounding-
board. " — C. C. is thanked for his valuable
contribution.
Whitening Tarred Fence.
W. H. B. (Peckham). — You cannot
prepare distemper on whitening so as to
render it rain-proof, like paint. It is use-
less to attempt to paint the fence, because
the oil in the paint will dissolve the tar.
You might try the stucco whitewash, used
for the exterior of the "White House,"
the residence of the President of the
United States, at Washington, and said
to be made as follows: — "Take half a
bushel of good unslaked lime ; slake it
with boiling water, covering it during the
process to keep in the steam. Strain the
liquor through a fine sieve or strainer, and
add to it a peck of clean salt, previously
dissolved in warm water, three pounds of
good rice, ground to a thin paste, and
stirred in while boiling hot, half a pound
of powdered Spanish whiting, and a pound
of clean glue, which has been previously
dissolved by first soaking it well, and then
hanging it over a slow fire, in a small kettle,
or pot, within a large one filled with water.
Add five gallons of hot water to the mix-
ture, stir it well, and let it stand for a few
days, covered from dirt. It should be put
on quite hot, and for this purpose it can
be kept in a kettle on a portable furnace.
It is said that one pint of this mixture
will cover a square yard upon the outside
of a house, if properly applied. It re-
tains its brilliancy for years."
Bla:k Fluid for Ebonislng.
D. H. G. (Bath).— The iron rust should
be added to the fluid before it is used.
It will be sufficient to throw as many nails
as will fill, say quarter pint, into the half
pint of vinegar. There are no exact pro-
portions fur this mixture.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
337
Papers from Amateurs.
H. E. H. (S&utkport).— Papers by
amateurs are gladly received and inserted.
Indeed, one of the chief objects of this
magazine is to furnish a means of inter-
communication for amateurs, by which
they may help one another with accounts
of their various experiences. Any ama-
teur may send recipes for insertion in
" Ways and Means." Questions to be
answered by amateurs themselves are
inserted. With regard to your queries :
— (i and 2.) The manufacture of an
aquarium and an air-tight cabinet for
butterflies must be treated in papers
specially written on these subjects. (3.)
See the remarks on staining and ebonising
wood in " Notes on Novelties'' in Parts
V. and VI. (4.) Articles on fret-sawing
machines have been promised and will
appear in due course. (5.) The probable
cost of the lathe, being described in
"Lathe-Making for Amateurs" will be
stated by Mr. Hasluck when he brings
his papers to a completion.
Bse-Keeping-.
Inquirer. — The roof slips over the top
of the hive like the lid of a biscuit box
does, only instead of the sides being
equal all round they are made sloping
like a writing desk, this gives a slope to
the flat top in order to shed the rain off,
as shown in Fig. 2. A block of wood L,
Fig. 2, nailed to the inside of the roof
sides, keeps it from slipping down too
id.x. The diagrams are correct, the depth
of the hive being shown the same in both ;
study them, as well as the instructions
carefully again. A stock or swarm of
Italian bees could be had from Abbott
Brothers, Fairlawn, Southall, but the best
way would be to buy an Italian Queen
and introduce ; see "Modern Bee-Keep-
jng,*' 6d. , or "British Bee-Keepers' Guide
Book," is. 6d. , for instructions.
W. C. S. [Staines). — Full instructions
how to hive a swarm in a bar-frame hive
have been given to another correspon-
dent. See also last paragraph of answer
to Inquirer.
Badly-Built House, etc.
DELTA {Barnard Castle) is thanked
for his recipes, which appear in ' ' Ways
and Means.'1 (1.) The house he occu-
pies, and which was run up by contract,
was in all probability thrown together
by a " jerry builder. " The bricks
are no doubt as bad as the mortar.
There are two ways of mitigating the evil,
one is to cover the walls with a coating of
cement, the other to rake out the mortar
between the bricks, and point the walls,
using some solution, such as Silicate
Zopissa, to make the bricks impervious to
rain. (2.) A good brown stain for wood
may be made of boiling 1 part of catechu
in 30 parts of water with a little soda.
The wood must be painted with this mix-
ture and allowed to dry in the air, after
which it must be washed with a solution
of 1 part of bichromate of potash and 30
parts of water. (3.) Send a drawing to
scale and description of your fret-sawing
machine.
Cleaning Brass, etc.
S. B. Y. asks no less than five questions,
and this gives me an opportunity of saying
that correspondents should not, if possible,
put more than one question at a time, and
to avoid asking such things as can only
be explainedin long and elaborate papers,
(r.) Brass may be polished with a little
rot'en stone and oil applied with chamois
leather. (2.) Marble may be cleaned by
mixing soap lees with quick lime, until it
assumes the consistence of thin cream, lay
it on the marble and let it remain for
twenty-four hours, when it may be re-
moved and the work completed by rubbing
the marble with a mixture of fine putty
powder and olive oil. (3.) Steel goods
may be cleaned with unslacked lime or
with finely powdered brick-dust and olive
oil. (4. ) For the tools necessary for wood-
carving, see "Wood - carving for
Amateurs " in this part. (5.) Everything
interesting to amateurs will be treated
as opportunity offers, in .the pages of
this magazine.
Whitewashing Ceilings, etc.
Zero. — It is not possible to answer
queries by post. Every answer is and must
be given pro bono publico. First, wash
every particle of dirt from your ceiling
with water applied freely with a broad
brush used in whitewashing. To make
whitewash : mix whiting with cold water
sufficient to produce a stiff paste. To
this add some size which has been dis-
solved in hot water, and a small quantity
of blue black ground to a fine powder.
Add sufficient warm water to bring the
mixture to the consistency of thick cream,
and let it stand until cold before using it.
Full instructions for preparing walls for
painting will be given in due course, but
it is utterly impossible to supply all the
information for which you ask in the
compass of a reply here, which must of
necessity be as brief as possible. You
will have learnt how to stain and varnish
your floors from articles that have already
appeared in this magazine.
Lathe for Sale.
R. R. (Taunton) has a lathe for sale,
which he will dispose of for ^3. He des-
cribes it as a 3-feet lathe, on an iron
frame, with a three-grooved bell metal
pulley, and three-grooved driving-wheel,
for slow and fast work. Headstocks
slide on an iron bar, face-plates, centres,
and drills in gocd condition. The con-
ditions of our Exchange Column will
appear shortly.
Picture-frames, etc.
J. H. (Brigkto?/). — A paper on the con-
struction of picture-frames will be given
shortly. Articles from your pen. giving
your experience in different kinds of
work that can be done by amateurs
will be inserted, if they are up to the
mark. If Judson's Gold Paint will not
serve your purpose, you must gild your
work with leaf-gold, judson s Gold Paint
and Artists' Black look well in contrast.
When opportunity offers, a paper will be
given on mounting maps, prints, etc., and
cleaning and remounting old prints.
Looking-Glass for Cabinets.
Bric-a-brac. — The quickest and easiest
mode of procuring small pieces of silvered
glass for brackets would be to purchase a
small looking-glass, which maybe bought
for is. or is. 6d., and have it cut to size
by any oilman who supplies glass.
Bevelled panels for cabinets may be pro-
cured through an upholsterer, or of
Messrs. A. and F. Ponzini and Co.,
22, Hatton Garden, of whom looking-
glass may be bought by the foot super.
House-painting.
J. S. (Han ley). — Papers on this impor-
tant and interesting subject, will be given
at the earliest possible opportunity.
Making Casts from Clay Models.
G. I. W. (Plymouth) and W. M.
(Blackburn). — An article is in preparation
on the subject of making plaster casts
from models in clay, which will form a
suitable pendant to the papers on
" Modelling in Clay" that have already
appeared. There is no other material
that can be used as clay is used for
making models.
Compound Stain and Varnish.
AMATEUR (Openshaw) sends the
following recipe for a preparation that
will act as a stain and varnish combined :
\ gill distilled spirits of naphtha, \ gill of
finish, 1 oz. benzine, ^oz. gum thrush (?),
2 oz. shell-lac, \ oz. dragon's blood ; this
last ingredient to be added after the
shell-lac is dissolved. The mixture is
to be applied with a camel hair brush.
Will our correspondent explain what he^
means by "gum thrush?" A grooving
plane is required for grooving and tongu-
ing, stop chamfering may be done with
a plane and chisel, the latter being used
to make the incision at each end of the
chamfered edge.
Model Gas Engines.
L. W. E. (Market Harborovgh). —
Papers will be given on this subject as
well as on the use of gas for setting
machinery in motion.
Polishing Wood.
J. CROOK (Fairfield) will find that in
order to procure a smooth surface, in
polished wood, it is necessary to stop the
pores, etc., with some kind of wocd-filler.
.3 33
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Sun-Dlal.
Tempus Fugit asks for directions for
making a horizontal sun-dial. A paper
on this subject shall be given.
Home-made Refrigerator.
R. S. V. (Hampstead).—The following
description of an ice-box or refrigerator
may be of service to you. It is taken
from an American pap-r. The writer
says: "I made a rough box of inch
board about 28 in. long, 14 in. wide, and
16 in. deep. I then covered the outside
with about six or eight la\ers of news-
paper, and nailed an outside casing tight
over the paper all round. Less room is
taken up this way than by packing with
sawdust or chare >al, which require 3 or
4 inches between the box and the outer
casing. The mare the layers of paper
that are put on the better non-conductor
of heat will the box be, and the longer
A
A
HOME-MADE REFRIGERATOR.
will the ice keep. I put feet to it about
6 in. or 8 in. high, so as to give plenty
of space to get the drip-pan under it.
This done, I lined the box with zinc,
which, if kept clean, will not oxidise, so
poison the food. I admit tin is cleaner
if it would not rust so quick. In the
centre of the inner box I hung a zinc pan
for ice, with a waste-pipe in the centre,
running through the bottom of the box,
arranged with a trap applied at the ex-
treme end of the tube. This pan I made
14 in. long, 10 in. wide, and 10 in. deep.
On each side of the pan I put wire
gratings, upon which the food can be
placed, as the space below can be used
for those things which ought to be the
coldest. I had two holes, 1 in. in diame-
ter, cut through the ends of the box ;
these are lined with zinc tubes, and
covered on the outside with perforated
tin, in order to keep any insects from
getting into the box. The lid is made in
the same manner as the box, and can be
attached to it by hinges. This box of
mine, which is constructed as described
above, has been in use about eight years,
and, to judge from its appearance, is
good for many years to come. With
8 lbs. of ice per day, through the hottest
days of summer, we never had anything
spoiled yet, and there is always a lump
of ice in the ice-box in the morning when
tha ice-man comes." The construction
of the box is clearly shown in the annexed
diagram, in which the line a a a A round
the edge of the box represents the paper
linuig ; F, the ice box, or tray ; c C, the
wire gratings, one on each side of the
tray; D D, openings in the sides for
ventilation ; E, the drain-pipe from the
ice-box ; and f, the trap at the bottom of
the drain-pipe. A portion of th^ front
is supposed to be removed to show the
interior of the box and its fittings. The
cuver is not shown, but it is hinged to
the back of the box. It would be an
improvement if the zinc-lined caver were
made with a ledge all round, so that the
inner projecting portion were thicker
than the edge, and entered about & inch
into the box. In order to do this the
zinc pan B must not be flush with the
edge of the box, but be dropped h inch
below it.
Soap Manufacture.
Subscriber {Holton). — The caustic
soda mentioned in the. article on this sub-
ject, to which you refer, is manufactured
by an American firm. If it is not made
in this country, the American article will
soon find its way here. In the meantime
I will endeavour to find out for you how
and where it can be obtained.
Cutting Edges of Books
B. B. {Oakham). — Everyone to his
taste of course, but when serials are sent
out with cut edges they are spoiled for
binding, as the binder will take off some
more and thus reduce the margin of each
page to too great an extent.
Bevelling Edges of Boards, etc.
E. B. {Dublin) puts the following query :
" Suppose I want to make a drawing of
anything, 3 feet 5 inches long by 1 foot
7 inches high or wide. I take a scale of
3 inches to the foot. By that scale a line
(on paper) 9 inches long would represent
3 feet, though in actual work it must be
36 inches long. What part of the 3 inch
scale represents the 5 additional inches in
length, of the 7 inches in height or width?
As the foot is divided into 12 inches, you
must divide the 3 inches which represent
1 foot on your scale into 12 equal parts.
These parts which in the case in question
are quarters of inches wide will represent
inches, and 5 of these parts will represent
the 5 additional inches in length and 7
the 7 inches in height or width. Thus
according to your scale of 3 inches to the
foot, the measurements 3 feet 5 inches
and 1 foot 7 inches in actual work will be
represented on paper by lines measuring
io£ inches and 4J inches. With regard
to the mode of bevelling the sides and
bottom of a hexagonal card tray so that
they may be fitted accurately together,
X
C
A D
/ it
F C. I.— JUNCTION OF
BOARDS AT RIGHT
ANGLES.
the operation is less difficult than it
appears to be. It is not possible, however,
to go fully into the matter here, but a
paper on this subject shall be given to
meet the difficulty experienced by your-
self and, doubtless, many others. All that
can be done now is to give you a broad idea
of the method of procedure. Suppose that
x and Y (Fig.
1) represent in
section two
boards whose
edges you with
to join by bevel-
ling away the
angles so thai,
they may be
accurately
fitted together
at right angles-
The boards are
assumed to be
of the same thickness, and this beiiv* the
case, A B = B D. On the side of
X mark off B c = A B and on ihe side
of Y mark off B E = B r>, and do this at each
end of the side of the piece of wood to
be bevelled. Dr*w a line, joining the
points thus obtained, and then with a
plane remove the edge B in each board,
continuing the operation until you have
planed away the wood down to the line
A c in X, and D E in Y. When the edges
of the boards are brought together A C
will fit accurately against D E, and the
boards will be right angles to one another.
This is the broad principle on which you
must proceed. Of course, the greater the
angle of inclination that the boards must
have one to the other, the less will be the
substance that must be removed with ihe
plane. To find tie bevtl in any case,
FIG, 2. — BEVELLING EDGES OF BOARDS
FOR JUNCTION AT AN ANGLE OTHER
THAN A RIGHT ANGLE.
having laid down on paper the angle at
which the boards are to be joined, as at
A B c in Fig. 2, make A B = B c, jo;n
A c and divide it into two equal parts in
the point D. Join B D, producing it at the
end D. The edges of the boards to be
joined must therefore be bevelled by plan-
ing until sufficient has been taken away,
to bring the rectangular edges of the
boards to be joined to the angle A B D
in one case, and the angle c B a in the
other.
V
PRESENTED Wlfll^fiART VIII. OF
AM At M$
;"
IkMSfMfSB.
n
ELEVATION OF LEFT HAND END ELEVATION OF RIGHT HAND END
OR UPRIGHT OF SIDEBOARD.
'
OR UPRIGHT OF SIDEBOARD.
ELEVATION OF UPRIGHT
TO LEFT OF LARGE UPPER
SHELVES.
PANELS OF DCORS CARVED IN LOW RELIEF. FULL SIZE.
>
B.
"1
/
\
ELEVATION OF UPRKHT TO LEFT OF SMALL SHELVES AND LOCKERS
ON RIOHT OF SIDEBOARD.
PB NEO-JAPANESE STYLE.
)■ WHITE.
^CTPt •
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL HARMONIUM.
339
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL HARMONIUM.
By TSOHAS MAIN.
I.— The Case and its Interior: the Feeders, Valve
Boards, Wind-Trunks, and Reservoir.
ipSjSJTHE great interest that has been created by
f:Js?§ the papers on the construction of the
organ, by another writer, leads me to
think that there are many amateurs who,
though unable to avail themselves of
those instructions, on account of the skill required,
thick at the other. You cannot be too particular as to
the quality and soundness of the wood, and it is far
better to pay a few. pence more fc(r it than to use
cheaper but inferior material. This wood must be
thoroughly well seasoned.; and in order to insure its
being thoroughly dry, keep it in a warm room — but
not too near a fire— for some weeks/before proceeding
to work it.
While the wood is drying you may purchase the
vibrators, or reeds, which can be obtained at most
harmonium-builders. Buy a good set of 54 notes, C C
in the bass to F in the treble, being a\ octaves. I
Fig. 4 — (Scale, 2in.
to loot).
Fig. 2. — (Scali, f inch to foot)
Fig. 1. — (Scale, j in. to foot).
Fig. i.— Elevation of Ends of Case
9/21'N
Fig. 5.— (Scale, 2 in. to foot).
Block or Cheek
Fig. 7. — (Scale, -J in. to foot).
(1.
I. edge ; 3. Bottom Block; 4. Groove for Front Panel).
.RDS TO CARRY F !RS. FlG. 3.— VALVE BOARDS FOR FEEDERS. FlG. 4. - SHAPE OF
PECEsToRSlDEf OF FEEDER FIG. S--SHAPE OF PIECES FOR ENDS OF FEEDER FlG 6.-PA R OF R«S (Black : line at
PIECES FOR i'DES OF ^ti-u . 3 Arrangement of ]NTERr0R r, i. Feeders; z. Reservoirs ; 3. Wind-chest ;
1°P, In ll Sprfn's " < Supports for Crank ; 6, 6. Cranks ; 7, 7. Cords for Connecting Ends of dank Levers to Foot-
boardsP; 8 S.Wmd-'tmnks ; 9, 9- Blocks or Cheeks ; 10. Safety Valve ; 11. Peg to open Valve).
and the bulk of the instrument, would be very glad to
receive instructions for making a musical instrument
of less pretensions. I therefore propose in this series
of papers to give such instructions as will enable any
amateur possessing a little skill in the use of car-
penters tools to construct a small harmonium.
The harmonium, as most of my readers are, no
doubt, aware, differs from the organ in having reeds—
or vibrato*, as they are termed— instead of pipes,
and as the. reeds take but little room, the instrument
is much more portable.
The first thing to be done will be to purchase
about 1 aft. of f-in. pine, about a foot wide, and a plank
of^good' sound beech, 3 feet long, 7 inches wide, 2
inches thick at one end, and running off to J inch
may remark that the reeds run from 12s. 6d. to 25s. a
set, according to quality, and can be purchased,
together with leather for the bellows, and all other re-
quisites, at Mr. Willis's, 29, Minories, London. At the
same time, you had better purchase the screws (about
1 5 dozen being required), for screwing the reeds to the
sound-board. See that the reeds are well riveted, or
they will soon get slack, and become the source of
much trouble.
Now you may see about the case, which it is neces-
sary to get ready first, as the bellows and other parts
are fitted to and supported by it. The wood may be
any sort you like; pine, oak, mahogany, walnut, or
rosewood being equally suitable. First make the ends,
which are 2 feet 7 inches high, and about 12 inches
UsD
340
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL HARMONIUM.
wide in the narrowest part, and i inch thick. The
top portion, to a depth of 7 inches, projects about 2
inches at the front. This wider portion must be
thickened by glueing and screwing a prepared block,
2 inches thick, on to the inside. The bottom part
should also be blocked out to the same thickness, and
3 inches in depth. These blocks need not be solid,
but may be made of f-inch stuff, and then veneered
over where they will be in sight. An ornamental truss
may be placed under the front of the top block, or
cheek, or a turned pillar may run from the under-side
of the top block to the top of the bottom one, which
will form a base for it. Now glue and screw a ledge
of wood, f inch wide and 3 inches deep, to each end,
to support the bellows. These ledges, and likewise
the cheeks, should not extend right across the end,
but to within half an inch of the back, so as to allow
the dust panel, or back, to be fitted in. A glance at
Figs. I and 7 will explain these operations.
Now prepare a panel of f-inch stuff for the front,
3 feet 3 inches long, and 2 feet high, with an opening
cut in the bottom part, 1 foot 8 inches long, and 8 inches
high, to allow the feet to be placed on the foot-boards.
This panel is let into the under-side of the cheeks,
or blocks, about \ inch.
Prepare a board 4 inches wide, 3 feet 4 inches long,
and I inch thick, and screw it at the bottom of the
lower blocks, so that it may come right to the front,
and lay flat on the floor. This is the foundation-
board, on which the foot-boards for blqwing will be
hinged.
Now take two boards, 3 feet 3 inches long, and fix
one to the top cheeks at the back, and one at the
bottom.
We now proceed to fit up the interior of the case.
First prepare two boards, 3 feet 2 inches long, 1 1
inches wide, and at least \ inch thick, to carry the
feeders and reservoir. Plane them very true and
smooth, then cut two holes in each, 6 inches long and
I inch wide, at a distance of 3 inches from each end.
Fig. 2 shows the under-side of the board to carry the
feeders, with two spiral springs fitted to it, and the
holes cut in it for the wind-trunks. The springs are
to cause the feeder to open when released from the
pressure of the foot, and are termed " gape-springs."
They may be made by cutting an ordinary spiral chair-
spring in half, and placing each half in the position
shown.
The feeders next claim our attention. The under
or valve boards are each 1 foot 4 inches long, loj
inches wide, and f inch thick. Bore four holes 1 \ inch
diameter through them, as shown in Fig. 3. These
holes are to be covered by valves, which must be made
as follows : — Glue two thicknesses of leather together
soft side outwards), leaving one thickness an inch
wider than the other ; place them between two flat
boards to dry, and then cut them to size, and glue the
single thickness down to the valve-board, thus forming
a hinge to the valve. The valves may each be made
to cover two holes, so that only two valves will be
needed for each feeder. They should be \ inch larger
all round than the holes which they cover.
The valve-boards should now be hinged on to the
feeder-board, and for this purpose a strip of '-inch
wood, 1 1 inch wide, is to be glued and screwed on to
the under-side of the feeder-board, and a similar strip
on to the inside end of the valve-board. The valve-
board may be hinged either with brass butt-hinges, or
a strip of leather inside and out. Many prefer the latter
mode, as there is no liability to squeak.
The folds of the feeder may now be got out of
!-inch board. You will require eight pieces like Fig. 4
for the sides, and four pieces like Fig. 5 for the ends.
The ends of each fold are cut to an angle of about 400.
I have set these out very carefully in the sketches, and
figured the sizes on them, as it is very important that
they should be accurately made, or the feeders will be
the source of constant annoyance and trouble. Pro-
cure some very soft, supple, white sheepskin, and cut
it into strips (lengthways from the neck), about \\ inch
wide. Cut some strips of linen, about \\ inch wide ;
these should be cut across the stuff. Stand each pair
of ribs side by side, with their short edges about T35
inch apart, which you may secure by placing a strip of
stout cardboard between them, and glue a strip of
linen over the edges, as shown in Fig. 6. The linen
will thus be on the inside when the folds are attached
to the feeders. Let this dry, and then glue a strip of
leather on the other side of the joint, grain side out-
wards. Then glue similar strips on the outside of the
top and bottom edges, so that half the width of the
leather overhangs all round. Fasten the spiral springs
in their proper position on the valve-board, and then
glue the overhanging leather of the folds on to the
valve-board and feeder-board. The inside must also
have strips of linen on the joints, which you will be
able to rub down with a strip of wood inserted through
the corner holes where the gussets will be put on.
When you have attached all the folds to the feeder
and feeder-board, and well rubbed down all the leather,
to make it adhere perfectly all over, let it dry tho-
roughly. Now open the feeder to its full width, and
cut a paper pattern of the gussets ; then cut them out
in leather, and, after paring all the edges with a sharp
knife, glue the gussets on, and rub them down well.
A small triangular gusset-piece will be required for
each corner where the valve-boards are hinged ; and
if brass hinges are used, a strip of leather 'must be
glued all along the joint, to make it perfectly air-tigiit.
When all this is done, clean off the leather with a
HO W I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
34i
sponge dipped in hot water, and then cover all the
wood-work of the feeders with coloured or ornamental
paper, and they will then look very neat.
Now make the two wind-trunks of thin wood; they
are 65 inches high, and slightly larger internally than
the wind-holes.
The reservoir should now be made, and as it is
merely a rectangular bellows, with each fold 2 s inches
wide, I need not give directions in detail for construct-
ing it. Cut the ends of each fold to an angle of 40', the
same as the ends of the feeders. The bottom boird of
the bellows will be f or f inch thick, and a safety-valve
must be made in it in the position shown in Fig. 7.
This may be about 25 inches square, and covered by a
valve of thin wood, lined with soft leather (soft side out-
wards), one end of which overhangs about an inch, and
is glued down to form a hinge. The valve is kept closed
by a spring fastened through a little staple on the
valve. A peg of wood, about 23 inches high, is fixed
in the feeder-board immediately under the valve ; so
that as the bellows descends, the peg presses the valve
open, and allows a little wind to escape, thus prevent-
ing undue pressure on the reservoir. A spiral spring
is fixed to the centre of the under-side of the reser-
voir, and to the top of the feeder-board. This spring
exerts a constant pressure on the reservoir, and gives
the force of wind necessary to cause the reeds to sound.
A careful study of the foregoing instructions and
the sketches will enable the amateur to fully compre-
hend the construction thus far. In my next paper I
will explain how the wind-chest, pallets, etc., are made.
(To be continued?)
HOW I MADE MY TELEPHONES, AND GOT
THEM TO WORK IN MY HOUSE.
By a. S. SATER.
*>
I.— Making the Parts of the Telephone, and putting
them together.
Y the above title my readers will under-
stand that it is not my intention to enter
into any deep scientific description of
the telephone, as that would be out of
place in Amateur Work, I llustr ated ;
but, at the same time, feeling sure that no real ama-
teur would wish to make anything without understand-
ing a little of the principle and theory of the work he
has in hand, I will in a few words endeavour to explain
the action of the telephone so far as I can, without
using technical or obtuse terms, referring those who
wish to have a complete theoretical description to
any of the numerous text-books upon magnetism and
electricity.
The articulating telephone was brought to its pre-
sent state of perfection in 1876, by Professor Graham
Bell, of Boston ; and Fig. 2 gives a correct view of
his telephone, both as regards size and shape, the
magnet alone excepted, which, instead of being a plain
round bar of magnetised steel, as I have shown, is, in
the Bell Telephone, a sort of compound one.
Thanks chiefly to the immortal Faraday, we now
know that magnetism and electricity, if not exactly
one and the same thing, are very closely related to
each other ; for by electricity we can produce mag-
netism, and by magnetism we can obtain electricity,
the telephone coming under this latter head.
All magnets affect the atmosphere around them,
creating a kind of magnetic influence or power, which
is easily seen by their effect on needles or small bits
of iron placed near them, it not being at all necessary
for the magnet to toicch the needle to exhibit this force;
and, inversely, a piece of iron brought near a magnet
will affect it, or alter its magnetic power. Now the
voice, thrown on to the small iron disc, causes, by the
waves of sound, this disc to vibrate ; and as it vibrates,
it goes nearer and farther from the end of the magnet,
thereby altering the magnetic power or atmosphere
surrounding it. This alteration of power causes minute
currents of electricity to flow through the coil of fine
wire around the magnet, the currents varying in exact
proportion to the vibrations of the disc ; and as they
flow along the wire to the telephone at the other end,
they in the same manner alter the power of the mag-
net there. This magnet, becoming thus made stronger
or weaker, attracts and repels the iron disc near it, or,
in other words, sets it vibrating ; and these vibrations
create small waves of sound, which strike on the ear
of the person listening, giving a complete and perfect
phonetic copy of the person's voice at the first
telephone.
From the above description it will be seen that the
telephone consists of six principal parts : —
1. The Magnet.
2. The Case, or Holder.
3. The Box.
4. The Reel of Silk-covered Wire.
5. The Disc.
6. The Mouthpiece, or Cover of Box.
I will now take each in its order, and describe how
I obtained or made them; and in doing so, I wish it
to be understood that I endeavoured to do it all as
simply and cheaply as possible, consistent with the
actual working of the instrument, leaving it to my
readers to make any improvements they may like ;
and those who have lathes will soon find ample scope
for their ingenuity when once they have mastered the
principle of this most wonderful invention.
First and foremost comes the magnet. This I
34*
HO W I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
purchased at an optician's for 9a1., and it consisted of
a round bar of well magnetised steel, 4 inches long,
and § inch in diameter.
Some of my readers may C X- _ ' " ' -\\
prefer making their own ;
but as they must purchase
the steel, and possess a
powerful magnet to mag-
netise it with, I do not
advise them to do so,
especially as they can
obtain one ready made
for so small a sum.
The case, or holder,
can be made with No. 3
(the box,), all in one piece
who have a lathe will find it best to do
so, turning the whole up as shown in
Fig. 2. But I made them separately
as follows : — For the case I obtained
a good piece of hard wood, about 4 J
inches long, and sufficiently thick to
plane up to 1 1 inches square, which
I did, taking off the sharp corners.
Right through the centre of this,
lengthways, I bored with my brace
and bit a hole large enough for my
magnet to fit into. As it is better to
have the magnet fit tightly into the
hole, should you not have a bit the
exact size, use one the next size
smaller, and then enlarge the hole
with a rat-tail file. Care should be
taken that the hole is right through
the centre of the wood ; and should
your bit be rather short, bore from
each end half-way, and then clean out
the hole with the round file, or a small
gouge.
Now put your case on one side
for a short time, and pro-
ceed to make the box.
This I obtained from a
chemist's, and was one
that had had tooth-pow-
der in it. It was made
of turned wood, and
measured 3 inches in
diameter, and ij inches
deep, cover and all, and,
being thick and strong,
Droved iu-t tl • fig. 3.— section of top of wooden box, before adaptation.
article. In the bottom of the box I cut a hole, 1 inch ] made article. I obtained
FIG. I. — THE AMATEUR S
A.
B.
C.
The Magnet.
The Case.
The Box.
D. The Ree'.
E. The Disc.
F. The Mouth. piece.
square, and in the cover I cut a large circular hole,
leaving only a ledge all round, about J- inch wide. I
will afterwards show how I made this cover into the
mouthpiece; but before doing so, let us finish the case,
,. which I will now return
to. When laid aside, it
was a piece of wood, 45
inches long and ii inches
square, in section, with
a £ inch hole right through
its centre from end to end.
Measure the thickness of
wood in the bottom of
the box, where you made
the 1 -inch square hole,
and mark it off from one
end of the case by a
pencil line on each of the four sides,
but allowing about tV inch over. Then
on the square end of the case mark
around the hole a square of I inch.
Now with your tenon saw cut through
your marks, till those on the end meet
those on the sides ; or, in other words,
reduce the end of the case to 1 inch
square for a distance of rk inch more
than the thickness of wood in the
bottom of the box. It will now fit into
the bottom of the box, and project
inside tV inch, and the two together
will appear as in Fig. 1.
The next thing is the reel, or
bobbin, with its coil of fine silk-covered
wire. I found in my wife's work-box
a small reel, which was the very thing
wanted. It had had red cotton or
silk on it, and was about half the
length of the ordinary thread-reels,
being 5 inch long over all, and the
flanges were £ inch in diameter. The
hole through it I enlarged to exactly
the same size as the one through the
case, so that the magnet
fitted tightly into it.
Around this reel must
now be wound the wire,
or coil, as it is called.
This wire must be
purchased, as few, if any,
amateurs could make it,
and even if they could it
would not be worth their
while, as it would cost
them more than the ready
some at the same shop
bought the magnet. About forty or fifty
TELEPHONE. — FULL
VIEW.
SIZZ SECTIONAL
G. Plug of Wood
H. India-rubber
Ring.
where I
yards is amply sufficient for one telephone, and this
HO W I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
343
costs about jd. or 6d. It is so exceedingly light that
they sell it by weight, at about is. per ounce, and
I found that one ounce contained
about ninety yards. The copper wire j
is No. 36, Birmingham Wire Gauge.
To wind it around the reel, first of all
bore a small hole with a bradawl
through one flange of the reel, as close
to the body as you can, and pass the
end of the wire through it from the
inside. Leave about six or seven
inches through, and then wind the rest
around as neatly as you can.
So long as you wind in one direc-
tion only, it does not matter about the
layers not being quite even, but it looks
better to keep them straight, and you
will be able to wind more around than
if you place them anyhow. Be careful
not to handle the wire roughly, nor to
fray the silk, as it would prove fatal to
success if the wire became exposed in
two or three places, so as to allow
these parts to form contact, or copper
to touch copper, as then the electric
current would take a short road
through this contact instead of going
round and round the reel by the whole
coil.
■When you have wound round as
much as the reel will take — that is
level with its flanges — finish off at the
same end or flange as you began,
leaving about six or seven inches over,
and the coil is complete.
How ic Make the Disc. — This is
usually made of a peculiar
sort of iron called " ferro-
type," plates of which are
used in special form of
photograph known as a
ferrotype. It can be
purchased at any shop
selling photographic che-
micals and apparatus,
generally a druggist's. A
plate 45 inches by 3}
inches is large enough
for your purpose, and
costs about 2d. Should,
however, any of my
readers find a difficulty
in obtaining this special kind of iron plate, they will
find a sheet of thin tin answer quite as well.
Measure the inside diameter of the box, and mark
FIG. 2. — THE BELL TELEPHONE. — FULL SIZE SECTIONAL VIEW.
on a piece of ordinary writing paper with a pair of
compasses a circle about J inch larger. Cut this out
neatly with a pair of scissors and gum
it on to the iron or tin plate, and then
with the same scissors, if they are
strong enough, cut the plate out
round the paper. Some may exclaim,
" Why not mark out the circle on the
plate direct ? " To this I answer, that
it is best to avoid scratching or indent-
ing the disc in any way, especially the
central part ; and, moreover, the paper
keeps the disc clean whilst you round
off" and smooth up the edge with a
fine file.
I now come to the cover of the
box, which forms the " mouth-piece,"
or as it is sometimes called, the
"speaking trumpet.'' This cover,
when placed on the box, should tightly
jam the edge of the disc all round ;
and at the same time the inside bottom
of the cover should be about f inch
clear of the centre part of disc to allow
the latter to vibrate. A glance at the
drawing will show what I mean. The
cover of my tooth-powder box, how-
ever, bothered me a little, for I found
that the centre of it was thicker than
the edge, and so the inside as well as
the outside was convex, just the
opposite to what I required (see Fig
3). I did not observe this at first,
and so I thought that all I should
have to do would be to cut a circular
hole about § or J inch in diameter in
the centre, through
which the voice would
reach the centre of the
disc. When, however, I
had got my hole cut, and
the cover put on over the
disc, instead of touching
the edge of the latter all
round, it was pressing on
the centre, and the edge
of the disc was left free —
the very reverse to that
which I desired. To
remedy matters I tried to
put a liner inside all round
the edge, but this kept
the cover off from the box too much to fasten them
together. I then thought it best to cut out all the
bottom of the cover, leaving only a ledge all round
344
HO W I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
about \ inch, and on to this glue outside a new
bottom, in which the small hole for speaking through
could be cut. I found this a complete success, and
the cover, when finished, was as shown in Fig. I.
To make sure of the ledge of cover touching well
all round the ledge of disc, I put between them a
small elastic band, to form a joint. An ordinary
elastic band or ring will do ; and if one cannot be
obtained exactly the size, get one a little larger in
diameter, and cut it round its outside edge neatly with
a pair of scissors, until it fits into the cover, and lies
flat without crease or wrinkle.
The various parts of the telephone are now nearly
complete, one thing only remaining to be done before
fitting all together — the two ends of the wire which
were left on the reel must be disposed of. One end
has to be connected to the line leading to the distant
telephone, and the other end has to go " to earth," as
the technical expression is ; that is, must be connected
to the nearest gas-pipe, or, better still, water-pipe,
through which the electricity speedily finds its way
into the earth. But the wire around the reel is so fine
and delicate, that if the ends were led out direct
through a hole in the side of the box, they would be-
come broken in a very short time, and, moreover,
would be in the way when handling the telephone.
They are, therefore, usually led up through the case,
passing through two small holes bored one on each
side of the large hole in which is the magnet, and then
fastened to a pair of terminals, by which they can be
connected to thicker and stronger wires. Should any
difficulty occur in boring these two small holes length-
ways through the case, so as to keep them parallel,
and not let them run into the magnet-hole on the one
side, or out through the side of the case on the other —
a likely thing to occur if your gimlet is not long
enough — I would recommend the plan I myself
adopted, which was, instead of boring the two holes,
to make with my tenon saw two fine slits the whole
length of the case, one on each side, sawing into the
wood about \ inch. Into these slits the wires were
laid, and then filled in with a little wax. I need
scarcely say that boring the holes is by far the neater
way, and I only mention the slits because it shows
how even a slight difficulty can be overcome.
Now let us put all our parts together. First of all
take the bobbin, with its coil of wire, and push one end
of the magnet right through until it projects beyond
about ife inch. Then leaving it there, push the other end
of the magnet up into the hole in the case until the
bobbin touches the reduced square end. Now pass
your two ends of wire up through the small holes —
or lay them in your saw slits — leaving the ends pro-
jecting about one inch, and fasten them there by
screwing two small brass wood screws into the end of
the case, close to the holes — around which you twist
your ends — first of all laying the copper wires bare by
scraping off the silk covering with your penknife. Now
put the box on to the case, over the reduced square
end, and if you have made a good fit it is better not to
glue or fix it permanently until you have finally tested
the instrument. You will observe that it is requisite
to have the outside diameter of bobbin a little smaller
than the square hole in box, so that the latter can pass
over it. Now place a straight-edge across the top of
box, and see what clearance you have between it and
the end of the magnet. A little less than is inch is
the proper space, and if you find you have more, you
must file down the edge of the box, or rub it down on
a sheet of glass-paper. Now lay the disc on the edge
of the box, and over it the india-rubber ring, and then,
finally, put on the cover or mouthpiece, and your
telephone is complete, and should appear as in Fig. I.
But for the same reason that it is of no use speak-
ing to a man without ears, or listening to a dumb man,
so one telephone by itself is of no practical value, and
to hold telephonic communication it is therefore neces-
sary to have two instruments. You must, therefore,
now set to work and make a second telephone pre-
cisely as I have described the first. Assuming this
done, and you have your two telephones complete, all
that is necessary for speaking and hearing through
them is to connect them together by wires — one wire
leading from one terminal on the one instrument to a
terminal on the other — and a second wire attached to
each of the other terminals and leading to respective
gas or water pipes. The length of the wire between
the telephones can be very long, but it must be insu-
lated— that is, covered with something, generally cotton
or gutta-percha — the latter substance being used for
out-door purposes. This wire can be purchased for
about id. per yard. Be careful, when attaching the
ends to your telephones or water pipes, to first of all
scrape off the insulating covering. A few twists around
the brass screw will suffice, and also around the water
or gas pipe ; but before doing this to the latter, see
that the pipe is clean, and not covered with paint or
anything liable to stop the electric current.
My readers will perceive that I have made no
mention of batteries. My reason for this is that no
battery is required for the telephone unless the dis-
tance is great, the magnet itself giving a sufficient
current ; but as one must have a bell or some signal
to call attention before speaking, then batteries are
used, and one cell is usually attached to the telephone.
How I fixed up my bells and made my switches to
work them with my telephones — in short, how I put
up telephonic communication in my house — must be
left for a second paper. Meantime my readers can
commence work on their telephones, and should any
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
345
of my descriptions not prove clear enough, or should
unforeseen difficulties arise, I shall, with the Editor's
kind permission, be only too happy to answer them at
any sitting of " Amateurs in Council."
(To be continued)
=>*=
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD HERON-ALLEN.
VII.— The Varnish (continued).
l^vWFi^M T has been a much -debated question
whether wood ought to be sized, and to
my mind there can be no question about
it. It seems to me certain that the old
Italian makers sized their wood in some
way before applying the varnish, and this accounts for
the yellow substratum noticed where the varnish has
worn off, and alluded to by Mr. C. Reade, in the
extract quoted at the beginning of the last chapter, who
distinctly describes this operation of sizing with one
kind of varnish, and then varnishing, in the ordinary
acceptation of the term, with another, rather different
in its nature — in Tact, as he says, heterogeneous.
The use, or rather necessity of this operation is at
once apparent when we consider the following facts.
The nature of the wood being porous or spongy, it
would absorb the first two or three coats of varnish,
and, in fact, be sized by the varnish itself, and the
vehicle being absorbed, and leaving behind its resinous
and colouring particles on the surface, these last
would dry rapidly, and lose the elasticity which they
should acquire by the presence of their softening
diluent. Also the instrument would want a larger
number of coats of varnish, the lower ones of which,
when the upper had worn away, would be hard and
friable, and the very quantity of varnish necessary to
be applied would infallibly destroy the power and
brilliancy of the tone for a great number of years ; in
fact, the filling up of the pores with vamish would
entirely counteract the advantages derived from a
complete dessication of the wood, the result of years
of preservation. Fiddles must not be sized with com-
mon " size," like furniture, but with quickly-evaporating
washes, composed of some such gums as gamboge or
aloes, dissolved in spirits of wine to produce the
familiar yellow ground. Such a size only penetrates
very slightly into the wood, and leaves the resinous
ingredients on the surface in a state of subdivision,
which forms no check on the movements and vibra-
tions of the wood. It is thus, doubtless, that the old
Cremonese workmen prepared their fiddles before
varnishing them, when this yellow tint is observable ;
and when not, the wash used was probably juniper
gum dissolved in alcohol. However, the yellow size
seems to be the best, and is to be made as follows : —
(i.) Gamboge, finely powdered, 20 grammes ; spirits
of wine, 100 cubic centimetres. Or (ii.). Gamboge,
10 grs. ; aloes, 8 grs. ; spirits of wine, 100 cubic
centimetres. Place the spirits in a vessel with half
the powdered resins, and let them dissolve for eight or
ten days, periodically stirring them, then filter out the
insoluble gummy particles through a cloth, and into
the filtered portion put the rest of the resins, and
repeat the process. It is better to do this in two
operations, as the liquid is thereby more saturated
and better coloured ; and it is also better and safer to
do it thus than by means of heat. The second receipt
is the best, as being more tender. Two coats are
sufficient, if well and evenly laid on. It is better to
use alcohol than water for this solution, as it is a more
complete solvent of the resins, and evaporates with
greater rapidity. And this brings us to the colouring
of varnishes, which is a much more difficult matter
than one would suppose, for many essences, such as
essence of turpentine, lavender, rosemary, etc., will not
(or only very slightly) act as solvents of coloured resins,
or will only hold them in suspension, which would be
fatal to the transparency of the varnish. Such resins
(which include gamboge, dragon's blood, etc.) are,
however, soluble in spirits of wine ; and in the follow-
ing manner they may be used to colour the essences
before-mentioned : —
Let the colour resin be dissolved in alcohol, and
the solution may be poured into the essence without
losing its clearness. Now, the boiling or evaporating
point of alcohol being much lower than that of the
essence, the mixture may be kept above the boiling
point of the alcohol and below that of the essence
and thus the alcohol will evaporate, and leave behind
it the colouring matter stationary in the essence,
which is thus, as it were, deceived into holding the
colour in clear solution. Any colour resin may thus
be incorporated with any essence (except that of tur-
pentine), which may then be used in the composition
of a varnish ; but it must be borne in mind that all
the materials employed must be absolutely pure. As
the best essence wherewith to incorporate the colour
is that of turpentine, and essence of turpentine in its
clear, pure, recently-distilled state will not mix with
alcohol, a slightly different mode of procedure must
be followed — namely, the essence must be exposed to
the air in an uncorked phial, and periodically stirred
before adding the alcoholic solution, so as to mix it
with the oxygen of the air. It must remain exposed
until a few drops taken from the exposed essence
mixes readily with a similar quantity of alcohol ; the
546
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
exposure required will seldom exceed two months.
The resins employed for giving a red tint to varnishes
are those of the Pterocarpus indicus, which imparts
an orange colour ; the Pterocarpus santalinus, which
gives a darker red ; and dragon's blood, which gives
the deepest scarlet. The woods or the resins must be
powdered fine, and steeped in alcohol for some eight
or ten days, and then filtered off for use. The best
essence is that of turpentine, combining, as it does,
properties at once tender and siccative. After it come
in order rosemary and lavender, of which the former
is the better.
All operations requiring heat should be performed
on a water bath, the nature of which is too well
known to require explanation here, and the compositor
of varnishes should always have close at hand a wet
cloth, in case the compound should catch fire, but this
contingency seldom happens if the inner vessel be
not filled to more than half its capacity. The alcoholic
solution of the colouring resin should first be evapo-
rated to half its bulk, to obviate the essence being
too freely diluted by its addition. When cold this
saturated solution may be added to the essence of
turpentine, which has been oxydized as before de-
scribed, and the two boiled together, being most
careful to keep it below the boiling point of the essence;
in this way the alcohol will be entirely dissipated. It
may be occasionally stirred with a ■wooden stick to
hasten it, and instead of letting the alcoholic solution
cool, it will have the same effect if the essence be
heated to a like temperature. When all the alcohol
has passed off, which will be seen when bubbles cease
to be evolved, let the mixture remain on the water
bath for a few minutes, to drive off any water which
may be left there by the alcohol, but it must not be
left long enough for the essence to commence to
evaporate, or the colouring matter will be precipitated
in proportion as the liquid diminishes. Of course the
above directions are given for the preparation of small
quantities of varnish ; if large quantities were con-
stantly being made it would be worth while to regain
the alcohol hereby dissipated by means of special
apparatus, which it is needless here to describe. It
is always better to perform these operations in the
summer, for in winter oils and essences have a
tendency to alter in their nature and consistency
from either cold or absorption.
From the beginning of July to the end of September
is the best time to prepare varnishes. The three red
resins mentioned above pass through many shades
of colour, and may be lightened with gamboge and
darkened with asphalte ; but these tone-modifiers
must not be used in sufficient quantity to alter the
nature of the varnish. It is best to finish the colour-
ing of the essence before commencing to compound
the rest of the varnish. Finally, it is necessary to
state that the essence of turpentine has been dealt
with hitherto as being the test, for reasons given
above ; essence of rosemary may also be used, and is
easier to deal with, but not so good in the final result.
The alcoholic solution of sandal-wood is apt to
oxydize and deepen in tint on exposure to the air,
though an essential solution does not present this
peculiarity to so marked a degree, but all its solutions
are powerfully acted upon by alkalies of all kinds.
In conclusion of this somewhat lengthy subject,
there remains only to formulate the final operations
necessary for the completion of the varnish. The
resins appropriate to our use divide into two classes,
the hard and the soft. The hard comprise copal,
amber, and gum-lac, and the soft are subdivided
into two other classes, viz. — dry, such as juniper gum,
gum-mastic, dammar : and elastic, such as benzoin,
elemi, anime, and turpentine. The first, or hard kinds
would be unsuitable used alone, for they would check
the vibrations of the instrument and chip off on the
slightest provocation ; the second, or dry kind, counter-
acts this chipping tendency of the hard kinds, but
used alone would powder off ; the third, or elastic kinds,
are not solid enough to use alone, but they impart
elasticity to the hard kinds, and consistency to the
dry kinds, when mixed with them. The art therefore
of making varnish lies in so combining these three
classes that each conveys its good qualities and
counteracts the bad ones of the other two. In spirit
varnishes the dry and elastic kinds must be mixed to
ensure tenderness and solidity, for the alcohol evaporat-
ing leaves the resins as they are on the wood, and if
the soft resins unduly preponderate they will remain
tacky for a long time. The most wearable resin is
mastic, but as it is not wholly soluble in pure alcohol,
it must be added last of all the ingredients, when
the insoluble parts mingling with the other constituents
obviate this difficulty. It is easy therefore to see that
formulas for varnishes can be varied ad infinitum
according to requirements. Thus taking as a basis
too cc. of alcohol, to produce a terrifically hard var-
nish, we would use gum-lac 20 grammes, juniper gum
8 gr., elemi 4 gr. For a good wearing and at the same
time tender varnish, juniper gum 20 gr., mastic 10 gr.,
elemi 4 gr., or juniper gum 25 gr , mastic 6 gr., Vene-
tian turpentine 10 gr., (turpentine must always be added
to a spirit varnish last). It must be remembered (and
it is shown in these three formulas), that alcohol will
only dissolve one-third of its weight of resins. The
best formula for spirit varnish is that of Watin,
who prescribes juniper gum 125 gr., gum-lac (in tears)
62 gr. 50 anti-grammes, mastic 62 gr. 50 c, elemi
31 gr. 25 c, Venetian turpentine 62 gr. 50 c, alcohol
1 litre (= 1000 cc). This would yet be too hard a,
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
347
varnish, but Watin was (erroneously to my mind) in
favour of this quality, and it must be remembered
that he was hardly a fiddlemaker. The best spirit
varnish for our purpose is composed as follows : —
Juniper gum So gr., mastic ioo gr., elemi 30 gr., con-
centrated essence of turpentine,* 60 cc, castor oil
50 cc. , alcohol 1 litre. Before the addition of the
resins the spirit must be coloured, as described above.
If a thick varnish (of which one coat will be suffi-
cient) is required, the resins may be proportionately
increased, but not the turpentine or castor oil, fcr they
would make the varnish sticky if overdone.
However good this may be as a spirit varnish, and
however convenient to work with, it is and must be
inferior to an oil varnish, for the latter is, at the same
time, more tender and more solid, for it continues its
softening and binding presence, whereas the alcohol
becomes promptly dissipated. It is always better to
compound varnishes without heat than with it ; for the
former is only a matter of time, and the latter is liable
to carbonize or otherwise alter the constituents ; and,
secondly, there is no denying that all the substances
used are highly inflammable, and without exceedingly
careful handling, considerable danger to life and
property ensues if heat is used in a laboratory not
specially constructed for the purpose. It will be seen
that the materials ready to our hand now, are the
same (with the exception of some useless ones, such
as frankincense, etc.) as were enumerated in the old
receipts. In our favour we can cite that when unadul-
terated, resins are to be had purer than they were
then, and the operations of concentrating essences,
and fusing the hard gums, then unknown, are now
fully understood. It has been explained that we must
relinquish the use of the four hard resins, and also
benzoin, because by swelling it renders the varnish
gummy, and juniper-gum, because it requires so much
heat, and tender copal (ox dammar) is just as good,
and much easier to work with. We are reduced,
therefore, to (1) mastic (in tears), which is the most
tender and wearable of all resins ; (2) tender copal
(= brittle dammar) which by its dryness counteracts
the more elastic resins, and renders the varnish more
siccative ; (3) turpentine which we avoid, as render-
ing the varnish tacky; (4) elemi, and (5) anime,
both very soft and elastic gums. Camphor is some-
times mentioned as used, but it has a tendency to kill
colour. The formulae left us as best, becomes there-
fore mastic 10 gr., tender copal 5 gr., essence
(coloured at will as described) 100 cc. To this is
added finally 5 cc. of linseed oil, not boiled, but the
older the better. More than this quantity might be
* By concentrated, I mean evaporated to one-tenth part of
its bulk. Turpentine is here indicated, but as elsewhere rose-
mary might also be used.
used, but with the effect of lessening the siccative
properties of the varnish. The above formulae may
be prepared as follows — Place the 100 cc. of coloured
essence in a glass vessel, and into it put the mastic,
which will take from twenty-four to thirty-six hours
to dissolve. When quite dissolved add the copal,
which will take a like time. Periodically shake the
bottle. Then finally mix in the oil. Put this fluid
away in a dark, cool place, in a stoppered bottle, for
ten days or a fortnight, to let it settle ; then filter
(through filter paper for choice), and keep the varnish
six or eight months before using it. In this varnish
elemi, anime, and turpentine are left out, the linseed oil
taking their place in contributing the tenderness to
the varnish. Tne resins appear to bear a small pro-
portion to the t ssence, but it must be remembered
that the colouring matter will have already, to a cer-
tain extent, charged it, and it is better to have the
varnish thin, and varnish often, than to have it thick
and lay it on blotchy. When the essence is tinted
with dragon's blood, it is better even to reduce the
weight of resins proportionately to 12 gr. instead of
15, as above. Such a consistency will not require
warming before use, as is necessary if the varnish be
too thick. It must be borne in mind that to lay on
varnish evenly is very difficult, for every stroke of the
brush tells on the porous surface of the wood. Three
or four such thin coats of varnish are generally suffi-
cient if well laid on, and each coat must be thoroughly
dry before another is applied, or else the varnish will
chip and powder off, and it saves a good deal of
trouble to wait a fortnight or more between each coat,
on the principle of " more haste worse speed." If
after a couple of coats you find the colour is deep
enough, instead of continuing you may finish with
one coat of the following transparent varnish — mastic
20 gr., copal 10 gr. (= brittle dammar), essence
(new and pure) 100 cc, linseed oil 12 cc. The
essence must be the same as that used in the first or
coloured varnish. It is possible to varnish with one
thick coat, but it is neither so satisfactory nor so good.
Varnishing should always be done on a dry, warm
day, in some place out of a draught, or the operation
will become much more difficult. To recapitulate the
foregoing rather protracted details, the operations to
be performed are, in brief, as follows — (1) Steep
100 gr. of sandalwood (or 80 of dragon's blood)
powdered in 1 litre of alcohol, set it in the sun or
some warm place ten days, shaking it periodically.
Then filter through a cloth, and repeat the
with another 100 (or 80) grs., in the sar
alcohol. To lighten the colour use a
solution of gamboge, to darken it n
asphalte. Always use deep, large »»'
fill them more than half full "
r
.348
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
this is cold add your resins, shaking periodically as
before described. Leave the liquid to settle for a
fortnight, then filter through paper and preserve.
Thus far it has seemed necessary to enter into the
ninutias of the rather distinct art of varnishing, and
I hope that these notes, gathered from the most
reliable sources and personal experiences may,'at any
rate, serve as guides for the experiments of the would-
be Cremona varnisher.
( To be continued?)
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION OF
ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
By HARK HALLETT.
II.
-Modes of Renovating, Repairing1, and Re-
modelling' Furniture.
ROM the situations in which so many of
these things are found, it is no wonder
that antique furniture and fragments
should most commonly come to hand
in a neglected condition — broken, grub-
eaten, sometimes smeared over with paint ; or at the
best, coated and choked with long accumulations of
dirt and beeswax.
For simple cleaning, nothing is better than warm
water, in which a moderate quantity of soda has been
dissolved, a scrubbing-brush, and careful scraping
with a knife or chisel where necessary. The cleaning
process should be continued till the grain of the wood
has fairly been reached. The fine dark colour will
apparently disappear under this treatment, and the
oak assume a whitish look. But this matters little ;
everything can be put right again afterwards.
When the oak has been painted, a different pro-
cess must be resorted to. In a quart of boiling water
dissolve a handful of American potash, and stir into
the solution as much sawdust as will bring it to a
kind of paste. Lay this mixture half-an-inch thick
over the painted surface, and leave it for a night.
Next day the paint will be so much softened that
most of it will admit of washing off with a sponge
and cold water ; but in hollows of the carving, and in
the pores of the wood, some of the pigment will pro-
bably still remain. If this does not yield to scrubbing
or scraping, cover it again with the compound for a
f»w hours. The use of the sawdust is merely to hold
e agent — the potash — to the paint. Varnish
■■oved in the same manner,
has taken possession of the wood, the
-"•e serious. This pest first attacks the
-f the timber, and next any portions
of the oak which may have been exposed to damp.
The wood-grub most to be dreaded, is the larva of a
small brown beetle, about the eighth of an inch in
length. Its work of destruction is done whilst in the
imperfect state, and it emerges from the hole it has
bored, a perfect insect, about the month of July.
At this season the collector should keep his eyes
open, and kill every one of these, his worst enemies,
that he can see. They are sluggish little creatures,
and sit motionless on walls and ceilings, making little
effort to escape. Such of these as are not killed be-
come the parents of a new generation of destroyers.
Going over the wood with hot size has been re-
commended for killing grub. I have tried this remedy,
and believe it to be quite worthless. A more effectual
method is to go over the part attacked with parafnne
— not merely to rub it on, but to lay it on in good
quantity with a brush. This oil penetrates far into
the wood, and is destructive to all insect life that it
reaches.
A frequent defect in such things as chairs, tables,
and joint-stools, is found in their feet. Their legs
commonly terminate more or less in a ball, much in
the manner indicated in Fig. 6. After standing, as has
many times been the case, for years on the damp
floors of cottages and kitchens, these ball-feet are
often decayed, whilst the legs themselves may be
sound. This evil is easily remedied. The feet may
be sawn off at the line marked A B in the cut, and new
feet turned, having round shanks to fit into holes
bored in the legs to receive them, as indicated by the
dotted lines at C. If the amateur restorer has no
lathe, any turner will make them from the old pattern,
at 2d. or 3d. each. If well-fitted and glued, they will
be in little danger of working loose, as the weight of
the articles resting on them, will serve to hold them
in place.
Sometimes the mortised joints will have become
so loose as to make the whole article rickety. If the
wood be sound throughout, a little wedging and glue-
ing will put this right, but sometimes, from remaining
damp, the tenons will have become tender. Even
then, the wood just outside the mortises, which has
dried more quickly, will, in most cases, be sound.
Under these circumstances complete firmness may be
restored by the use of small iron angles, as shown at
D in Fig. 7. These angles should of course be
screwed where they will show least, as on the under
sides of the cross-bars.
The twist shown in the legs of the table (Fig. 4) is
a frequent and effective feature in antique furniture.
To replace a twist when broken or decayed is no very
difficult matter, even without the help of a lathe.
Indeed, in old work, hand-cut twists are very frequent,
and are most capable of artistic effect. The following
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
349
is the method of proceeding : — Square a piece of
timber to the required size, and in the part to be
twisted, bevel off the angles, so as to make it octagonal.
The old twist consists of two spiral fillets running side
by side. To set out the work, cut four long strips of
paper, each half the width of one of the fillets from
hollow to hollow. Twist these strips side by side
round the wood, in the same direction as in the old
work, and fasten them in their places with pins or
tacks. They will seem to fall into their proper posi-
tions naturally, and with very little trouble ; and the
alternate strips will indicate the future ridges and hol-
lows of the work. When all the strips have been pro-
perly adjusted, take off the two which represent the
ridges, paste them, and fix them securely in their
places again. The other two strips may now be re-
moved ; they will not be wanted again. The places
they have filled, now left bare, represent the hollows ;
and here the wood may be cut away and hollowed out
with mallet and gouge, till a sufficient and regular
depth has been reached. This done, the angles of
the ridges, at present covered with paper, can be
worked off and shaped with the chisel, and the whole
finished by the use of a half-round file and sand-paper.
When he has once carried out these directions, the
amateur restorer will be surprised to find how easily
so apparently difficult a work as making a twist is to
be effected.
Whenever any portion of an article has to be re-
placed, it is desirable that, in doing so, old wood
should be used. Old oak owes, as has already been
said, its deep rich colour to ammonia absorbed from
the air through a long course of years. Now, by
exposing new oak to powerful ammoniacal fumes, as
in a stable, for a comparatively short time, much the
same effect may be produced ; but the change is too
slow for the knowledge of this fact to be of much
value in practice. Few will have patience to leave
their work unfinished for months, that the new parts
may have time to colour. It is better, therefore, to use
old wood.
There need not be much difficulty in getting a
sufficient supply of such as has had a seasoning of a
couple of centuries. Articles broken past repair, or
too poor in character to be worth preserving, will fre-
quently fall in the way of the collector, and may be
bought for a mere trifle ; whilst the re-seating of
churches, and pulling down of old houses, will also
afford opportunities of acquiring panelling and other
useful old oak-work, at a nominal cost.
It is true that old wood, when worked, will by no
means show the same dark colour within, which it
carried on its original surface. The more you cut
away, the lighter it will appear ; but still in its chemical
nature it will yet differ widely from new wood ; and
when touched with stain, it may readily be brought to
the true old colour.
The stain to be used for this purpose may be made
by putting scraps of iron, such as old nails, in a bottle
with vinegar, and leaving them for a few days, that a
portion of the iron may be dissolved. If this solution
be applied to new oak, it will turn it to a purplish
black. Oiling and polishing will remove the purple
tinge, but the dark colour which will remain will want
the richness and beauty of that given by age. When,
however, the solution is applied to old oak newly
worked, it restores to it just the proper hue. This
stain does its work most effectually when applied hot ;
and in matching old colour, it is well to weaken it with
water, and touch again and again, till the exact shade
is reached.
The new work, when stained, as well as the old — ■
at present left rough from the soda-scrubbing — should
be rubbed over with linseed oil. This should have
two or three days to dry before polish is applied.
For polishing dark oak, nothing better has ever
been introduced to supersede the old-fashioned receipt
of beeswax and turpentine. These ingredients should
be melted together in an oven, or near a fire, so as to
form when cold a thin jelly. Some add resin, in pro-
portion to the wax of one to three. This is to be well
rubbed on with a brush, and finished with a piece of
woollen cloth. To give a good polish the composition
should be used sparingly, but labour should be applied
freely.
For our present purpose, varnish cannot generally
be recommended. The glassy surface which it gives
is not pleasing to the eye. Yet there are circumstances
under which varnish may be used with advantage.
For instance, interesting carving may sometimes come
to hand in too tender a state to bear the friction of
polishing, whilst by varnishing it may be protected
and bound together. When varnish is used, too, an
easy means is offered by which any lighter part of the
wood may be brought to the general colour. A little
burnt umber ground up with varnish, and laid over it,
does this at once.
Cracks, old nail-holes, or other small openings,
may be stopped with putty, with which enough pow-
dered burnt umber has been worked to bring it to the
proper shade ; or ordinary putty may be used, and
touched with colour afterwards. The former plan is
the best.
In late antique furniture, some of the characteristic
decorative brasses are often missing. This r-
difficulty, as the want cannot be supplied '
modern ironmonger's stock. The restorer
off one of the remaining brasses, and, us
pattern, have others cast from it. In t
not well give names, or the rear
35°
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
with inserting an advertisement ; but if any one should require the
information, and will communicate with me through the Editor of
Amateur Work, Illustrated, I shall be happy to tell him where
he can get such things done at a reasonable cost.
In making restorations, it is as much a point of good taste as of
antiquarian propriety to preserve the original character as far as
possible ; and as old things sometimes come to hand so much broken,
or so clumsily mended, as to make it difficult to say what the original
form may have been, it is always well carefully to observe and study any
good and undoubtedly genuine work which may fall in our way. The
temptation is often great to alter, and, as we think, to enrich and
improve the things beneath our hands ; but to this feeling we ought
not lightly to give way. An old piece of furniture, which preserves its
original character, and shows no more new work than honest mending
requires, is more valuable in the
estimation of those best qualified
to judge, than any " made-up
affair."
At one period, when German
wool work was a fashionable em-
ployment with ladies, old high-
backed chairs were eagerly sought,
that they might be despoiled of
their cane fittings, and made to
serve as frames on which to ex-
hibit the perpetrations of that
most inartistic art. The chair
thus treated lost its characteristic
lightness of effect. Of such an
act of barbarism we should
scarcely be guilty nowadays ; and,
in passing, it may be observed
that nothing is simpler than the
repairing of old cane-work. The
material is to be bought for a
trifle, ready prepared ; and a
mere glance at any cane-fitted
REPAIRING FOOT OF CHAIR.
"•THENING LEG OF
chair will show how the strips
ought to be interwoven, and se-
cured in their holes with little
pegs.
But there are certain limits
beyond which we cannot carry
our conservative principles. It is
scarcely to be expected that the
collector of antique furniture will
do so simply that he may convert
his house into a museum. He
will demand that his acquisitions
shall serve the purposes of decora-
tion and of use ; and the require-
ments of modern habits must
have some weight in his decisions
with regard to them. A few hints
on the conversion of old things
to modern uses must needs form
some part of our scheme.
A well-carved chest may pro-
perly find a place in an entrance-
hall, or on a landing, or possibly in a study ; but in its present form it
can scarcely be admitted to a drawing or dining-room. Yet of chests,
which are worthy of conspicuous places, the collector is pretty sure to get
a superabundance.
In Fig. 8, an attempt has been made in a rough way to show how,
with some little contrivance, a chest may be made to do service as a
sideboard. In the middle compartment A we have a chest about four feet
long, almost in its original state. But as in its present position, some new
means of opening it will be necessary, we must do one of two things —
either saw round the two outer front panels, put hinges to them, and fit up
the interior as cupboards ; or leave our chest to do the office of a chest
still, and get at the inside by sawing the lid through the middle from end
to end. This being furnished with fresh hinges, will allow the front half
of the lid to be opened, without interfering with the back half and the
superstructure raised upon it.
Let us suppose that a second chest, of much the same size, is at the
9. — STANDING DESK, MADE OF BOX AND
REMAINS OF TABLE.
HINTS ON THE RESTORATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE.
3Si
worker's disposal. Its back will serve as a back for
our open space D, in the lower compartment. The
bottom of this c can be made from its lid. The
supports D may be made from the debris of a broken-
up table, or if none such are at hand, new ones may
be made.
In the higher compartment E I have placed a
central recess, and two small lockers, surmounted by
a shelf. The back of this compartment is formed of
the front of the second chest, one of whose carved
panels shows at the back of the recess. The lids of
the lockers are small panels from the ends of the
chest, originally plain,
but now carved to
resemble those of the
chest No. i. I may
here mention that in
copying the flat sur-
face decoration of
panels, an easy method
of transferring the pat-
terns may be made
use of, viz., by laying
a piece of paper over
the original, rubbing it
over with shoemaker's
heel ball, which will
give the raised surfaces
in black, and then
pasting the paper over
the new panel to be
carved. The four pi-
lasters which flank the
lockers are supposed
to be two joint-stool
legs, sawn through
their centres. Some
odd scraps of carving
fill the space above
the shelf. This piece
of furniture might be
made more simply by omitting the lockers in the
upper compartments ; but in any case, very little be-
yond the component parts of the two chests would
be required to form it.
I have mentioned that in cottages it is not a rare
thing to meet with small square boxes, richly carved.
In Fig. 9 I have tried to show how such a box may be
converted into a standing writing-desk. The box,
with a small addition to its back and sides, forms the
body of the desk. The top may be covered with
leather or American leather-cloth, secured by a strip
of caning round the edge. The frame on which it
stands is wholly composed of the dibris of an eight-
legged table ; excepting the strips which run round
FIG. 8.— SIDEBOARD MADE OF TWO CHESTS.
said,
the central shelf, which are new, and have been
carved to match the style of the box. Such a piece
of furniture is a valuable addition to a study. All
who write much, know how greatly a standing-desk
conduces to health and comfort ; and for the benefit
of any amateur who may care to build one, I may
mention that I have been informed by one of our
most eminent oculists, that the proper height, so far
as regards the all- important question of eyesight,
is that the top should be exactly on a level with the
elbow of the person for whose use it is intended, when
that person is in an upright position. The present
paper has been written
at a desk made up of
fragments like that
before us. A what-
not might be con-
structed on somewhat
the same lines.
Illustrations like the
two given might be
multiplied to any ex-
tent, but these will
suffice to show how
easily, with a little
skill and contrivance,
old articles may be
/■\ adapted to modern
uses. These sketches
may also furnish some
hints as to how scraps
of old carving, and
odds and ends of
broken antique furni-
ture— things which in
themselves are little
better than lumber —
may be so worked up
as to become decora-
tive and useful. There
is no part, it may be
of an old carved table or chair or chest, however
small it may be, and valueless as it may appear, that
cannot be turned to good account by any amateur who
is acquainted with the mere rudiments of the cabinet-
maker's art. Therefore, I cannot urge too strongly on
all who may have a taste and liking for this kind of
furniture, and the work of turning it to good account,
the desirability of storing up for future use every scrap
that can be got hold of by hook or by crook, as the old
saying runs. There must be few who by ta' '
of something that is apparently worthless
realized the truth of the saying that "Everyl
useful once in seven years." And this is ■"■
of old carving as for any other kind r>*
352
VELOCIPEDES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE.
VELOCIPEDES :
THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE.
By A. STEPHENSON.
I.— The Origin and History of the Velocipede.
IT is proposed, in this and the papers to
follow, to give a fully detailed account,
aided by a copious use of figures and
diagrams, of the materials and construc-
tion of this now well-known means of
locomotion, with reference particularly to that form of
Velocipede nowknown as the Tricycle, or three-wheeler.
By way of introduction it may be allowable to say
a few words regarding the earliest efforts to construct
light wheel carriages, upon which the rider could propel
himself along, now known as Velocipedes.
The word " velocipede " is derived from the Latin
velox (gen. velocis), swift, and pes (gen. -pedis), foot ;
and may, therefore, be defined to mean — velocity by
means of pedal motion, that is to say, motion pro-
duced by the power of the legs or feet ; so that
strictly speaking, a machine driven otherwise than
by the feet is not a velocipede. However that
may be, the term velocipede is now accepted as the
comprehensive name of the whole family of self-
propelling machines ; their distinctive or individual
names arising from the number of their wheels, such
as Bicycle, Tricycle, Quadricycle, etc.
"Walker," in his Dictionary says, " Velocipede, a
carriage for one person, who propels it by striking the
tips of his toes against the ground." He evidently
refers to the bicycle in its primitive form, as it was then
so propelled.
In " Haydn's Dictionary of Dates," I find under
the head "Velocipedes," that as early as 1779, an
aeronaut, named M. Blanchard, invented a machine
of the velocipede type, but no account of its appear-
ance or construction is there given, although he says
it was described in ihe Journal de Paris at the time.
Then in 1S1S, a velocipede was invented by the
Baron von Drais, in Baden. It was called the
" Dandy-horse," and was patented in Paris and Lon-
don. This machine was propelled by striking the toes
against the ground, and was in fact a bicycle minus
the cranks. It was called the " Pedestrian's Accele-
rator," and the " Speed-maker." It was introduced
into London by a Mr. Johnson, and was eagerly
inspected by the curious. Like most novelties upon
their introduction, its capabilities and advantages
"ready exaggerated ; for example, it was said that
of eight or ten miles an hour could be attained
"ho had learnt to manage it. Fancy digging
~ito the ground at the rate of ten miles an
' ' think that a mile or two of that sort of
tisfied the most enthusiastic, that
if with the " Dandy-horse," speed was accelerated, it
was at the cost of great fatigue, and at a greatly in-
creased autlay for shoe leather. Certain it is that this
mode of locomotion soon sunk into oblivion, and we
hear no more of it for over forty years.
It was in i860 or 1S61 that a revival took place
in the creation of the " Bone-shaker," which is, or was
a machine very similar to the "Dandy-horse" of
Baron von Drais, but furnished with the very decided
improvement of cranks to the fore wheel.
The idea of balancing and driving a machine with
two wheels in one track, i.e., a Bicycle, and that by
means of cranks and pedals, must have been stirring
the minds of more than one amateur mechanic prior
to i860 ; for I recollect, perfectly, being an eye-witness
in 1857 to the efforts of a young man in a town in the
west of Scotland, to ride a bicycle constructed by him-
self. I can recollect that it had two wooden wheels,
nearly, if not quite equal in size, running in line,
the fore wheel furnished with cranks and wooden
pedals. The wheels were enclosed down to the axles
by the upper portion or body of a horse made of paste-
board, or some such material, and on this horse was
placed a saddle. I cannot now remember what means
he had for steering, if any, but I recollect that his
appearance on his hobby-horse excited the wonder
and the curiosity of the whole locality, and he was
literally hemmed in by a crowd of all ages. His
early efforts to propel the machine resulted in a
few tumbles, but these were not serious as the machine
was low, the wheels being about 30 ins. in diameter.
When I witnessed the performance, the rider had
attained some degree of proficiency, as he could run
several hundred yards without a mishap. The thing
was really and truly a bicycle, and was very little im-
proved upon in the first " Bone-shaker " I saw ridden
by a Mr. Coats, of Paisley, in 1S63 or 1864.
The transition from the clumsy wooden wheels
with iron tyres to the light and airy wire spokes and
india-rubber, was a great and important one. Another
notable change in form was the gradual increase in
diameter of the leading wheel, and a corresponding
decrease in diameter of its follower, till we now find
them as in racing machines of a relative diameter of
about 5 to I.
It would be safe to conclude that many attempts
were made by amateur mechanics to construct self-
propelling machines having three or more wheels, long
prior to, and quite apart from the bold idea of balanc-
ing upon two wheels running in line. I can recollect
when a boy seeing a four-wheeler propelled by four
riders, at a mining village near Kilmarnock. The idea
seemed to have been taken from the wheel work of a
cab, and was about as heavy. It was propelled by each
rider having a pair of upright hand levers in the form
VELOCIPEDES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE.
353
of round poles, and cumbrous as the machine was, it
was driven at a good speed by the combined strength
of its occupants. How it was guided I cannot say, but
they must have had some means of doing so, for they
took the windings of the roads at a speed that soon left
all the small boys " on mischief bent," far in the rear.
When the bicycle began to make its appearance
in our streets and roads nearly twenty years ago, the
sage and the timid viewed it as a machine to be
mounted by the reckless and foolhardy ; they looked
upon the young man on the top of the wheel, as court-
ing broken limbs, or possibly a broken neck. The
machine itself, among other things, was likened to a
grinder's wheel. We have all heard of the woman
who, when a bicyclist halted before her door, went
out with the scissors, asking his price to grind them.
By 1S69 and 1870, the velocipede had established
itself as a means of locomotion, though used mostly
for recreative purposes, and that mostly by young
men and youths ; and makers confined themselves
almost exclusively to the manufacture of the two-
wheeler, notwithstanding the fact that the great
majority of the public regarded it as a machine
requiring too much practice to manage, and at least
fraught with dangers only to be faced by reckless
young men. They conceived, and that rightly, that
they could sit more comfortably and more safely on a
machine having wheels on either side — a machine
requiring no careful balancing, and in which they
would be free to devote their whole attention and
energy to its propulsion. Such a machine not being
forthcoming by bicycle-makers, very many set about
contriving three and four-wheelers. These persons
were chiefly blacksmiths and wheelwrights. I could
name six or seven in my native town who, during the
bone-shaker period, constructed machines, three and
four-wheelers, all of them with clumsy wooden wheels,
and clumsier framework and driving gear. These
machines were finished after a fashion, taken out and
tried, and the first trial was generally the last — they
were too fatiguing to drive. They had iron tyres and
were destitute of springs, so the sensations of the
rider may be imagined ; they were taken in to undergo
certain improvemeiits, which improvements have yet
to be effected. I know one blacksmith who made a
four-wheeler, he got a wheelwright to make the
wheels, then used up about two hundredweight of iron,
at last it was finished, and he took it out at midnight
to try, somehow there was " no go " in it, although the
street was level. At last about a dozen persons sur-
rounded him, ar.d some one proposed to give him a
" shove," he resented interference, and declared he
thought it would go if he could get the wheels to go
round. This was kept up as a standing joke at his
expense for many a day.
All these rude attempts at velocipede construction
are now destroyed, or possibly remnants of them may
still linger in out-of-the-way lumber corners, for the
era of steel wire spokes set in and drove out of sight
the clumsy wooden wheels and their clumsier ad-
juncts.
Makers soon began to realise the fact, that if their
trade was to be developed, they must contrive
machines for other than young men, machines that
may be used by the aged and infirm, as well as the
young and lithe of limb, not forgetting ladies, and the
result is that the bicycle-makers, are now turning out
machines to carry one, two, three, and even four
persons, known as Tricycles and Quadricycles.
The tricycle, which will be the machine chiefly
under consideration in these papers, compared with
the bicycle, has its advantages and disadvantages.
It has the advantage of being easier to ride on
account of its stability ; you may stop when an im-
pediment is in the way, or to speak to a friend with-
out dismounting. It has the advantage also of
accommodating two or more persons as a sociable,
and of carrying more luggage, and is in consequence
of the latter advantage, more in use by letter-carriers,
etc. Another advantage over the bicycle is, that
upon ice, or very slippery roads, it will run safely, and
take the sharpest turns without a tumble, because its
three wheels, although turning, are still at right angles
with the surface of the icy roads. One of its dis-
advantages is said to be its inability to keep up with
the bicycle in speed, by reason of the increased weight
and more friction. This is certainly true of the
earlier types of tricycles, but this drawback is being
rapidly removed. The machine admits of an infinity
of methods of driving.
The bicycle is a wheel with two cranks, and there
it is as near perfection as it ever can come ; you
cannot adapt the thousand and one methods of pro-
pulsion to it that may be applied to a tricycle, though
some of them may be, and are being applied to it.
Makers are now giving a large share of their
ingenuity and skill to the means of propelling tricycles,
and tricycles are now made that will mount a hill with
the best bicycle. The tricycle has not arrived at any-
thing like perfection, and I see no reason why it
should not be constructed to run along side of and
mount a hill, leaving the bicycle at the bottom.
There are doubtless many readers of Amateur
Work, Illustrated, possessed of a mechanical turn
of mind, and possessed also of the facilities for its
gratification in the way of tools and means. To .
I will endeavour to make these papers intelligibl
instructive, leaving nothing unsaid that may be '
to them in the building of their own velocipedf
(To be continued.')
354
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT.
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT.
B\j GEORGE EDWINSON.
[HE grand collection of electric lights ex-
hibited at the Crystal Palace has naturally
awakened in the minds of many persons,
in both town and country, the desire to
possess the means of enjoying the light
from an electric lamp in their own homes. Hitherto
the means to gratify such a desire have been so costly
and troublesome as to practically render its attainment
impossible to all except those who are wealthy. But
at last the coveted treasure is placed within the reach
of my readers, and
I feel free to give
them a first article on
the subject.
I will not stay to
examine the claims of
rival makers of electric
lamps, nor to compare
the respective merits
of the many various
lamps before the pub-
lic. It is now gene-
rally understood that
these lamps are divided
into three classes —
( I ) Arc lamps ; (2)
Semi-incandescent
lamps ; (3) Incandes-
cent lamps. In the arc
lamps the carbon
candles are consumed
in air by a kind of
fretting of the " two
points by the force of
the electric current,
the fretted and highly luminous particles being con-
sumed between the two carbon points in the form
of a double arc of light. The best known types
of this lamp are those of Siemen's, the Brush Com-
pany's, and the Jablochkoff lamps. This kind of
lamp requires a current of great force, only available
from those large generators of electricity known
as dynamo-electric machines. They are, there-
fore, inadmissible here, except to claim a passing
notice in comparing them with others. In the semi-
— ndescent lamps the carbon is also consumed in
but only one carbon is thus consumed, and this
■ntirely in the form of an arc. A pencil of carbon
ide to rest against a block of carbon in the upper
the lamp, as in the Werdermann lamp ; or
a cylinder of copper, as in the Joel lamp.
FIG. I.-
LAMP.
When the electric current is made to pass through
the carbon pencil, its point becomes incandescent,
and glows with a white heat, whilst at the same time
small particles of glowing carbon are fretted off, as in
the arc lamps. In the incandescent lamps a filament
of carbon is made to glow with a white heat under the
force of the electric current, but it is not allowed to
consume away. This is achieved by enclosing the
filament in a little glass globe, exhausting all the air
in the globe, and then sealing it hermetically. As
carbon cannot consume without a supply of oxygen,
and this supply (from the air) is cut off, the filament
may be kept at a white heat for a very long time, even
hundreds of hours, without showing the least sign of
being burnt away.
There are many forms
f this lam p in the
market ; the best
known bear the names
of Swan, Edison,
Maxim, Lane-Fox, and
the British lamps. All
use the carbon filament
in a tiny glass globe,
and differ only in the
form and quality of
the filament and its
attachment to the con-
necting points of the
line, therefore we will
not discuss their me-
rits, but select the
Swan lamp as a type
of the whole for our
purpose here.
Mr. Swan, of New-
castle - on - Tyne, and
Mr. Edison, of Menlo
Park, New York,
claimants for the honour
of applying the electric
G. 4.
-ELECTRIC NOVELTY COMPANY'S INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC
FIG. 2. — BUNSEN CELL. FIG. 3.— COUPLING CELLS IN SERIES.
FIG. 4. — CONNECTING CELLS IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT.
U.S.A., are the two rival
of solving the problem
light to domestic purposes by the invention of the
incandescent lamp. Without attempting to advocate
the claims of either, we venture to say that the
question is now settled, and that the incandescent
electric light will furnish the domestic light of the
future. The Swan Electric Light Company, of New-
castle-on-Tyne, and their agents, are now pre-
pared to fit up their system wherever required, or to
sell lamps alone for the purpose. About a year since
we could not get one of those lamps for less than 25s.
each, now they are sold at 5s. each, and are advertised
at that price. As we hear that many persons have
deceived themselves by buying one of the Swan lamps
thinking to get the light also without any further
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT.
355
outlay, it will be well to state a few facts here con-
cerning them, to prevent further mistake. An average
Swan lamp will give a light of from sixteen to twenty
sperm candles if supplied with enough electric current,
but the necessary current for this purpose can only be
generated by thirty Bunsen cells
of quart size connected in series
— that is, in file one after another.
If properly arranged, five lamps
may be lit by fifty such cells.
Let us look at the probable cost
of this system. Taking the cost
of each cell at 4s. 6d., each lamp
at 5s., and the necessary fittings
at 5 s. per lamp, we get —
30 Bunsen cells, at 4 6
1 Lamp and fittings
£(> 1;
£7 5 o
50 Bunsen cells, at 46 £1 1 50
5 Lamps 5; fittings, at 10/- 2 10 o
fig. 6.-
£13 15 °
Added to this is the cost and
trouble of charging and cleaning
the cells, and an intolerable
nuisance arising from battery
fumes, enough in itself, independent of cost, to dis-
suade an amateur from undertaking such a task.
Clearly, then, we may not think of lighting our homes
with the Swan lamp by current derived from batter)'
power, and must await the time, not very far off, when
they may be lit from mains of current generated by
little lamps are being sold by the Electric Novelty
Company, 60, Strand, London, at 10s. 6d. each lamp,
or an outfit of one lamp and its battery for 40s. The
form of this lamp is shown in the subjoined sketch, its
construction is as follows : — A thread or filament of
some carbonised material is bent
into the form of a loop, the two
ends of which are attached to
two thin wires of platinum, and
these are embedded in the glass
stem of the lamp globe, this globe
is then placed in connection with
an air pump and all the air is
sucked from its interior, then the
orifice is hermetically sealed by
fusing the glass closely around the
conducting wires. The two loops
of the conducting wires are con-
nected with the terminal poles of
the battery, and the current from
six quart cells of Bunsen's battery
heats the carbon filament to an
incandescent condition, giving a
light said to be equal to that from
eight sperm candles.
It will be easily understood that
SECTION" OF PLATINUM INCANDESCENT
ELECTRIC LAMP.
A, Lever to short-circuit current when the pla-
tinum wire is overheated; B, Pillar to support .■
lever; c, Foot of standard holding platinum this form of lamp cannot be manu-
factured at home, hence we have
not entered into the minutia? of its construction ; but a
few words respecting the battery may be acceptable.
The Bunsen cell, Fig. 2, is composed of an outer contain-
ing cell of stoneware, into which loosely fits a cylinder
of zinc, and a cell of porous earthenware within this in
which is placed a square rod of carbon. The porous
(§<K§H§K§H§i)
l'IG. j. — METHOD 01' CONNECTING EATTEKY AND LAMP IN CIRCUIT.
dynamo-electric machines maintained by electric
light companies. As the other incandescent lamps
above mentioned, require similar conditions to work
them, we will dismiss them altogether.
But we are not entirely left in the dark. We can
now get little lamps giving a light of eight-candle
power with a current from six Bunsen cells. Those
cell is charged with strong nitric acid, and the outer
pot or cell with a mixture of one part sulphuric acid
(oil of vitriol) in eight parts of water. The zinc cylinder
must be well amalgamated with mercury, and this
should be done as follows : — First clean the zinc by
immersing it for a short time in the battery mixture
above mentioned, and brushing with a hard brn-' '-
356
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT.
coachman's carriage or spoke brush is a handy tool for
this purpose) ; when it has been thus cleaned, roll the
cylinder in a baking dish in which has been placed an
ounce or two of mercury (quicksilver). If the zinc is
clean it will be quickly covered with mercury on the
outer surface, brush this well over and sweep some of
the mercury into the inside of the cylinder with the
brush, continue sweeping it in and brushing it until all
the zinc has been made bright with mercury, then
brush off all superfluous drops, and place the amalga-
mated cylinder in its place in the outer cell. Now put
the carbon block in the porous cell, and take care in
charging it with the nitric acid, not to spill any of the
acid on the outside of the cell nor fill it above the
intended line of the acid mixture of the outer cell.
Put this cell in its place, and then charge the outer
cell with the acid mixture, then clean and fix the
binding screws to carbon and zinc ready for work.
There are two distinct methods of making up a
battery of cells : one being known as coupling them in
" series," the other as joining up in " multiple arc," or
" parallel circuit." To couple them in " series " (Fig. 3)
we connect the zinc of one cell with the carbon of the
next, and so on through the long string of cells form-
ing the battery ; joining them in "multiple arc" is the
converse of this arrangement, all the zincs being con-
nected to one line wire and all the carbons to another.
This is graphically shown in Fig. 4. By the first
arrangement the battery is given " pushing power," or
the ability so to speak of overcoming resistance in the
circuit, a property nearly analogous to high pressure
in water and steam ; by the second we increase the
volume or quantity of electricity generated in a given
time, and it finds its analogy in a large boiler filled
with steam at a low pressure. In connecting up a
battery of cells for the electric light, we invariably
couple them in series to overcome the resistance of
the lamp carbons ; but it is best to adopt the converse
arrangement in the lamps if more than one lamp is
required to be worked from one battery. The arrange-
ment of lamps is shown in Fig. 5.
The Bunsen battery will supply a vigorous current
for four hours continuously, after this its force
diminishes during the next four hours, and on such
work as this we cannot hope to get effective work for
a longer period than six hours. At the end of this
time the cells must be taken to pieces, the zinc
cylinders washed, brushed, and reamalgamated, the
binding screws, clamps, and wires cleaned with emery
cloth, and the carbon blocks, cells, etc , rinsed with
water. It is best to dip the brush in the battery mix-
ture and brush the zincs with it before they are amal-
gamated, this will use up a part of the mixture. Before
recharging the cells this deficiency must be made up
Kv pouring fresh acid and water into the pitcher with
the old mixture and thus refresh it. The nitric acid
should be poured from the cells into a jug, and be used
again if it is not exhausted of its properties ; if it pours
out from the cells green and fuming, it is all right ; if
it pours out nearly black, it is almost exhausted ; but
if it has changed from this latter tint to a yellowish
liquid or one free from colour, it is exhausted, and
fresh acid must be put in the cell with the carbon.
The process of cleaning must be gone through imme-
diately after each time of using the battery, and this
must be made up afresh each night just before the
light is required. Whilst the battery is at work it
gives off dense brown nitrous fumes from the inner
cell, which have an offensive odour, and are deleterious
to health. Various expedients have been adopted to
nullify the effects of those fumes. The cells have been
put in a box, and a sheet of blotting-paper saturated with
ammonia has been spread over them, or little boxes of
ammonia carbonate put in with the cells, but the best
plan is to put the box and its contents in an out-house
or shed, and lead the wires from the battery into the
house, in this case the line wires should be large and
offer as little resistance as possible to the current.
The nuisance arising from the noxious fumes of
this and the Grove battery has led many persons to
devise other forms of electric generators which should
be free from the objectionable features above men-
tioned, and yet be powerful enough to produce the
electric light. The quiet and inoffensive batteries
used in electro-deposition, and in doing such work as
ringing electric bells, are altogether ineffective for
this work. We have therefore to turn our attention
elsewhere, and in doing so find that those batteries in
which bichromate of potash does duty instead of nitric
acid, promise to fulfil the first requirement : they are
also powerful, but, like many other fickle jades, they
are inconstant and liable to fail within at most an
hour after being set up. Many methods have been
devised by electricians and chemists to overcome this
defect, hence we have the constant battery of Mr.
Fuller, where the position of the elements are reversed,
a rod of amalgamated zinc going in the porous cell
with a little mercury, and a plate or carbon in the
outer cell, the first being charged with the acid
mixture, and the other with a saturated solution of
bichromate of potash acidulated with one-fifth of
sulphuric acid. This battery has been used with
some success, but to be efficient the outer cells must
be large, two carbon plates must be used, and two
plates of rolled zinc instead of a rod of cast zinc. Mr.
Dale's constant bichromate battery may also be used
for this purpose under similar conditions to that given
for the Fuller cell. Mr. Urquhart has also described
a constant bichromate cell in " Design and Work," of
August 20, 1881, which has been said to be most
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT
357
effective for the electric light, but as I have not tried
it I cannot say anything about its effectiveness.
The following modification of a plan for making a
cheap batter)' may be found useful in making up a
battery for the electric light. Put an ordinary porous
pot in the centre of a quart stoneware cell, and pack
the space around with a mixture of equal parts by
weight of iron turnings or borings and peroxide of
manganese, using a strip of iron hoop instead of a
zinc plate for the positive element. This cell is
to be charged with bichromate solution as prepared
for the Fuller cell. Now get a thin strip of carbon to
go in the porous cell, and charge this cell with a
mixture of one part nitric acid to ten parts of water,
cut a barrel bung in two and fit them in the top of the
porous cell, and on each side of the carbon so as to
seal it -in the cell and prevent any fumes from rising,
or a wooden cover may be made for the purpose. In
the original plan (with platinised silver in the porous
cell) a batter)- of six cells has been said to light up an
incandescent lamp, and work for eight days without
renewal.
Nearly all early experimenters with the incandescent
electric lamp have tested the efficiency of a thin wire of
platinum, relying upon its known infusibility, even
when kept at a white heat by ordinary methods of
heating. But platinum wire has failed when heated
by a current of electricity, and the thin spiral or loop
has frequently suffered disruption from the current
when the light has been at its best. Not a month
since I saw a 5s. lamp prove a dead loss to its owner
by the fusing of die platinum loop under the current
of four Bunsen cells of quart size, weakly charged, and
I hear that this is not a solitary case. If this
material could be safely used it would prove a boon to
the amateur lamp-maker, since the fine platinum wire
is within his reach, but the carbon filaments are
unnattainable by him. The following method of
making a platinum incandescent lamp (published in a
letter to The Mechatiical World') promises to be a
good one, within the means and skill of almost every
person. The necessary materials are a disc of wood,
\ inch thick, and 2 inches diameter, 6 inches of
No. 10 B. W. G. copper wire, 3 inches of No. 40
platinum wire, and a large test tube. The form of
lamp and its construction is shown in the sketches,
Fig. 6, which have been altered a little in detail from
the original sketch to suit less skilful persons than its
designer. The base may be neatly turned up out of a
piece of hard wood and hollowed as shown, or made
out of any odd bit of wood and left flat.
The standard of bent copper wire may be fixed to
the base by a foot C, made by flattening one end of the
wire, boring a hole to receive a small screw, and
turning up a small contact piece ; or it may be brazed
to a small brass stud made to screw into the base.
The bent part must be slit with a file or hack-saw to
clip the lupper end of the platinum wire P, and the
lower end of this wire must be held in a corresponding
slit made in the lever A. This lever may be made out
of a piece of the copper wire (as used in the construc-
tion of the standard), bent to the form shown in sketch,
or it may be made of brass. The pillar to support this
lever may also be made out of a bit of the wire shaped
as shown at B, or it may be made from a small brass
screw. The contact parts of A and C must be tipped
with a bit of platinum foil soldered on, and it will be
well to solder the leading wires to the pillar B and the
foot of the standard C, afterwards passing them
through holes in the base and attaching them to the
binding screws on each side. A large test tube* inverted
over the working parts of the lamp and held in a
circular groove at the bottom, forms a neat shade and
protection to the light. The working of this lamp is
as follows : Connect the two binding screws with the
two poles of a powerful battery ; if the current is
strong enough, it will heat the platinum wire white hot,
and it will then give out dazzling white rays of light,
whilst the wire will expand and lengthen. If the lever A
is free to move, and has been properly adjusted, it will
drop slowly, and nearly touch the foot c. A little
more current, such as would fuse the platinum wire,
will cause it to lengthen still further ; A will then touch
C, and short- circuit the current until P has cooled
enough to draw A away from C, when p will again get
white hot. If the current is not strong enough, the
platinum will only get red or yellow, and emit a feeble
light, and if it then short-circuits the lamp, the wire
must be shortened. It will thus be seen that the
platinum wire may be adjusted to bear any current
short of that necessary to fuse the wire, and this acci-
dent may be prevented by adjusting the wire to short-
circuit through A and c when the wire gets dangerously
hot. The light from this lamp will not be equal to
that from a carbon lamp, but it has the merit of being
cheap, easy of construction, and easily repaired ; it
may also be worked with a few Fuller or Dale cells.
Much attention is now being given to the subject
by interested vendors of the lamps, and also by
amateurs wishing to have a specimen of the new light.
It is, therefore, probable that several new forms of
lamps will be brought out this season, together with
new forms of batteries to work them. I shall endea-
vour to make myself acquainted with them, and give
papers on the subject from time to time, as occasion
may require, if the subject finds favour with my
readers. {To be continued.)
* Test tubes, 1^ inches in diameter, may be obtained of
J. J. Griffin & Son, 22, Garrick Street, W. , at is. iod. per
dozen.
358
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.
By LEO PARSET.
II.
How to Sharpen Carving Tools.— What Woods
to Use, etc
AVING described in my last article some
of the principal tools at first required for
wood-carving, I will now proceed to give
the necessary instructions as to the best
methods of sharpening them. As I before
stated, the success of the amateur wood-carver de-
pends greatly upon his tools being properly sharpened,
for if this is not the case the tools do not work freely,
and carving, instead of being a pleasure, becomes a
laborious and unsatisfactory performance.
It should therefore be borne in mind by the
student that the more time and labour bestowed upon
getting his tools into proper working order at first, the
more satisfactory will his work appear when finished.
I am tempted to write thus strongly on this point, as I
am well aware that the necessary labour required is of
an extremely uninteresting nature, and is therefore apt
to be carelessly and hurriedly performed, the beginner
being anxious to commence the practical work at
once.
New tools of course require far more time and
attention to bring them into working order than tools
that have been previously used, and are simply dull
and blunt. In the latter case five minutes' rubbing on
the oil-stone, with a few finishing touches on the strap,
will bring on a keen edge. New tools require, first of
all, to be ground on a slow-cutting grindstone, care
being taken to use plenty of water during the process,
otherwise there is a danger of the tool becoming so
heated as to draw or affect the temper. It is some-
what difficult to state exactly how far back from the
edge of the tool the grinding should extend, as if taken
too far back, it leaves the edge too thin, but in mosj
cases from £ inch to £ of an inch will be sufficient.
After the tools have been ground, they require to
be well rubbed out from the inside with a fast-cutting
oil-stone. Arkansas or Washita stone is about the
best for this purpose, and slips, in assorted sizes, can
be purchased at prices ranging from one shilling to
four shillings per pound, from most tool-dealers, or
from Churchill and Co., Cross Street, Finsbury, E.C.
Eight or nine slips will be quite sufficient for
sharpening all the tools at first required, as both the
top and bottom edges of the stones are available. In
addition to the tools previously described, a "firmer"
will be required. The best size will be about fths of an
inch in width (Fig. 14), and in sharpening this tool both
sides are ground equally, and afterwards finished off
on a perfectly flat stone.
The other flat tools are all more or less hollowed
out on the inside by using stones that are slightly
convex. I mentioned in the previous article how the
insides of the parting tool and veiner were sharpened,
but I may add that a medium-sized parting-tool and a
very small veiner will be found the most useful to the
amateur.
After the inside of a tool has been thoroughly
rubbed out, and there is but little danger of sharpening
it too much from the inside, the outside edge should
be finished off by sharpening on the side of one of the
slips, the sides of the slips will soon become concave,
so as to fit the backs of the tools for which they are
used. Care should be taken to keep the edge of the
tools perfectly even and square.
Fig. 15 illustrates tools properly sharpened, and
Fig. 16 a couple of the same tools improperly sharp-
ened. In rubbing out tools it will be better to fix the
slip of stone in a vice, placing it between two pieces
of cork to prevent breakage, where more pressure can
be brought to bear on it, both hands being used to
hold the tool firmly.
In sharpening the outsides of tools the tool is held
in the left hand, and the stone is moved sharply up
and down the edge by the right hand, except in the
case of very flat tools, when the stone can be placed
on the bench, and both hands used to grasp the tool.
Ordinary machine oil, or in some cases paraffin, is
used as a lubricant, and to increase the cutting power
of the stones, emery powder is sometimes added. To
put a finishing clean-cutting edge on the tools, a strap
is used, and this can easily be made by the amateur.
It consists simply of a strip of buff-leather — a piece of
a soldier's cast-off belt is best — about ten inches long
and four inches wide, plentifully saturated with tallow
and crocus powder, which should be well rubbed into
the leather before a fire. When properly made, this
strap will be found to give a keen edge to the tools,
and by slightly doubling it the inside of the tool can
be finished off as well as the outside.
A good way of testing the keenness of edge on a
tool is to try it on a piece of soft deal, cutting aa-oss
the grain, when, if the tool is properly sharpened, a
clean cut, without any tearing of the grain, will be the
result.
Before commencing a piece of carving, I should
recommend the student to spend an hour or so in
getting in order those tools likely to be required, and
unless the work is of an intricate character, a dozen or
eighteen will be sufficient. When in use, the tools are
placed on the bench, with the blades pointing towards
the worker, and owing to the slight difference in the
size and sweep of many of them, it is advisable to
know the tools by the handles, so as to be able to at
once pick up the tool required. Professional carvers
WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS.
359
have for this reason the handles of their tools made of
various woods and of different shapes — some turned,
others octagonal, etc.; in fact, seldom having two
handles alike.
Many different kinds of wood are used for carving
purposes, some being more suitable than others ; but
freedom from knots, straight grain, and compactness
are desirable qualities. For a beginner, I think either
stave-oak or American walnut-wood is the best to
commence with. Of course the kind of wood to be
used is in a great measure determined by the style of
work intended to be executed, and the purpose for
which the caning is required. For brackets, picture-
frames, and work of a similar nature, I should cer-
tainly give the preference to stave-oak or walnut,
unless very fine and delicate work is required, when
either boxwood or lime-tree-wood would be pre-
ferable.
In general it will be better to leave the wood
unstained, simply brushing the surface of the work
with boiled linseed oil. Stave-oak, in addition to
being a free-cutting wood, takes a good polish, can be
gilded so as to show the grain of the wood through
the gold, or it can be darkened so as to look like old
FIG. 14. — FIRMER CHISEL FOR CARVERS.
oak. A very good and cheap stain for this purpose
can be made by dissolving half-an-ounce of bichromate
of potash in about six ounces of water, the stain being
then applied to the wood in the usual manner. A
deeper or lighter shade of colour, as required, can
easily be obtained by either diminishing or increasing
the amount of water used. This stain, however, has
the same disadvantage as all other stains when ap-
plied to carved surfaces, as it slightly raises the grain
of the wood, giving the work a rough appearance, and
necessitating the use of sand-paper ; it therefore
answers best when applied to mouldings or plain
caned surfaces. Boiled linseed oil should be used
over the stain unless a bright polish is required ; but
oak generally looks best if left dull.
It may here be stated that sand-paper should on
no account be applied to carved work, as it destroys
the sharpness and effect ; any inequalities of the
surface or roughness should be rectified with the
tools, and not smoothed down with sand-paper, as
is sometimes the case with badly-executed work.
In many, if not in all, cases the absence of sand-
paper affords a pretty sure test of the excellence of
the work and the skill of the carver. The only pur-
poses for which sand-paper is particularly useful is
for mouldings and uncarv surfaces. English oak is
not so useful for carving purposes as the stave-oak, it
being much tougher, and frequently cross-grained,
and although a first-class wood where strength and
endurance are required, these qualities are not so
much looked for as freedom in working. Next to
FIG. 15.— TOOLS PROPERLY SHARPENED.
stave-oak, which is not always easily obtained of a
greater width than six or seven inches and three or
four inches thick, may be ranked American walnut-
wood. It is a free-cutting, straight-grained wood,
generally free from knots, takes a stain well, and
is easily polished. Lime-tree-wood is also a splendid
wood for carving purposes, being easily worked, and
without much grain ; and it is perhaps the best of
all woods to use where the work is intended to le
either stained or gilded.
Boxwood is mostly used for the finest and most
delicate description of work, for which it is peculiarly
suited, being a hard, compact wood ; it is also exten-
sively used for wood-engraving.
Ebony possesses nearly the same qualities as box-
wood, and being naturally of a rich black colour, i's
frequently used for fine carvings ; it is, however,
slightly brittle. Carved work in ebony looks better,
if left of a dull colour instead of being brightly
polished, especially if it be well brushed with a hard
brush, the plain surfaces only, such as the mouldings,
etc., in panels being brightly polished, thus affording
a good contrast with the dead colour of the carving
Ebony is frequently used instead of bog-oak, and I
believe the majority of the elegant, tasteful articles of
FIG. 16.— TOOLS IMPROPERLY SHARPENED.
jewellery, such as shamrock bracelets and harp-shaped
brooches, exposed for sale in most Irish towns are far
more frequently made of ebony than of bog-oak, as
represented. Bog-oak is in most cases far too coarse
in the grain for delicate carving, whereas ebony has
all the requisite qualities.
As an example of this, I remember on one occa-
360
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
sion, when in Dublin, endeavouring to obtain some
bog-oak, out of which to carve a few souvenirs of my
visit. I called at several shops where ornaments of
bog-oak were exposed for sale, but failed to obtain
either the wood I required or information as to where
it could be obtained. At last I called at a small
shop in an obscure part of the city, where the pro-
prietor evidently manufactured the articles he exposed
for sale, as he was at the time engaged in carving a
brooch. Upon making my wants known, he stated
his stock of wood was very small, but he gave me the
address of a firm where the wood could be procured.
I applied at the address given, which I found was an
ironmongery warehouse, and was shown a quantity of
wood, cut up into lengths of various sizes, which, upon
examination, I found to be ebony, and not bog-oak ;
but upon calling attention to this, I was informed that
the wood I saw was extensively used by the manu-
facturers of the so-called bog-oak ornaments. I
should therefore advise the amateur carver who may
be ambitious to produce articles of jewellery to use
ebony, which he will find well adapted for the
purpose.
Other woods, such as satinwood, sycamore, pear-
tree-wood, mahogany, and rosewood, are frequently
used for carving, and can all be easily procured
through most tool dealeis, who supply amateur
requisites. Of late years black and gold has come
greatly into fashion, the carved work generally being
left either dull black or gilded, the rest of the sur.
face receiving a bright polish, the woods generally
used for this description of work being either American
walnut-wood or lime-tree-wood.
If the carved work is intended to be in relief, then
the carving is done first, the wood being afterwards
stained and gilded ; but where incised work is intended,
the wood is both stained and polished before the in-
cising is done, the incised work being afterwards
gilded. This style of work looks remarkably well
when the design is good, and the incising carefully
done ; it however requires the carver to have perfect
command over the tools, as the slightest irregularity
in the lines or scroll-work is at once seen, and spoils
the whole effect, as the mistake cannot well be recti-
fied. I shall in a future paper devote some space to
incised work, giving designs and explaining the
method of treatment.
Several plans are adopted for transferring a design
to the wood, the best way being, when no working
drawing is given, to simply chalk the surface of the
wood, and draw upon it the design in outline.
Another plan is to oil a piece of what is termed
''printing demy paper," and trace upon it the
pattern. The paper should then be reversed, and the
lines traced over with a soft lead pencil ; then by
simply placing the oiled paper on the wood, and
tracing over the original lines, the design is impressed
on the wood ready for carving.
In the case of a frame, etc., where both sides or
halves of the design are alike, it will only be neces-
sary to trace one half, the other being impressed on
the wood by simply reversing the oiled paper, and
using it as above described. Only the principal out-
lines require to be shown roughly on the wood, merely
to serve as a guide in the roughing or blocking-out of
the work, the finishing being done by continual
reference to the design, the outlines being rectified
during the progress of the work.
In many cases it is advisable to preserve copies of
small carved objects for future use, and this is easily
done by taking a plaster cast of the work. To take
an impression of the object of which a cast is desired,
a substance known as squeeze-wax is used, and this is
made of the following ingredients, viz. : 2 lbs. flour,
\ lb. best beeswax, -\ lb. linseed oil, and a small
quantity of rouge ; these should be thoroughly mixed
together, and then exposed to the air. Should the
squeeze-wax become hard at any time, it may easily
be softened by slightly warming and well kneading.
In taking a cast, the wax should be well pressed
into every portion of the work, and then gently with-
drawn, the mould thus formed being filled with plaster
of Paris, the plaster having been mixed with water
until it is of the consistence of cream. After standing
for a few hours, the squeeze-wax can be taken off,
leaving a copy of the carving in plaster. Care should
be taken to obtain the plaster fresh, as after being
exposed to the air it loses some of its properties, and
does not harden well.
These remarks on taking plaster-casts apply only
to small objects that are not deeply undercut ; larger
casts, and casts of subjects carved on more than one
side, are taken in sections.
In my next paper I shall refer briefly to the various
styles of ornament, and then describe the practical
method of carving in wood.
{To be continued.)
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
JBy the Author of " The Art of Bookbinding."
II.— Folding, Pulling to Pieces, and Collating.
ONCE read a paper on Bookbinding
which showed, or pretended to show,
how to bind books without tools. I need
hardly remark that such is impossible.
A book may certainly be put together
and covered by such helps or means as one may find
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
361
in an ordinary house ; but as I wish my reader to bind
his books in a manner creditable to himself, I shall
call his attention from time to time to such tools as he
may require, at the same time not mentioning any-
thing that is not absolutely necessary.
The first requisition is a laying-press. Such a
press is used for pressing, backing, cutting, and other
manipulations, and, although the heaviest item, is also
the most necessary, for without it bookbinding cannot
be done. I have inquired from several pressmakers,
and the following is the most suitable for the amateur,
and the best he can get for the money. The press
complete, with plough, plough-knife, press-pin, three
pairs of backing-boards, three pairs of cutting-boards,
each pair a different size, to suit the different sizes of
books he may have to bind ; an enclosed tub, as shown
in Fig. 1 1, to hold the shavings cut from the books, the
top made to support the laying-press ; a drawer in the
tub for small articles, and a wooden cover for the
whole, useable as a work-board when the press is not
being used. The sum asked for the whole is £2 15s.,
which can be seen at any time at Messrs. Meager and
Co., 37, Endell Street, Bloomsbury, W.C. The tub
is 3 feet high, 2 feet 9 inches long, and 2 feet in width
Folding. — After the printer has printed his sheets,
the first thing done is to fold them. A great deal of
the beauty of a book when bound is to have the sheets
properly folded. When I use the word properly, I
mean in the double sense that they be folded evenly,
so that the margins of the different pages be uniform,
and that the pages follow consecutively. Every book,
or rather the sheets of a book, are not all folded alike ;
and, as a rule, the size of a book is known by the
number of folds each sheet has — a folio two folds, a
quarto four, an octavo eight, a i2mo twelve, a i6mo
sixteen folds, and so on. But this rule has of late
years been ignored, and a book is now more strictly
known by its size in inches. It will not be necessary
to give all the different sizes, but subjoined is an
extract of those most in use : —
INCHES.
Demy i2mo .... 7b by 4!
Crown 8vo .
1\ by 5
Demy 8vo .
9 by 5*
Royal 8vo .
10 by 6\
Crown 4to .
10 by 1\
Super royal 8vo
io| by 6 J
Imperial 8vo
1 1 by i\
Demy 4to .
11 by 9
Royal 4to .
•
I2-?r by 10
Super royal 4to
13J by ioi
Imperial 4to
15 by 11
Crown folio
15 by 10
Demy folio
18 by 11
Royal folio
20 by 12J
Super royal folio .
Imperial folio
21 by 13^ inches.
22 by 15
This work, Amateur Work, Illustrated, is
a crown 4to, and each sheet is a sheet and a half —
that is to say, it has a full sheet of eight folds and
an inset of four.
All books are issued to the public already folded,
but as these are folded by piece-work the work is very
often scamped, and the sheets consequently not folded
even. Should the amateur wish to fold his own sheets,
he may generally be certain of getting any particular
book in sheets, if he ask his bookseller for them.
The process of folding is shown in Fig. 12.
Taking it for granted that my reader has his book in
sheets, he must place them on a flat surface, such as
our work-board, which may assume to be the top
or cover of the shaving-tub. Place them with the
signatures — the letters or number found at the foot of
the first page of each sheet — facing downwards on the
left-hand side. Holding a folding-stick in the right
hand, the sheet is brought over from right to left, care-
fully placing the folios together. If the paper is held
to the light, and is not too thick, it can be easily seen
through. Holding the two together, and laying on
the table, the folder is drawn across the sheet, creasing
the centre ; then, holding the sheet down, placing the
folder on the spot to be creased, the top part is
brought over and downwards, till the folios or the
bottom of the letterpress or print is again even. The
folder is then drawn across, and so, by bringing each
folio together, the sheet is done. The sheets, properly
folded, will have their signatures outside at the foot of
the first page. If the signature is not on the outside,
the amateur may be sure that he has turned his sheet
inside out.
Books that have been folded and issued in num-
bers must be pulled to pieces or divided section from
section. Arrange the parts in order, so that there may
not be so much trouble in collating the sheets ; the
outside wrapper is then torn away, and each sheet
pulled singly from its neighbour, always looking to see
if any thread used in sewing is in the centre of the
sheet at the back ; if so, it must be cut with a knife,
or it will tear the paper. The whole of the glue,
paper, or thread must be cleared away, and any corners
that may be turned down put straight. The sheets
must now be refolded, if they have not been folded
properly in the first place. This can be easily
ascertained by holding each sheet up to the light ;
if the folios are level with each other they are all
right ; if not, the sheet must be shifted and folded
properly. If the sheets have been cut open, the re-
folding had better be done by folding each quarter
sheet separately, then inserting them level with the
362
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
folios, making them up again into proper sheets, and
cutting off any projections with the paper shears or by
means of a knife and straight-edge. Paper-shears
may be had from any bookbinders' materia] dealers —
i.e., Messrs. Eadie, Great Queen
Street, W.C., or Messrs. Corfield,
St Bride Street, Ludgate Hill, at
a cost from 2S. 6d., according to
size ; but any strong, large pair of
scissors will do.
Refolding is not often done,
save for extra work, and must be
carefully executed ; books that
have been bound and cut would
be rendered worse by refolding,
and as a general rule they are left
alone. It will therefore be better
for the amateur bookbinder to see
that his sheets are properly folded
before cutting them for reading as
it will save him a great deal of
bother when he wishes to bind
them.
Bound books are pulled to pieces
none are wanting, that any are in duplicate — in fact,
that the book is perfect. The sheets must run in
proper order by the signature ; Letters being mostly
used, but numbers are sometimes substituted. To
collate a book it is to be held in
the right hand, at the right top
corner, that is the upper corner of
the fore-edge, then with a turn of
the wrist the back must be brought
to the front. Fan the sections out,
then with the left hand the sec-
tions must be brought back to an
angle, which will cause the sec-
tions, when released, to spring
forward, so that the letter or
number on the right bottom
corner of each sheet is seen, then
released, and the next brought
into view. When a work is com-
pleted in more than one volume,
the number of the volume is indi-
cated at the left hand bottom
corner of each sheet. The order
title, the dedication (if one),
FIG. 12. — FOLDER AT WORK
in the same of arrangement is
manner always taking care that the threads are cut or preface, contents, then the text, and finally the index,
loose before tearing
the sheets away. If
there is any paper on
the back that will not
come readily away it
can easily be removed
by aid of a little hot
water applied judi-
ciously with a sponge,
but great care must be
exercised that the
water does not run
through the paper, or
a stain will be the re-
sult. When in sheets
the groove should be
knocked down or
rather away on a flat
iron surface. The
groove is shown in
Fig. 13, is the project-
ing part of a book at
right angles, with the
back curved by back-
ing and is the °roove F,G- "■ — bookbinder's work-tub, with cover ox
for the back edge of the boards to work in as it were ' must be cut down
by a hinge ; this is technically called the joint.
Presuming that our book is in sheets, the next
thing to be done is the collating. To Collate, is to
ensure that each sheet is in proper sequence, that
Having made the
collating quite clear,
we will turn our atten-
tion to the plates.
Presuming that we
have a book with half
a dozen plates, the
first thing after ascer-
taining that the letter-
press or text is perfect,
is to see that all the
plates are there by
looking to the " list
of plates" printed
-, generally after the
I contents. All plates
should be cut or
squared, using a sharp
■ knife, and straight
edge cutting upon an
old mill board. When
the plates are printed
on paper larger than
the book, as is some-
times the case, they
to the proper size, leaving a
somewhat less margins at the back than there will
be at the fore-edge when the book is cut. Some
plates have to face to the left, some to the right, the
frontispiece for instance ; but as a general rule, plates
AMATEUR BOOKBINDING.
363
should be placed on the right hand, so that on opening
the book they all face upwards ; the list of plates is,
however, the proper guide to go by. When plates
consist of subjects that are at a right angle with the
text, the inscription should always be placed to the
right hand, no matter whether the plate face to the
right or to the left page. I would
call my readers' particular atten-
tion to this, if placed with the in-
scription to the left, the plate will
be upside down. If the plates
are printed on thick paper they
should be guarded. The methods
of inserting guards are shown in
Fig. 14, at Nos. 1, 2, 3. The
guards are the strips of paper upon
which the plates are mounted.
This is done either by adding a
piece of paper the same thick-
ness, or by cutting a piece of the
plate off and then joining the two
together with a piece of linen or
tape, so that the plate moves on
the linen hinge ; the width be-
tween the guard and plate being
equal to the thickness of the paper.
If the plate is almost a card-
board it is better and stronger if
linen be placed both back and
front, and should the book con-
sist of plates only, sections may
be made by placing two plates and two guards
together, and sewing through the centre between the
guards, leaving, of course, a space between the two
guards which will form the back. If the plates are on
thin paper guards they need only be guarded singly,
and sections made by overcasting four or six together.
In pasting in any single
leaves or plates, a piece of
waste paper should always
be placed on the leaf or
plate the required distance
from the edge to be pasted,
so that in pasting, the leaf
or plate is pasted straight ;
the waste paper acting
as a guide, and a proper
amount of paste is deposited evenly on the leaf or
plate. This is a better manner of pasting than
holding the leaf or plate in one hand and tipping the
paste on the edge of the leaf with a finger of the other
hand. When all the single leaves and plates are
pasted on, the amateur should go through the book
again when quite dry, which will take some two or
three hours, to see if they adhere properly, and break
FIG. 13. — GROOVE AND ROUNDED BACK
OF BOOK.
FIG. 14.— METHODS OF INSERTING GUARDS.
References — (1). A, Guard; B, Linen or Tape; C, Plate.
(2). A, Plate; B, C, Guards of same thickness; D, Plate.
The fine lines denote the Linen. (3). Same as 2 when shut;
X for sewing through the back at • in 2.
or fold them over up to the pasting with a folding
stick, so that they will be flat when the book is
opened.
The books that most of my readers will bind will
have no doubt some coloured plates, these he will
find some little bother. Most coloured plates have a
certain amount of gum on the
surface, which is very easily seen
by the gloss, this gum causes them
to stick to the letterpress ; should
they so stick, do not try to tear
them apart, but warm a polishing
iron (used for polishing the leather
when finishing), and pass it over
the plate and letterpress, placing
a piece of paper between the iron
and the book to avoid dirt. The
heat will soften the gum, and they
can then be very easily separated
By rubbing a little powdered
French chalk over the coloured
plates before sticking them in the
book, these ill effects will be
avoided.
It will happen that the amateur
may wish to bind a book that
is composed of single leaves.
The Art Journal, for instance, is
issued in such a form, the back
being caoutchouced. I might
here say that I do not think that
this form of binding is of much benefit except to the
binder, who is sure of having the book back again some
future time for rebinding. The book certainly opens
flat, but there is no durability in such work, the sheets
or leaves continually coming loose. Such a book as the
Art Journal ought certainly never to be issued with
the parts caoutchouced, as
the binding can only be
effected by overcasting or
by re-caoutchoucing ; the
paper is too heavy for the
former, and by the latter
process the leaves are sure
to come away. However,
should the amateur get such
a book it must be pulled
each leaf away from its neighbour, collated properly,
and the plates placed to their respective places ; if the
paper is thick it must be broken over by placing a
straightedge or runner about half an inch from the
back and running a folding stick under the paper,
thus lifting the paper to the edge of the runner ; the
runner must be held firmly or the pressure put on the
folding stick will force the runner away, and the
Q
364 SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE, FROM A CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIE W
break will not be even. The book must now be
pressed, and after some few hours taken out, and a
thin coat of glue put upon the back to keep the leaves
together and prevent them shifting during the process
of overcasting. The pressing and overcasting will be
taken up in my next paper.
{To be continued.)
SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE. FROM A
CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW.
{Continued from page ill.)
II.
Soap Making by the Mixing or Cold Process.
— N our last article on this subject, we
pointed out the enormous extent to
which the adulteration of the various
classes of soap now sold to the public
had been carried ; also the injurious
effect of these adulterations— often causing the de-
struction of the articles with which they were washed
— and the injury caused to the hands and skin by
the use of these adulterated soaps. These deleterious
effects to health, by the use of the putrid and diseased
fats and greases, often employed by the soap boiler in
the manufacture of his soap, were touched upon, and
the opinions of some eminent surgeons as to their
possible action in germinating skin diseases and
blood poisoning were mentioned. The advantages
and general superiority of articles made for use and
not for sale were pointed out, together with the recom-
mendation that soap should be more extensively made
by the consumer for his own consumption. The great
improvement in late years in the production of soap-
making alkalies, that is to say, pure caustic potash and
powdered 98 per cent, caustic soda was shown ; and
also how that with these articles pure soap could be
made without any boiling and by a simple mixing
process.
We now propose to continue this subject by point-
ing out the best means of making soap by this method.
Before doing this, however, we should say that this
mixing process, or " cold process," as it is sometimes
termed, is not new. It was proposed some years ago,
and actually a very imperfect receipt will be found in
the directions given for the manufacture of soap on the
so-called "concentrated lye," now sold to the public,
as well as in many books on the subject of soap-
making. In actual practice, however, either on a
large or small scale, these directions would not work,
and simply for this reason : To make a perfect soap
by the cold or mixing process, it is absolutely neces-
sary to have a pure caustic soda ; without this, perfect
saponification never can or will be effected without
boiling, and an imperfectly made cold process soap is
very objectionable. Hence the value of pure caustic
soda.
Now, in passing, it may not be unadvisable to con-
sider the various qualities of caustic soda that are sold
to the public for soap-making. The original quality of
caustic soda first introduced and put upon the market
some thirty years ago, was about 60 per cent, strength.
As time advanced, various intermediate strengths
were introduced up to 70 per cent, of soda. Both
these strengths also have been put up and sold to the
public as lye for family soap-making. Most gene-
rally, however, the tendency has been to follow the
course adopted by the soap-makers — that is to say, to
adulterate with salt, lime, and all kinds of substances,
and give a cheap lye. We regret to say that this system
of adulteration has been carried to great perfection,
most of the so-called "lye," or "ball potash," consisting
almost entirely of impurities, and consequently actually
utterly unfit to make soap by the boiling process, or
even efficiently soften water ! This adulteration of
lye and ball potash, from a social economical point of
view, is much to be regretted, as it has discredited
even the old boiling soap-making process by small
consumers, and prevented the utilisation of much
waste grease, which has been thrown away instead of
being converted into soap, which otherwise would
have been the case.
Within the last two years, however, a great advance
has been made in the improvement of the quality of
caustic soda. A powdered 98 per cent, article, that is
to say, a caustic soda within two per cent, of theoretic
purity, and in the convenient powdered form, has been
introduced. There is a twofold advantage in the
manufacture of soap with this article ; not only can
soap be readily made by it, in either large or small
quantities, by the cold process, but owing to its being
in a powdered form, the necessity of having small
packages, as in the case of the old-fashioned solid lye,
containing just sufficient for one boiling, is entirely
avoided, even in the case of the smallest consumer.
A ten pound package of powdered 98 per cent, caustic
soda is even more convenient than a one pound
package of solid caustic soda, as, being a powder, the
exact quantity required either for making soap, soften-
ing water, or any other purpose, can be taken out
without breaking up or destroying the package, as in
the case of solid caustic soda. As far as soap-making,
also, is concerned, so small a package as one pound,
even for household consumption, is quite unnecessary.
With the old boiling soap-making process, one pound
of caustic soda was all that could be conveniently
manipulated at a time — the limit being simply the
JOINTING WOOD IN AIL ITS BRANCHES.
365
boiling kettle generally at hand in an ordinary house-
hold ; with soap-making by cold process, as far as house-
hold production is concerned, the limit is simply the
amount of grease that can be conveniently accumu-
lated. Instead, therefore, of constantly making soap
by the tedious boiling process in little batches, the
grease can be kept, and in place of making ten or
twelve pounds of soap at a time, as in the case of
the ordinary lye, one hundred and twenty pounds can
be more easily, and with less trouble, made at one
operation, with the contents of a ten pound can of
pure powdered caustic soda. This fact seems at any
rate to be recognized by one firm of alkali manufac-
turers— the Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. Helens,
Lancashire, who put up their powdered 98 per cent.
caustic soda in barrels for large consumers, down to a
ten pound canister for soap-making on a small scale,
and other general uses.
To come, however, to the best means of producing
hard soap, either for family use, laundry purposes, or
for general consumption, the following simple direc-
tions are all that is necessary for this purpose.
Take ten pounds of powdered 98 per cent, caustic
soda and put it in four gallons of soft water. It will
dissolve immediately and become hot. Let the liquid
lye thus obtained stand and cool a little till it feels
just warm to the hand, say 8o° F. Melt seventy pounds
of grease or tallow till liquid and warm to the hand, say
1200 F. Now pour the lye into the grease, stirring with
a fiat wooden stirrer for a few minutes until the two are
combined and smooth in appearance. Pour into a
square box for a mould, lined with muslin or calico to
prevent the soap sticking to the sides. Wrap well up
with woollen coverings, and put in a warm place in
order to keep in the heat generated inside by the mass
slowly turning into soap. After two or three days the
soap will be formed. It should then be taken out of
the mould, cut up into bars, and kept in a warm room
for about a month, the quantity being about one hun-
dred and twenty pounds.
All soap is much improved by keeping, more espe-
cially when made by the cold process, as it lathers so
much better. Yet at the same time, what is a very
important point when the soap is made for sale, the
glycerine it naturally contains does not allow it to
shrink or lose weight as in the case of a boiled soap,
in which this article is absent, having all been lost in
the spent lyes. The importance of glycerine in soap
is very great. This substance is naturally contained
in tallow or oil to the extent of about eight per cent. ;
its emollient and lubricating properties are very great,
and yet it is sacrificed and lost in the case of a boiled
soap, by the salting process necessarily employed
when resin and impure soda ash are employed to
cheapen the cost of production.
The above directions are intended for the pro-
duction of a laundry or household soap for general
purposes. For a toilet soap, rather more tallow is
necessary to render the soap quite neutral. In this
case seventy-five pounds of tallow should be taken
instead of seventy pounds. The substitution, also, of
twenty per cent, of cocoa-nut or cotton-seed oil, for an
equal quantity of tallow, will improve the soap and
cause it to lather more freely. The perfuming can be
accomplished by the addition of two ounces of wild
thyme, citronella, almond oil, or other essential oil,
stirred in when the mixing is nearly completed. In this
way a first-class toilet soap can be easily produced.
For washing flannels and woollens, soda soap
should not be used, as real potash soap, which lathers
and washes equally well in cold water as in hot water,
is much to be preferred. Potash also is intended by
nature for washing woollen goods, as when it is used
they neither shrink nor become harsh. This subject,
however, must be reserved for a future occasion.
{To be continued.)
JOINTING WOOD IN ALL ITS BRANCHES.
By JOSEPH COWAN.
I.— How to Make a Joint that will last a Hundred
Years.
N such work as making a table top, or even
in putting together boards, edge to edge,
for the purpose of making a rough
box or packing-case of more than ordi-
nary dimensions, the amateur finds him-
self called on to make a simple joint without resorting
to tonguing and grooving, and other contrivances of
a similar character, which involve the expenditure of
much time, comparatively speaking, and demand no
small amount of constructive skill which can only be
gained by practice. To do all things that are taken in
hand as well and as thoroughly as it is possible to do
them, should be the aim of every worker, whatever
may be the nature of the work that he takes up, and
as I am sure that it is the desire of every amateur
wood-worker to turn out his joinery in an efficient
and workman-like manner, I will gladly help all those
who may be willing to learn and profit by it, by giving
them the benefit of my experience in practical matters,
which has been gathered during the progress of a
quarter of a century, and tested by repeated trials. I
suppose amateurs, generally speaking, will think the
gluing up of a couple of boards together, edge to edge,
a very simple matter, as indeed it is ; but in this, as in
most other matters that are apparently simple enough
at first sight, there is a right and a wrong method of
366
JOINTING WOOD IN ALL ITS BRANCHES.
going to work, as I will presently show. Now I will
engage that if any amateur will follow the directions
that I am now going to give for jointing and gluing
together two pieces of board, edge to edge, he will be
able to make joints that will last a hundred years.
Some will tell me that the proof of the pudding is in
the eating, and say that neither I nor they can hope to
live long enough to test the truth of my assertion.
Perhaps I had better qualify my statement by saying
that the joint will last as long as the wood itself will
last ; and so I shall escape being placed in the same
category with a simple-witted fellow I have read of,
who, being told that a raven would live for a hundred
years, went and bought one at once, that he might
prove the truth of the information that had been
given him, or otherwise, by actual experience.
But to proceed forthwith to the mode and method
of making a durable joint. First, you must have your
wood seasoned and dry. Then the amateur will ask
" How am I to know the wood is seasoned and fit
for jointing?" All wood that has been worked before,
and wood that has been lying by for, say, a year, is
seasoned. According to the hardness and thickness
of the wood it will take time to dry. Soft wood is of
no account. It will take five years to season oak one
inch thick ; and about half the time most cabinet hard
woods in the weather. All woods should be rough
jointed and put edge on, to silting distance off the fire,
some two or three days. If you buy wood from the
timber-yard, you can judge of its dryness, and how
long it is cut, by the weather-mark. It is easy learned.
Look about the timber-yard, and you will soon be able
to see and judge between old well-seasoned wood, and
new wood that is not seasoned, as easy as you can tell
the difference between old and young people in the
street. It may be said, " You are a long time getting
to the joint." The durability of work will repay the
trouble ; and now that I have said all that is requisite
about the material, I will tell the amateur how he may
make a joint that will last a hundred years.
Prepare two parallel pieces of hard wood — take
pains with them, for they will last for ever — about
9 inches long and I inch square. We will suppose that
the amateur can sharpen and set a plane ; there is no
necessity to use a very long plane or jointer, they
have gone out of use ; an ordinary trying-plane or iron
smoothing-plane is all-sufficient. Do not grip the
piece to be jointed in the middle, but at one end ; and
when you have shot one edge straight, place the two
parallel sticks thereon, and wide apart ; look across,
with one eye shut, and see if they are horizontally
parallel, and if not, alter the joint or surface till they are
so, allowing the plane to travel very firmly and quietly,
a very little from right to left, or left to right, and it is
possible the next shaving will see your trying-sticks
level one with the other, taking care at the same time
to make your joint hollow lengthwise. Now, possibly,
half your joint is made. Shoot the other half, paying
strict attention to what has gone before. Mark the
first piece with chalk, so that you may always know it
is the first. There is no need to try the second piece
with the " sticks," the proof now lies between the two
" edges " ; these make up the sum of the joint. We
will now suppose that the amateur worker has done
his best to produce a joint that will do him credit ; but
before he glues it, he must test it. Let him place
them one on the other in a vertical position, and by
moving one end crosswise with finger and thumb, he
will soon ascertain whether they are round or hollow,
if round, they will move freely, as on a centre. In
this case they are imperfect, for the perfect joint must
be a shade hollow. One or both pieces must be shot
again until they become hollow enough to see the
light through, and this hollowness must graduate from
the centre to the ends. A little practice will give you
the following test. When a joint is perfect, in moving
it from side to side, the parts, with a sort of grip, give
out a pleasant sound as if of triumph, which, when the
ear is accustomed to it, cannot be mistaken.
The final or gluing process comes next. Set your
cramps, one, two, or three, according to the length of
your joint (up to 2 feet 6 inches, one cramp ; up to
4 feet 6 inches, two cramps, and so on), to the size of
your stuff, 22 inches or 24 inches, according to your
work, and place them in a handy position. The glue
being melted, and not too thick, and all things in readi-
ness, warm the two edges in front of the fire for ten to
fifteen minutes until they are too warm to touch, but
do not let them stop too long at the fire, for the
wood will warp, and spoil the joint. Glue the edges of
both pieces, and squeeze together with the cramp or
cramps, and in half an hour you will have a joint that
will last for a hundred years, as I have already said.
Before I bring this paper to an end, it may be
useful to make a few remarks on glue. This should
be neither too thick nor too thin. The test is as
follows : — Before using it, stir it round well ; lift the
stick or brush up out of the glue, and let it drain ; the
last that drops off will curl on one side like a worm, if
the glue be too thick. If so, add hot water till it ceases
to curl: it is then about right for hard woods. For soft
woods it should be thinner. Another test is to touch
the glue brush, and rub the glue taken off by the touch
between the thumb and finger. If too thick, it will
feel like kid leather. When right, the finger will be
just felt through the glue ; when too thin, it will feel
a little rough.
Inch stuff, and all wood just about this thickness, is
manipulated in the way described above.
(To be continued?)
ELECTRIC BELLS.
367
ELECTRIC BELLS.
By GEORGE EDWINSON.
II.— Fitting Parts and Fixing Bell.
HE form of gong or bell used by manu-
facturers of this instrument is that known
as a clo ck gong or bell, which may be
bought in a rough state from a dealer in
clock requisites, but bells in the rough
state are unsuitable, and will have to be turned up and
polished in a
lathe ; they may
then be silver
or nickel plated,
and this last
process is to be
recommended
on account of
the improved
appearance,
tone, and future
cleanliness. It
is doubtful, how-
ever, whether or
not it will pay
the amateur to
thus prepare his
bells when he
can buy them
silver or nickel
plated from is.
for a 2\ inch
gong up to
2s. 6A for 2i
inch gongs. If
he has the
chance to hap
upon an old
clock he may
utilise the bell,
and I have seen
hand-bells made up by ingenious lads to serve
their purpose ; but in cases like these the form of
the instrument should be altered to harmonize with
the form of the bell, the principles of construction
being alone followed. The bell is supported on
the base by the pillar, Fig. 18, which may be turned
up out of a short piece of brass rod, or bought
for 8d. or is. The top part of the pillar should
be screwed and fitted with a small hexagonal brass
nut, or a round slotted nut, the screwed part should be
large enough to closely fit the hole in the crown of the
bell, and long enough to just pass through and be
gripped by the nut, the bell resting on a narrow
fig. 17. ~~-- ---' F1G- 22-
FIG. 17. — DIAGRAM SHOWING POSITION OF PARTS OF BELL.
A. Armature ; B, Bell ; C, Contact Spring ; D, Magnet Base or Bracket ; E, Armature
Spring ; F, Bracket to hold Armature Spring ; M, M', Cores of Magnet ; H, Hammer ;
Pf Hole for Bell Pillar ; S, Contact Screw ; +, Positive Binding Screw; — , Negative
Binding Screw. Arrows show Course of Electric Current. FlG. 18. — Bell Pillar.
Fig. 19. — Pillar to Hold Contact Screw. Fig. 20. — Insulating Collar for
Pillar of Contact Screw.— A, Plan ; B, Section. Fig. 21.— Section of Contact
Screw and Pillar. Fig. 22. — Brass Bracket and Base Plate for Bell.
shoulder. At the lower end of the pillar there should
be a broader shoulder, and a screwed tang should fit
in a hole in the base-board, passing through it, and
fastened at the back by a hexagonal brass nut resting
in a countersunk cavity, or the pillar may be screwed
into a socket soldered to the base-plate. When thus
placed in position it must just stand with its bell
clear of the base all around.
We have now to fix the other parts of the appara-
tus to the base, and will commence with Fig. 1, p. 322.
To make matters quite clear, I give another sketch (Fig.
17) lettered for
reference. First
fix the base -
plate by insert-
ing the bell
pillar in the hole
P and screwing
up tight ; then
bring the plate
into its proper
position on the
board, and at-
tach the bracket
D to it by a
couple of
screws. If the
legs of the mag-
net are riveted
to the bracket,
we shall fasten
them all on to-
gether, but the
legs are best
fastened by nuts
as shown in
sketch, and in
this case may
be put on with
their bobbins
filled with wire
after the bracket
has been fixed. Next put on the smaller bracket F, place
the armature A in its position above the poles of the
magnet, as shown, and take the measure of the spring,
then bore two small holes and rivet the spring at E, or
fasten it with two small set screws, or solder it. Now,
if this bracket has been formed by turning up a piece
of the base-plate, we must have a loose bracket or
a pillar at S, but if the bracket has been turned up out
of the base-plate at S, we must have a loose bracket or
pillar at E, and in this case must adopt some means
to insulate it from the base-plate. This is best done
by drilling the holes in the base-plate at F larger than
necessary to hold the screws, and then filling them up
368
ELECTRIC BELLS.
with melted gutta percha ; a slip of the same material,
or a bit out of a sheet of ebonite, must also be fitted
under F ; the bracket must then be fastened by screws
into its place, and in this way insulated from the base-
plate or prevented from being in metallic or electrical
contact with it. We must next turn our attention to
S. If the bracket F has been insulated, the bracket
at s may be made a fixture ; but if F has been left
uninsulated we must insulate the bracket at s, or use
an insulated pillar as shown in sketch. This pillar,
fitted with a contact screw complete for fixing, may be
had of Mr. Dale for is. 3d. or rs. od., or it may be
made out of a piece of brass rod (see Figs. 19 and
21). To insulate this pillar proceed to drill the hole to
receive it, and fill it as before directed, then separate
the foot of the pillar from the base-plate by a collar of
gutta percha (Fig. 20), of ebonite, or of boxwood
varnished with shellac varnish. When the pillar or
bracket has been thus fixed, the contact screw S
should lightly touch the platinised spot on the contact
spring C, with A fairly within the influence of the magnet
cores M, m'. I suppose that a piece of stout brass wire to
form a shaft for the hammer has already been fastened
into the armature, we will therefore fasten the bell B to
its pillar, and adjust the length of the hammer shaft to
give the hammer H the most effective stroke on the
bell, the wire may then be pointed with a fine file and
H screwed or soldered to it. When this has been
done to our satisfaction we will proceed to fix the
wires. Some persons prefer making an oblique saw-
cut at the back of the base - board from m' to the
binding screw +, passing the wire through a hole in the
base, burying it in the saw-cut, and filling up the cut
with varnish, a similar cut is made for the wire from S
to the binding screw — , and thus the track of the
wires are hidden from view. Others prefer to have
their wires on the face of the board, and carry them
along in the direction shown in the sketch ; but I
leave those minor details to individual taste, merely
taking the latter for convenience of description. It will
be noticed that the wires in electrical instruments are
usually done up into pretty little corkscrew coils, named
helices, and doubtless many persons have wondered
why they are put into this form. This is done to ensure
elasticity, and to prevent rupture from overstraining the
free ends of fine wire, for a helix of wire will stretch
when a tight wire would snap in two. If the wires from
M'to + and s to — , were drawn tight and cut off to the
required length, there would be a possibility of the
wires being ruptured at one of the angles, and there
would be no free wire available for repairs ; but with a
helix along by the side of m', the danger of rupture
would be lessened by the elasticity of the helix,
and in the case of an accident there would be a
reserve of free wire in the helix to repair damages.
We therefore coil a little of the free wire from the
bobbin M' around a pencil, and take the rest on to the
binding screw +, here we unwind a little piece of the
silk covering at the end, clean an inch of the wire
with emery cloth, also clean the under part and tang
of the binding screw in the same way, twist the end of
the wire around it as shown, and screw it up close to
the base. The wire from M must also have a small
helix made in it, and the free end must either be
pinched between the spring and bracket at E, or
soldered to it. The wire at S may be soldered to the
pillar, or clipped between it and the back nut, it
should then be formed into a helix, the free end led on
to the binding screw — , and secured there, as at +.
We may now connect the two wires from a battery
to the two binding screws, and test our bell. If the
copper or carbon of the battery is connected to the
binding screw -f-, this screw will become the positive
pole of the battery, and when the corresponding wire
from the zinc is connected with the negative binding
screw — , the current will pass through the magnet in
the direction of the arrows, and actuate the armature
above it, or in other words (to make this action
plainer) the current of electricity passing through the
convolutions of copper wire wound on the two soft
iron cores of the bobbins, convert them into an electro-
magnet, exerting a magnetic influence on the armature
held above those cores, they therefore attract the soft
iron armature toward them, and in doing so draw it
and its contact spring away from the point of the
screw s. To do this the current passes from M to E,
along through the armature spring and its contact
spring c to the screw S, and from thence by the wire
leading to — back to the battery. But when the
armature is drawn away from s, contact is mo-
mentarily broken, and the current ceases to flow until
the elasticity of the armature spring has again
brought C and S into contact. These changes follow
each other in such quick succession as to baffle both eye
and ear to record them, and thus a continuous vibra-
tion is given to the hammer, causing a characteristic
sound from the bell which has given this class the
name of trembling, vibrating, or chattering bells. The
contact screw must be adjusted to give a good tone,
then the back nut must be tightened and our labours
here are completed.
Most persons prefer to have the magnet and
armature covered with a wooden, box-like cover, to
protect the working parts from dust and injury. This
is made in the form of a shallow box, out of \ inch
teak or mahogany neatly dovetailed together, stained
and polished to match the base-board of the bell.
It should be made large enough to enclose the
working parts, as shown by the dotted square on Fig.
17, and be held in position by four little brass pins
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
369
inserted in the edges of two sides of the cover, and
two little hooks, one on each side, hooking into brass
eyes inserted in the base-board. A small slit must be
made in the lower side to enable the hammer shaft to
■work freely.
The parts of the bell, Fig. 12, shown in page 323,
must of course be put together in a similar manner,
with this exception, we are not left a choice of
positions for the insulated bracket. The armature
spring being fastened by screws, rivets, or soldering
to the base-plate or bracket, we must insulate the lug
or pillar, carrying the contact screw, but this will be
done with a sheet or disc of ebonite, gutta percha, or
boxwood as in the example before mentioned. I half
suspect that I have not made quite clear the method
of making the brass bracket to hold the magnet legs,
etc. This must only be bent to form two sides of the
quadrangle enclosing the magnet, a thin strip or plate
of brass forming the connection between this and
the lug or pillar of contact spring. To avoid mistakes
I give the part more clearly on an enlarged scale in
Fig. 22. In my next paper I shall deal with electric
bell batteries.
{To be continued?)
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO
MAKE IT.
Bij CHABLES SPENCEB.
II.— The Giant Stride.
« 4IM..MJ HIS somewhat formidable looking appa-
f!jy?k ratus, illustrated in Fig. 3, is in reality
exceedingly simple in construction, while
it affords at once a healthy exercise and
a continual fund of amusement, alike to
youthful gymnasts and to men of mature growth. In
fact, no gymnasium can be considered complete with-
out its Giant Stride. In the public gymnasium, and in
the school ground during the hours of recreation, the
Giant Stride is never allowed to be idle. In the
gymnasium at the Crystal and Alexandra Palaces, and
the other public gymnasia throughout the country,
everyone must have observed stalwart men, flushed
with the exercise, running and swinging round and
round this aptly-named apparatus, with as much
energy and vigour as though their very life depended
upon the exercise, which indeed imparts so much of
health and vigour to the jaded frame of one too
long employed in sedentary occupations, that its popu-
larity is as explicable as it is wide-spread.
I am sure, therefore, that no apology is needed for
offering the following instructions upon the method of
making these excellent machines.
The Giant Stride consists of an upright piece of
timber, the butt end of a Norway spar or any fir
timber rounded. Its dimensions should not be less
than about 7 in. at the top and 12 in. at the bottom,
and about 20 feet in length, of which about 4 feet
are sunk into the ground. It is framed at the bottom
with sole-pieces A A, placed crossways, of 7 by i\ in.
battens 5 feet in length, and four 3 by 3 in. struts
bibb, notched and spiked on. The sole-pieces are
halved together, and secured to the bottom of the up-
right by a \ in. bolt and nut C, the nut being let or
mortised into the upright, and a hole being bored
with an auger through the sole-piece and into the
bottom of the upright until it reaches the nut. The
bottom of the spar, or upright, should be slightly
mortised into the sole-piece about an inch deep. The
top, or revolving cap Fig. 4 consists of a wrought-
iron jurnal, or spindle A, which is let into the top of
the spar. An iron ferule B must also be fitted into
the top of the spar to prevent the timber from splitting.
That part of the jurnal which is to be inserted into
the wood is ij in. square, 8 in. in length, and the
upper part is turned or forged round, to admit the
revolving cap C, whose construction is fully described
below.
Before proceeding, however, it is necessary that
you should settle how many pendant ropes you desire
to have, as of course the dimensions of the materials
vary with the number of ropes to be fitted. For that
I am at present describing, four ropes will be suffi-
cient. If to be made capable of accommodating six
or eight persons, as is done in some cases, the
apparatus would have to be proportionately increased
in strength. This is simply a matter for calculation,
and I will therefore continue on the assumption that
a Giant Stride for four adults is what you require.
The portion at the top c represents a cast-iron cir-
cular plate with four wrought-iron hooks d,d, bolted
through. This is at once the simplest and best form
made, and possesses the additional advantage of being
adaptable to any number of ropes, in case at any
time it be desired to have a larger apparatus, as you
may add as many ropes as you please by drilling as
many holes through the plate, and inserting hooks ;
and it also acts as a shield for protecting the ropes
from the weather.
It is constructed in the following manner : The
revolving plate is made of cast iron, therefore you
will have to make a pattern in wood to be sent to the
foundry to be cast from. .The illustration Fig. 4
represents a sectional view, and assuming that the
top of the spar is 7 inches in diameter, the dimensions
should be as follows : the flange c should overlap
the top 3 inches, making the whole 13 inches in
diameter, and the holes to receive the shanks E E
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
should be drilled or cast in the
plate i inch from the edge.
The pattern, which should
be of pine, may be either cut
by hand, or (which is preferable)
it may be turned in a lathe. The
flange should be I inch thick at
the boss, D, tapering to £ an
inch at the edge, bevelled on
the top to allow the rain to drip
off, and fiat on the under side.
In making the pattern to be
sent to the founder, it must be
observed that, when holes are
required to be put through any
portion, you must place what is
called a core plinth over the
spot, where the hole is to be
made. In other words, when
a hole is to be cast, you must
fasten upon the pattern a piece
of wood of nearly the size and the same shape
of the hole required, with the word " core " written
upon it. This is one of the technicalities of their
trade which foundrymen understand, and which must
not be neglected. Moreover, it must be borne in
mind that, in pattern-making, the pattern for cast iron
should always be made slightly larger than what is
required, say & inch to the
foot. Thus in the core
plinth, if the hole be re-
quired to take a f hook,
make your plinth -j-J dia-
meter. Castings of this
description generally cost
about 16s. per cwt., though
of course in the iron dis-
tricts the expense would be
less.
In the pattern you are
now making, you will
require five core plinths :
one for each of the four
hooks, £ diameter, and
one in the centre I inch in
diameter, to receive the end
F of the spindle or jurnal,
A. A couple of good
stout washers, G G, should
be placed over the spindle
before the cap is dropped
on, to keep it clear from
the top of the spar, and also
to resist the friction caused
by the working. It is a very
FIG. 4. — SECTION OF TOP OF GIANT STRIDE
''c!1
\ ■» /;,r 1 'm v
good plan to have one of these
washers of brass, or gun-metal,
as those metals against iron,
work much sweeter (as the
term is), and should the oiling
be neglected and rust ensue,
gun - metal prevents it from
setting, which will frequently
occur when a Giant Stride has
not been used for a consider-
able time. The hooks will have
to be made by a smith out
of |- in. round iron, flanged at
H H and screwed with nuts 1 1.
The ferule B should be of 2 by
i in. flat iron welded. The
pendant ropes should be made
of 2^ in. best Manillas. A gal-
vanized thimble, spliced at one
end into the rope, should be at
the top end, and a turned handle
with a groove in the centre, tapering off at each end,
spliced on the other end. The handle should be 15 in.
in diameter and 9 in. in length.
You will observe that I have above given you the
circumference of the rope, and it is necessary to bear
in mind that in ordering any description of rope it is
the circumference which is quoted, whereas in wire
rope, and all metals, the
diameter is given.
The handles should hang
about two feet from the
ground, and the whole
should be well painted with
two coats of lead colour,
while the part which goes
underground must be well
covered with Stockholm
tar if procurable, otherwise
with gas tar ; or it may be
charred all over, though I
cannot recommend this
latter process after the
work has been fitted, as the
bolts, etc., are liable to be
loosened. The best oil to
use for the top is sperm oil,
which is a good lubricator,
and does not corrode in
cold weather.
With these instructions
I may leave you in safety
to the construction and
enjoyment of your Giant
Stride.
X»^
A '-^-^
3. — ELEVATION OF GIANT STRIDE,
CASTING IN PLASTER OF PARIS.
37i
CASTING IN PLASTER OF PARIS.
By 2IARK MALLET T.
I.— The Material and its Preparation.— The Moulds
and How to Make Them.
iOME knowledge of the art of casting in
plaster is essential to those who model,
since without it they have no means of
giving permanence to their work. There
are also other purposes for which it may
be both useful and interesting ; for casts may be
made from various objects, natural or otherwise, and
applied, as I propose to show, to practical and deco-
rative ends.
Plaster, commonly termed " plaster of Paris," from
having in the first instance been brought to this
country from the quarries and works of Montmartre,
near that capital, is made from alabaster or gypsum.
This mineral, more scientifically known as sulphate of
lime, consists of sulphuric acid, pure lime, and water,
in the proportions of 46 of the first, 32 of the second,
and 22 of the third. It is found in many parts of the
British Isles, our chief supply coming from Derby-
shire. To make it into plaster, the stone is calcined
and ground in a mill. We get it in three qualities —
superfine, fine, and coarse.
Superfine plaster is of the most brilliant and
dazzling whiteness. It is made only from the whitest
stones, carefully picked, and from which every speck
of impurity is cut away. It is produced in such small
quantities that the largest plaster moulder in this
country informs me that he cannot secure a supply
without giving six weeks' notice. Superfine is only
used to give a thin outer coating, or face, to such casts
as are to be placed under glass, or are, for other rea-
sons, required to be specially white. It is sold by the
bag of 14 lbs. or the half bag of 7 lbs. It costs 3s. per
bag. It is only to be got at the principal plaster
moulders, such as Bruchiani, Russell Street, Covenl
Garden.
Fine plaster is also made from picked stones, but
not with such excessive care as superfine, and if less
dazzling than the latter, is still beautifully white. This
quality is used for facing ordinary casts, and also for
making the inner surfaces of moulds. It is sold whole-
sale, by the sack of 2 cwts., for 8s. or 10s. ; and retail,
by the bag or half bag, at is. per bag. It maybe
bought at any plaster figure moulder's.
Coarse plaster is made from ordinary gypsum. It
is brown, and full of dark specks, caused by the pre-
sence of iron and other impurities ; but it is sufficient
for the purpose of "backing" casts and moulds. It
may be bought of any builder or dealer in builders'
materials, at about is. per peck, or at any oil and colour-
man's, at 5d. per bag.
That quality which renders plaster so valuable in
the arts, is its power of setting into a solid body after
being simply mixed with water. This, whilst the
plaster is fresh from the kiln, it does in a few minutes ;
but with time and exposure to the air, it gradually
loses this power. It sets less and less quickly, and
when quite stale, refuses to set altogether. Thus, bad
plaster may involve total failure and disappointment,
to guard against which it is well to buy of a dealer on
whose word you can rely.
If you feel any doubt with regard to your plaster,
try a little before you begin your work, and prove
whether it sets properly or not. If you find it neces-
sary to keep plaster for any length of time, put it in
a dry place, and exclude the air from it as much as
possible. I have kept superfine perfectly good for
three or four years by shutting it in a closely-fitting
tin, and then well wrapping it in paper. Fresh plaster
is always to be desired ; yet if very fresh, one diffi-
culty attends it : it may set so quickly as scarcely to
give you the necessaiy time to use it after you
have mixed it. If so, you must bestir yourself
accordingly.
There are various methods of making moulds for
plaster casting. When a clay model has to be dealt
with, the process called waste moulding is employed,
because the mould is destroyed in the production of
a single cast. This method I shall first describe.
Waste Moulding in Plaster. — Let us suppose
that the amateur has made a model, such as one
of the panels charged with rosettes, at pages 1 56-7,
Figs. 18 and 21. This will have been modelled on a
board somewhat longer and wider than itself, the
model being, say, a foot square, and perhaps from two
to three inches thick. For such a thing superfine
plaster will scarcely be necessary ; so we will pro-
vide ourselves with half a bag (7 lbs.) of fine, and a bag
and half (21 lbs.) of coarse plaster. It is always well
to have enough plaster. If the supply fails whilst the
work is on hand, the moulder will be in an awkward case.
And here let me premise, that though plaster is
among the most cleanly of substances, odourless in
itself, and a neutralizer of all things that have bad
smells, it has a tendency to get splashed about and
trampled upon floors, in such a way as to make a mess,
and to rouse the temper of good housewives; for which
reason it is well to practise casting in some work-
shop or back-kitchen, rather than in an ordinary living
room.
Having laid the model flat on a table, its surface
must be damped. Sculptors use a syringe, pierced
with minute holes, for throwing water in the form of
fine spray over their models. Such an instrument the
Q2
372
CASTING IN PLASTER OF PARIS.
amateur will not possess ; but he will have what, for
small models, does still better — his mouth. Fill your
mouth with water, and after two or three trials, you
will find that you will be able to blow it out in a cloud
of fine spray. Blow a mouthful of water in this way
over your model. Nothing else will so well prepare it
for the reception of the plaster mould. In no other
way can you damp the whole surface so regularly,
without over-damping it, and causing water to run and
stand in deep cuttings and hollows, where, mixing with
the plaster which is to form the mould, it would tend to
soften and injure it.
For reasons which will appear by and by, it is
desirable that the first or inner mould should be
tinged with colour. Various colouring matters are
used, according to the whim or practice of the
moulder. Many use yellow ochre ; but this and
similar pigments have a tendency to soften the
plaster, which is objectionable. Nothing is really
better than common ink, the tendency of which is
rather to harden the mould than otherwise, and of
this less will suffice than of anything lighter in hue.
Before you begin to mix plaster, it is advisable to
tinge as much water as you will want for your inner
mould — say a quart in the present instance. Remem-
ber that it is merely to be tinged — that it is to have
so much colour only as will enable you to distinguish
readily the plaster mixed with it from that mixed with
plain water. If you put more colour than this, you
will run the risk of staining and disfiguring the cast
itself.
We are now ready for mixing the plaster. Two-
thirds fill a basin with the coloured water, and then
begin to sprinkle in the plaster. Do this with the hand,
that you may detect any lumps that it may contain ;
and should you meet with any lumps that do not
crumble readily, throw them aside. As you sprinkle
the plaster over the surface of the water, it will gradu-
ally become saturated and sink. This method of
mixing is superior to any other, because the air con-
tained in the plaster is thus driven out, and not
imprisoned, and so does not form bubbles, which
would injure your work. Go on sprinkling till you
see that the plaster no longer sinks, but stands up in
hills above the water ; this is a proof that enough has
been put in. The water takes the proper quantity, and
no more.
The mixture must now be well beaten up with a
spoon. For mixing superfine, and even fine, if the
work is particular, use a silver spoon, as baser metal,
particularly iron, may discolour the plaster. Beat
quickly but carefully. Beware lest in doing this you
beat air into the plaster, and so cause bubbles. There
is a way of beating by which the spoon is kept at
the bottom of the basin, and by a quick motion, with-
out bringing its bowl to the surface, the plaster is
made to boil up. This is the proper motion to use.
As soon as the mixture is of an even consistency,
skim off the impurities and those bubbles which in
spite of all your care will have formed, and throw
them away. When mixed the plaster will be of the
consistency of thick cream. All these operations,
which take some time to describe, must be done
quickly. No moment must be lost whilst mixing the
plaster, or you will have it set before you are ready to
use it.
Now, with the spoon, throw the plaster all over the
face of the model. See that it goes well into every
nook and cranny, or you will have an imperfect
mould. Beneath undercuttings you can dash plaster
from the spoon. Have a pair of bellows at hand, and
with them, by blowing the liquid plaster, you can force
it in, and the air out of, the hollows. See that every
hair's-breadth of the clay is covered. But whilst you
are busy doing this, beware that you do not with
spoon, hand, or otherwise touch the surface of the
soft clay, or mischief will ensue.
Mix more coloured plaster, if necessary, and go on
till you have laid a coating a quarter of an inch thick
over every part of the model ; but do not trouble to
leave an even surface : it is better that there should be
some lumps and irregularities, which will serve to hold
this inner mould to the outer one.
The inner mould is now made, and in making it
you will have had to bestir yourself. You may now
take breath, and pause for five minutes, at the end of
which time you will probably find your mould firm
enough for the next process. Mix some modelling
clay and water as thick as pea-soup, and with a small
brush (a painter's tool) go over the mould. The
object of this is to cause the outer and inner moulds
to separate readily when required to do so.
The outer mould we have now to make. For this
purpose the cheap, coarse plaster is sufficient. Now
and for future operations you will use not coloured but
plain water. But because you are using coarse plaster,
do not mix it carelessly. It is of much importance that
plaster should always be properly mixed ; and after
each mixing it is well to cleanse out the basin, and
especially when on the more particular parts of the
work, with fine plaster. With coarse plaster it is not
necessary to be quite so particular.
A layer of coarse having been thrown or poured
all over the mould, and allowed slightly to harden,
irons will have to be laid on to strengthen it. As
plaster sets and dries it has a tendency to warp, hence
the necessity for thus strengthening the mould. Per-
sons who are frequently in the practice of making
waste moulds, such as sculptors, keep by them a
quantity of thin iron bars of different lengths, and
CASTING IN PIASTER OF PARIS.
373
bent in different ways, for use as occasion may require.
But any pieces or instruments of iron of suitable size
that may first come to hand will do. When I was a
student at South Kensington, twenty years ago, in-
stead of the present stately buildings, the Art Schools
were mere temporary sheds attached to an old subur-
ban residence, and the kitchen of the former mansion
formed our casting room. Whenever a bas-relief was
cast, it 'was noticed that the poker and tongs invari-
ably disappeared — had the gridiron and ladle of the
old kitchen still hung in their places they would
inevitably have gone into the mould also ! In short,
any pieces of iron which will stretch from side to side
of the mould and prevent warping with suffice. More
plaster will have to be poured on in order to imbed
them, and the outer mould should thus be brought
to a general thickness of not less than three-quarters
of an inch.
After an interval of about half an hour the mould
will be found to have thoroughly set, and we may
now begin to separate it from the model. Where the
plaster touches upon the board round the outsides
there will be no adhesion between it and the wood,
and the slightest effort will open a chink between
them. Into this chink water must be poured, and the
mould gently worked up and down with the hand.
This will cause the water gradually to work its way
between plaster and clay, softening the latter, and if
the model is not in very high relief, and there are no
considerable undercuttings, with a little patience and
frequent pourings in of water, the mould will presently
come off. Still it will probably bring some projecting
pieces of clay with it, which should be picked out with
some of the wooden modelling tools, not with any iron
instrument, for fear of injuring the mould. But if the
ornament should be in high relief, and the under-
cuttings should be considerable, this plan will not
answer. Instead of it, a string or wire should be
passed into the before - mentioned chink, between
wood and plaster, and with it the model, mould and
all, cut from the board. The string will cut through
the soft clay with little difficulty. The mould can
now be laid on its back, and the clay dug and pulled
out of it, wooden tools and fingers being best to use.
Whilst doing this a little water should often be poured
between clay and plaster, as it will much expedite
their separation.
The clay being by one means or the other removed,
the mould must be thoroughly washed with soap and
water. A sponge and a soft brush may be used — not
a hard brush, which would scratch the mould. Every
trace of the clay must be removed. It is better to
clean and fill the mould at once; but if for any reason it
should be necessary to lay it by for a day or two, or for
a still longer period, during which it will have dried
more or less, it must be thoroughly soaked before the
plaster is poured in. Otherwise, cast and mould will
adhere so closely together that it will be difficult to
get the latter off. When the mould is freshly made
there will be no danger of this. To hardened plaster,
partially saturated with water, liquid plaster adheres
firmly ; to that which is dry, less firmly; to that which
is completely saturated, it sticks so slightly as to be
easily separated.
It will be well to make some arrangement by
which our cast can be hung up. We may bore two
holes through the middle of the top rim of the
mould, and put a loop of copper wire through
them, bending its ends so as to give them a
firm hold, and so arranging it that it will be well
imbedded when the mould is filled with plaster. We
use copper and not iron wire because the latter
would certainly rust, and sooner or later cause the
plaster to become discoloured and split. The mould
is now ready to be filled, that is, we may now proceed
to make the actual cast. Had our work been of a
more particular nature we should now have used super-
fine, but we have decided that fine plaster will serve
our purpose. Still, whichever it may be, we must be par-
ticular to mix it with the greatest care, by the rules
already laid down. Clean water must be used. When
ready the plaster must be poured into the mould, and
the latter gently shaken and moved from side to side,
so as to cause the fluid to run- into every cranny, and
to leave no air bubbles between mould and cast. The
bellows may again be used with advantage to blow
the plaster well into the under-cuttings. Lose no time
till a covering has been given to the whole mould, for
the liquid plaster will quickly thicken and begin to
set, and it will not then flow into corners and cuttings;
go on till you have laid a coating of fine plaster, a
quarter of an inch or more in thickness, over every part
of the mould, and then back up with coarse till your
cast is thick enough. An unpractised caster should
not venture to leave his casts too thin ; it is false
economy. They must be strong enough to resist the
blow of the mallet used in chipping off the mould.
The thickness must to a great extent be regulated by
the size and nature of the model ; for such a one as
the present, three-quarters of an inch, in the weakest
parts, will suffice.
Almost directly after the mould is filled, you can
begin to smooth and trim off the back of the cast, for
this you will do most easily whilst the plaster is still
soft. By the time that this is done the cast will be
hard enough for you to begin chipping away the
mould. The cast should be laid on its back on a
table or other sufficient support : if it can be placed in
a sloping position it will be easier to work at, and the
chips will fall away more readily. Your tools must be
374
NEW METHODS OF MAKING A CLOTHES-HORSE.
a mallet and a blunt chisel. The edge of the latter
should be ground off round.
The outer mould and its irons will be easily and
quickly removed. By a few bold strokes they can be
fetched off in a few pieces, for the clay which has been
daubed between them and the inner mould will cause
the two to part readily. The outer mould being
cleared away, we next have to remove the inner
mould.
We have now come to the most interesting part of
the whole process. No small pleasure can be promised
to the operator whilst with the removal of the inner
mould he sees his model gradually reappear in a new,
solid, and beautifully white material. The inner mould
must be chipped off in small pieces, and with great
care, lest injury be done to the cast beneath. It is
safer to keep the chisel, whilst working, almost at a
right angle to the surface. And now the value of the
tinted mould will become apparent. The difference
of colour will enable the operator at once to distin-
guish between the mould and the surface of the cast,
when the latter is reached, and thus all danger of
cutting into the latter by mistake will be avoided. If
the directions given are followed with care, the inner
mould and cast will separate with sufficient ease,
though not so freely as the outer and inner moulds
had parted.
A clean soft brush may be used to remove chips
from the surface, and the bellows will again be found
useful, to clear out hollows and under-cuttings.
When the mould has been entirely removed, not-
withstanding all our care, we can scarcely hope to find
the cast wholly free from imperfections. Some pro-
jecting part may have been chipped off, there may be
holes caused by air bubbles, or others made by chance
slips of the chisel.
In the case of a small breakage, the professed
moulder sticks on the piece with a little shellac dis-
solved in spirit, which he keeps by him in a bottle.
This is the quickest way of mending. But it may be
done quite as effectively and more neatly with a little
liquid plaster, mixed thin.
For stopping holes of any kind, plaster must be
mixed in the ordinary manner, and then " killed," that
is to say, you must allow it partially to set, and then
beat it up with a little more water. Without this
precaution it would set harder than the surrounding
parts of the cast, and be easily distinguished from
them in appearance.
In the next and concluding paper, I shall speak of
the few simple tools used in casting, and give a brief
description of wax moulding and piece moulding, and
the methods to be followed in making elastic moulds,
and taking castings from natural objects.
{To be continued,}
NEW METHODS OF MAKING A CLOTHES-
HORSE.
HE old kitchen clothes-horse, useful as it
undoubtedly has been and still is, pos-
sesses the demerits of being cumber-
some and awkward in shape, occupying
an undesirable amount of space when
folded up and put away, and, lastly, of being extremely
rickety and easily overturned. That it serves the
purpose for which it is intended there is no denying,
and that it is useful in more ways than one, may be
shown by the fact that in small families, when a joint
is roasting before the fire, it may be placed partly in
front and partly on one side to act as a meat-screen in
the absence of the cupboard-like, tin-lined structure
commonly used as such, being draped with clothes
which get a thorough airing, while at the same time
they prevent the passage of much of the heat that is
thrown out from the fire, beyond the limits of the
space that they enclose, and, being white, act to some
extent as reflectors, and turn back the rays of light
and heat remitted by the fire, and throw them on the
surface of the revolving joint.
It is due, however, to the maligned clothes-horse,
before introducing other forms for the consideration
of those who do much of the carpentry they require
at home, to make good the indictments that have been
preferred against it above. Its very construction is
sufficient to prove all that has been said against it.
Being made in two, three, or four folds, after the manner
of a screen, each fold consisting of a couple of up-
rights connected by transverse rails, and fastened one
to another by strips of webbing which do duty as
hinges, it cannot be otherwise than cumbersome, and
when folded up it cannot be put away in a corner, but
must be hung on a large hook, or laid against a wall,
covering as much of it in area as is equal to the
superficial content of one of its folds, and projecting
from it at top, to the united thickness of its two or
more folds, and at the bottom to more than this in
consequence of its slightly recumbent position. It is
rickety and easily overturned, partly by reason of its
loosely-fitting substitutes for hinges, which do not hold
the folds together as closely as hinges would do, and
partly by reason of the difficulty in regulating its base,
so as to give it as much stability as possible. For
example, when the folds are in one and the same
straight line, the breadth of base is reduced to the
thickness of the uprights, and it will not stand, or at
all events if it stand in this position the slightest im-
pulse one way or the other will send it over. Its
greatest stability is attained when the folds are arranged
as the sides of a square, or to form a zig-zag line
NEW METHODS OF MAKING A CLOTHES-HORSE.
375
in which each fold is at right
angles to the fold adjoining
it ; or, if the horse consist of
two folds only, when the folds
are at right angles the one to
the other.
But having exhausted the de-
merits and the philosophy of the
old folding clothes-horse, let us
turn to the new forms which
have been proposed as substi-
tutes. The construction of one
kind is shown in Fig. I, which
will serve as a hanging rack or
as a standing rack. The first
thing to be done is to get a piece
of wood, as shown in elevation
in the upper part of the illustra-
tion, at o. This resembles the
nave of a wheel, with ends pro-
jecting from it on either side,
and if the rack is to be semicircular, as shown in the
figure, it must be sawn in half, but if it is to be a cir-
cular rack, it must of course be left in the shape in
which it comes from the lathe. And before proceeding
further with the description of the rack, the standing
form may as well be disposed of at once. If it is
determined to make a standing rack the lower end E
maybe dispensed with, and a hole made in the centre
of the central portion to fit on to a pole, which in its
turn is supported by a circular foot, or a foot made of
two transverse pieces of wood in the form of a cross,
having four equal arms from the centre of which the
pole rises. If it is to be a standing semicircular rack,
a semicircular foot should be used, or a parallelogram
of wood twice as long as it is wide, and a little longer
and wider than
the diameter
and radius of
the semicircle
above ; from the
centre of the
back of this an
upright should
rise, to which
the half of the
large turned
spindle as re-
presented at I
should be at-
tached by
screws.
We may now
proceed to con-
sider the con-
FIG. I. — SEMI-CIRCULAR RACK FOR CLOTHES,
FIG. 2. — PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF FOLDING CLOTHES-HORSE. FIG. 3. — END ELEVATION.
struction of that part of the
rack which holds the clothes,
confining the description to the
semicircular rack, because it is
clear that if the amateur can
make a semicircular rack, he
can as easily make a circular
one. To the central piece
already mentioned it is now
necessary to fit a semicircular
piece of wood, shown in eleva-
tion in the upper part of Fig. I,
at G G, and in the lower part at
g' g'. This may be fitted into a
shallow groove cut for its re-
ception in I, when I is on the
lathe. When this has been
done, seven staples, with the
ends turned at right angles to
the upper part so that they may
be driven into the edge of the
semicircle, the upper portion of the staple remaining
upright, as shown at D D, must be put in place as
drawn. The size of these staples must depend on the
size of the rods that are to be put through them.
The staples being in place, it is necessary to speak
of the arms on which the clothes are suspended.
These arms are rods, resembling the uprights or
balusters of a flight of stairs. They may be from
\ inch to I inch square in section, according to the
weight they will have to support, and from 2 feet to 3
feet in length. When it is desirable to use the clothes
rack the arms are thrust horizontally through the
upright part of the staples, and are passed along the
upper surface of the semicircular piece h, between
pins, lettered B B, in each portion of the figure. The pins
may be circu-
lar, or wedge-
shaped, as
shown in the
illustration. It
is manifest that
without anypro-
vision for hold-
ing down the
inner end of
each rail, the
rails, when
weighted at the
outer end with
clothes would be
drawn down-
wards by the
weight. In or-
der to counter-
376
A BACHELOR'S SIDEBOARD IN THE NEO-JAPANESE STYLE.
act this tendency, a plate must be screwed on to the
wedges at b b, or narrow mortises be cut in I for the
reception of the ends, which must be shaped so as to
fit into them as tenons. The arm in this position both
in the upper and lower part of Fig. i, is shown at A, A.
When not in use in this manner they are taken out
and hung, each in its own staple, as shown at F, the
pin H in each serving to sustain it in the staple. When
the rods are removed altogether the staples may be
used as hanging hooks. When this rack is made in
the semicircular form it is desirable to weight the foot
that supports it, if it be a standing rack, to prevent
any tendency to tip forward if there be nothing on the
side rails to counteract the weight of clothes suspended
to the rails projecting in front. When suspended
against a wall for hanging clothes only, this precau-
tion of course is unnecessary, for the rack or horse
will have no foot. In this case it is desirable that the
arms should be shorter in length than those for a
clothes-horse for use in a kitchen or laundry.
Fig. 2 represents a clothes-horse that is more con-
venient for kitchen or laundry use, and far more easily
made than that which has just been described. This
horse is shown in perspective view in Fig. 2, and Fig.
3 exhibits its end elevation. In order to make it, two
pieces of wood 3 feet long, ii inches wide, and f inch
thick, as A and B, and two pieces of the same width
and thickness, but 4 feet long as C and D, are required
for each end. These pieces being placed in the form
indicated, so as to form a kind of trellis work, A and D
being outside and B and C being inside, are connected
by twelve rods or rails of wood about jj inch in diameter,
and about 3J feet to 4 feet in length. The rods should
fit closely in the holes bored for their reception, and
be secured within and without, the strips through
which they are passed by wooden pins, the rods
being 10 inches apart. The extent to which this fold-
ing rack shall open is regulated by another piece of
wood, E. This has one hole in the top which is
passed over the end of the upper central rail, on one
or both sides — but preferably on both for the sake of
rendering the framework more stable— and four or five
holes at short distances apart in the bottom. Of
course the greater the distance between the hole at
the top and the hole at the bottom, which is slipped
over the projecting end of the lower central rod, the
closer will the arms of the framework be brought to-
gether ; and, conversely, the closer these holes are
together the more extended will the framework of the
ends be. Perhaps the most useful position is when
the pieces of the framework cross each other at right
angles. In order to find out the proper distance
between a pair of holes that will secure this inclination
of the arms, supposing that the rods, and therefore
the holes in the pieces of the framework that receive
them, are 10 inches apart; then as the square of the side
which subtends a right angle is equal to the squares
of the sides that contain the right angle, which in this
case are each 10 inches, the square of the distance
that we desire to determine is equal to io2 + io2, or
100 + 100 = 200, and the distance itself is equal to
the square root of 200, which is 14.142 inches, or
about I4f inches.
-^— - *^«- "~
A BACHELOR'S SIDEBOARD IN THE NEO-
JAPANESE STYLE.
By J. W. GLEESON-WHITE.
HY should a Bachelor's Sideboard differ
from any other, it might be asked ? And
putting aside the immortal logic of the
White Rabbit, " Why not ? " S urely there
are several practical reasons that it
should do so. In the first place, a bachelor has (to
speak flippantly) more need of " compressed" storage
room. He is more like a yachtsman, to whom inches
are of value, than a householder who can find plenty
of space in another room for anything not needed in
hourly use. This sideboard is meant to suit a
bachelor's "rooms," though the plural is too often
singular, or such an insignificant apartment to sleep
in, that it seems hardly enough to justify the common
term.
For a room that must needs be made to do duty as
dining, drawing, smoking room, study, and perhaps
cellar, rolled into one, this sideboard boldly attempts
to meet the demand by endeavouring to stand for
sideboard, cabinet, bookcase, safe, and cellaret, and
throws in a fewdrawers and shelves in excess. After the
design was completed I showed it to a certain married
lady, who at once expressed an urgent desire to have
one made. Thus I fear it has either failed in its pur-
pose for bachelors only, or that the feminine mind,
too often ready to annex poor man's specialties, would
be glad to convert his " sideboard" to the mysteries of
work-cupboard and other needs not within the power
of the male mind to catalogue or discover.
Our Sideboard would be best made in wood of a
plain grain and unpolished, or oiled only. The beauty
and fitness of oak for the purpose is evident, but the
cost may be an objection. Any other fairly hard wood
might do, but if mahogany be used turned work should
replace much of the straight woodwork, as it is better
to take the polish mahogany requires. As a compro-
mise in cost, and fairly satisfactory effect, we may
imagine it in ebonized wood, that has an advantage in
allowing the use of several kinds of wood without
materially affecting the finished look of the whole. If
any other wood than oak is decided on, the panels in
IVA YS AND MEANS.
377
low relief carving should be of a hard wood that will
go well with the framework and needs no polish.
To construct it. For the structural framework
wood full an inch thick should be used ; and if pine is
chosen, the uprights A, D, B, and C might be ii inches
thick for the sake of firmness. Working drawings to '
scale being given of these, it is only necessary to say
that the open portions should be cut away as shown. It
would simplify the work and add strength if the upper
part of c (and of the others as a matter of course) were
cut out, and the cross portions, of separate pieces cut
with the grain, screwed in to afford a more secure
fixing for the shelves, or the shelves, if of the same
thickness of wood, might be fitted in so that their ends
would replace the cross-bars referred to. The straight
pieces of railing and decorative lattice work should be
in wood squares in section an inch square for the top
railing ; but for the " arches," three-quarter inch
would be heavy enough. The doors E and G and the
drawer front throughout should be panelled in the
ordinary' way, and the ornament laid on with glue, and
needle-points or fine nails ; the wood for this purpose
should be the same as the panels themselves, and not
as the framing, if a contrast is decided on here. If
ebonized wood is used, a lighter colour — satinwood,
cherry, or pear — might be used for the panels of doors
and drawers, carved as E, F, and G, to designs given,
with low relief carving. For the method of carving
reference must be made to the series of papers on that
art now appearing in this Magazine. Brass hanging
handles, or good iron ones, for the drawers, etc., can
be obtained of any first-class ironmonger ; and if
outside hinges are used for the doors — and they will
greatly improve the general effect — they should be of
similar metal, and escutcheons for keyholes will also
be required.
For the framing of the drawer fronts y inch wood
with panels of a j inch, or rather less, would be strong
enough, but § inch stuff should be used for the sides
and back of drawers : for the cellaret drawer, if in-
tended to be used for bottles, J inch framing and \ inch
sides will not be too strong. This drawer should be
fitted with divisions to take ordinary wine-bottles and
a space for two or three bottles of " aerated water."
The doors G, G may be framed with \ inch wood, but if
the carved panels are thicker than \ inch, it may be
needful to increase the thickness of the frames. All
the panels should be kept at least £ inch back from
the front, either rabbeted so as to be flush with the
styles at the back, or in the usual position of a panel,
if the frame is thick enough to allow it. The door E,
which falls forward, should have a folding-hinged
support at side to keep it firm at right angles with the
sideboard, and might be made of more solid wood than
i inch stuff, to allow of a really good lock.
Now as the arrangement of cupboards, shelves,
etc., is free — (and easy), and the design at variance
with all the canons of conventional art, I have ven-
tured to call its style " Neo-Japanese," because, when
anything is produced that cannot be immediately
identified with any existing style, the term Japanese is
always accepted as expressing it exactly. Having for
some years studied Japanese design, which is by no
means "haphazard," lam amazed at the — shall I call
it "impudence"? — that gives this title to so many of
these horrors of bad colour and worse form, I will
only say that in this sideboard I have tried to catch
the Japanese spirit without using, so far as I know,
one item of Japanese detail.
It will be seen that a number of varied needs are
catered for in this piece of furniture. First, as a
" sideboard " proper, it offers — a cellaret drawer in the
lower right hand corner, a cupboard on the next story,
for bottles, dessert, etc., several nooks for the water
bottle, pewter, or beer jug of the owner, and sundry
odd drawers. Secondly, as a bookcase it supplies
three spaces for books of different sizes, and two more
for music, or folios of drawings, etc. Thirdly, it pos-
sesses a drawer F, that might be fitted to hold sta-
tionery ; a recess E, that should have a good lock and
serve as a " safe " ; while the space at top may hold
bric-a-brac or useful articles as the possessor wills it.
This receptacle might have a panel at back, size of
door, to avoid entrance from behind.
The back of the whole piece of furniture should be
lined with any convenient strong plain boards to the top
story, this part being backed, velvet or looking-glass
if preferred. All the shelves being of simple pieces of
plain wood, the size of each piece being indicated so
clearly by the position they occupy, it would only
confuse matters to give the size in inches of each in-
dividual one ; they would be best let into the uprights
for a quarter inch to obtain a good bearing and to
impart strength and cohesion to the whole work. But
the joinery is of the most rudimentary sort, such as will
present no technical difficulty to any amateur bold
enough to attempt the making of A Bachelor's Side-
board.
WAYS AND MEANS.
[The Receipts brought together under this title are gathered
from various sources. They are given here because they are each
and all apparently possessed of value, and likely to be useful to the
Amateur. It is manifestly impossible for the Editor to test them,
or to have them tested, and he therefore disclaims all responsibility
for their accuracy or otherwise. Amateurs who may try them aro
requested to communicate the results arrived at.]
Polishing Brass. — For polishing brass, rub the
surface with rottenstone and sweet oil ; then rub off
with a soft cotton cloth, and polish with soft leather.
A solution of oxalic acid rubbed over tarnished brass,
37»
WA YS AND MEANS.
soon renders the metal bright. Wash off the acid
with water, and rub the brass with whiting and soft
leather.
Loose Screws. — It is a common thing when a
screw or staple becomes loose, to draw it out, plug up
the hole or holes with wood, and then reinsert it.
But screws and staples so secured soon come out again.
It has been found that a much better way is to fill up
the holes tightly with cork. Screws and irons so
secured will remain perfectly tight, just as long as
when put into new wood.
Copying Drawings. — In the Polytechnisches No-
tizblatt, M. Tilhet's method of copying drawings in
any colour that may be required or desired is thus
described : " The paper on which the copy is to appear
is first dipped in a bath consisting of 30 parts of white
soap, 30 parts of alum, 40 parts of English glue, 10
parts of albumen, 2 parts of glacial acetic acid, 10
parts of alcohol of 601, and 500 parts of water. It is
afterwards put into a second bath, which contains 50
parts of burnt umber ground in alcohol, 20 parts of
lampblack, 10 parts of English glue, and 10 parts of
bichromate of potash in 500 parts of water. They are
now sensitive to light, and must therefore be preserved
in the dark. In preparing paper to make the positive
print, another bath is made just like the first one,
except that lampblack is substituted for the burnt
umber. To obtain coloured positives, the black is
replaced by some red, blue, or other pigment. In
making the copy, the drawing to be copied is put in a
photographic printing-frame, and the negative paper
laid on it, and then exposed in the usual manner. In
clear weather an illumination of two minutes will suffice.
After the exposure, the negative is put in water to de-
velope it, and the drawing will appear in white on a
dark ground ; in other words, it is a negative or
reversed picture. The paper is then dried, and a
positive made from it by placing it on the glass of a
printing-frame, and laying the positive paper upon it,
and exposing as before. After placing the frame in
the sun for two minutes, the positive is taken out and
put in water. The black dissolves off without the
necessity of moving it backwards and forwards.'
Expansion of Hard Caoutchouc— Ordinary
vulcanized caoutchouc should contain about tV to ^
of sulphur, a greater proportion yielding a hard, horn-
like product, which expands considerably when heated.
It was established by Mr. Kohlrausch, some years ago,
that this hard caoutchouc, while expanding equally
with mercury up to the freezing point, expands much
more at higher temperatures ; so that in a thermometer
consisting of a vessel of this material filled with mer-
cury, the latter would appear to contract with an
increase of temperature. Results of experiments made
by Mr. R. Fuess, of Berlin, appear to confirm Pro-
fessor Kohlrausch's statement. Mr. Fuess placed a
rod of caoutchouc, J inch thick, in a glass tube, f inch
diameter, and filled the tube with mercury to a height
of 3 feet, exactly up to a little pin of platinum project-
ing horizontally from the caoutchouc. The calcula-
tions from fifteen observations, in which he was assisted
by Dr. M. Tiessen, gave an expansion co-efficient of
"000082 for each degree C. up to a temperature of 65'
F. ; higher figures resulting from observations at higher
temperatures.
Borate of Soda and its Properties. — A
borate of soda having five equivalents of water
may be produced by dissolving 12 tons of soda
in about 528 gallons of water, saturating the solution
with boracic acid, and boiling it. If borate of soda is
calcined, melted in a crucible, and then poured upon
a plate of glass, or very dry stone, it may be pulverised,
and when placed upon a piece of damp linen, or un-
sized paper, there is a very rapid elevation of tempera-
ture to about 8o° C. (=176'' F.). This property may be
employed for producing a warm poultice with cold
water, without danger of burning or inflaming the
skin, or for warming food, etc.
How to keep out Rats. — A writer in the Metal
Worker thus describes the means by which he cleared
his house of rats, and prevented them from making
a way into his cellar. He says : " I will tell how I
fixed the rats in my house. I took 3 inch by 4. inch
scantlings, and laid them four feet apart (on the
floor of the cellar). I then filled in the intervening
spaces with quicklime to a level with the scantlings,
and covered (in both scantlings and lime) with planks
for a floor. This floor has been in use fourteen years.
I was troubled with rats until I laid it, but I have not
had a rat in my cellar since. My neighbours are
constantly in trouble. The secret of this construc-
tion is that the rats cannot get into the cellar without
going through the lime. I now leave potatoes, apples,
and other vegetables in the cellar, without covering,
in perfect safety.
Bleaching Wood. — In most cases, the staining
of wood may be effected so as to produce very bright
colours without any previous preparation, as, generally
speaking, the mordants employed have a bleaching
action on the wood. But sometimes, in consequence
of the quality of the wood under treatment, it must be
freed from its natural colours by a preliminary bleach-
ing process. To this end it is saturated as completely
as possible with a clear solution of 17 \ ounces of
chloride of lime, and two ounces of soda crystals in
102 pints of water. In this liquid the wood is steeped
for half an hour if it does not appear to injure its
texture. After this bleaching, it is immersed in a
solution of sulphurous acid to remove all traces of
chlorine, and then washed in pure water. The sul-
WA YS AND MEANS.
379
phurous acid which may cling to the wood, in spite of
the washing-, does not appear to injure it or alter the
colours which are applied.
Varnishing Paperhangings. — Give two coats
of size, i lb. of pale glue in i gallon of w-ater, should
be used for oak and dark colour, and when dry-
varnish with hard oak varnish. For varnishing
marble, tiles, and other light papers, use gelatine size
and white paper varnish. — Furniture Gazette.
Metallic Designs on Glass. — An ingenious
method of obtaining mirror-like designs on glass, has
been devised by Leclerc. The glass having been
silvered by the chemical process, is coated with a
thin and uniform layer of sensitive bitumen, and this
is exposed under a transparency, the next step being
to wash away the unaltered bitumen with oil of tur-
pentine, so as to leave the bituminous design on the
silvered glass. The application of moderately strong
nitric acid removes the silver, excepting where it has
been protected by the bitumen, so that the metallic
design shows like a mirror from the reverse side of
the glass. The plate may be backed by paint or any
other suitable material.
Empty Milk Tins. — These are generally con-
signed to the dust-bin, yet in the amateur's workshop
they are invaluable. Leave the smooth end, and
always open them by the other, passing the knife close
to the edge and making the cut as neat as possible.
About an inch should be left uncut, to serve as a
hinge to the flap cover. When the tin is empty, break
off the flap, wash clean, and put it on the workshop
shelf, bottom upwards to keep out the dust. These
tins will come in useful in a variety of ways : to hold
nails in out-door jobs, such as shed building, or to
hold odd screws, or scraps. As paint pots, or varnish
pots, or to keep the paint brushes in oil. For white
lead or red lead. To boil water over the gas-heater.
A small tin put into a larger (taking care to lay two
nails across the bottom to raise the inner tin), with
water in the outer one, will do excellently well to melt
glue or size, especially as an amateur generally wants
only small quantities at a time. Then the tins will cut
up most usefully, for all manner of small tin plate jobs,
such as toy-making or mending ; rather thin, and not
very large, but very clean as a rule, and therefore
easy to solder. Anyhow, the amateur ought to keep
an eye on the tins that are now so common in most
households. — E. P. C.
Red Staining for Wood. — The wood must first
be plunged into a solution of i oz. of curd-soap in 35
fluid ounces of water, or else be well rubbed with the
solution. Then magenta is applied in a state of suffi-
cient dilution to produce the tone required. All the
aniline colours afford efficient stains for wood when
applied in this manner.
To Imitate Ground Glass. — Put a piece of
putty in muslin, twist the fabric tight, and tie it into
the shape of a pad. Well clean the glass first, and
then apply the putty by dabbing it equally all over the
glass. The putty will exude sufficiently through the
muslin to render the glass opaque. Let it dry hard
and then varnish. If a pattern is required, cut it out
on paper as a stencil plate, and fix it on the glass
before applying the putty, then proceed as above, and
remove the stencil when the dabbing is completed.
If there should be any objection to the appearance of
clear spaces, cover them with slightly opaque varnish.
Violet Stain for Wood. — The wood is treated
in a bath made up with 4} ounces of olive oil, the
same weight of soda ash, and ih pints of boiling
water. It is then dyed with magenta, to which a
corresponding quantity of tin crystals have been
added
Cement for Fastening Wood to Stone. —
Melt together 4 pints of pitch and 1 of wax, and add
4 parts of pounded brick dust or chalk. It must be
warmed before using, and applied thinly tothe sur-
faces to be joined.
Damp Walls. — It is said that moisture may be
kept from penetrating a brick wall by dissolving f lb.
of mottled soap in 1 gallon of boiling water, and
spreading the hot solution steadily with a large flat
brush over the surface of the brickwork, taking care
that it does not lather. This is to be allowed to dry
for twenty-four hours, when a solution formed of \ lb.
of alum dissolved in 2 gallons of water is to be applied
in a similar manner over the coating of soap. The
soap and alum mutually decompose each other and
form an insoluble varnish which the rain is unable to
penetrate. The operation should be performed in dry
settled weather.
Mordants for Staining Wood.— Sulphuric
acid, more or less diluted, according to the intensity
of the colour to be produced, is applied with a brush
to the wood previously cleaned and dried. A lighter
or darker brown stain is obtained according to the
strength of the acid. When the acid has acted suffi-
ciently its further action is arrested by the application
of ammonia. Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown
colour, but this, however, is not permanent, unless
the air is excluded by a thick coating of polish.
Nitric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, which is
converted into brown by the subsequent application of
tincture of iodine.
Cement for Making Joints, etc. — Asbestos
powder made into a thick paste with liquid silicate of
soda is used with great advantage for making joints,
fitting taps, connecting pipes, filling cracks, etc. It
hardens very quickly, stands any heat, and is steam
tight.
38o
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
ESSRS. CHARLES CHURCHILL & Co.,
American merchants and importers of
American machinery and tools, ask me
to announce their approaching removal,
on August I, from their present premises,
28, Wilson Street, to their new and commodious ware-
house, close to the old place, at No. 21, Cross Street,
Finsbury, where, in the spacious show-rooms at their
command, they will be able to exhibit a greatly in-
creased stock of wood-working machinery and ap-
pliances. Messrs. Churchill and Co. have heralded
their coming flitting by the issue of a new Catalogue,
extended from 1 36 to 1 56 pages, and all the more con-
venient to handle from being printed on stouter toned
paper, which shows up the engravings and letter-press
with far better effect than the thin and cold-looking
blue paper for which the firm have cherished for many
years so marked a. penchant. As may be supposed from
the greatly increased number of pages, many new
and useful articles have lately been added to Messrs.
Churchill's stock, including Murphy's Bench Clamp
and Newton's Tool Grinding Rest, to which attention
has been already called in the pages of this Magazine.
I shall have occasion to return to the pages of this Cata-
logue, for the purpose of noting those novelties which
appear most likely to be of service to my readers.
Meanwhile, it may be useful to amateurs interested in
fret-sawing, to say that Messrs. Churchill and Co. now
supply several kinds of clock movements for fret de-
signs. These movements include one and eight-day lever
timepieces, with dials ranging from 3 to 5 inches, and
varying in price from 8s. to 16s., and one, eight, and
fifteen-day pendulum clocks, mostly striking the hours,
and in some cases the half-hours too, ranging in price
from 8s. to 68s., and in diameter of dial plates from
3 to 6 inches. The prices, in every case, include dials,
hands, keys, and pendulums. Among the clocks com-
plete in case are several one-day timepieces, notably
the "Vale Gem," 3 inches in height without base, or
4 inches with base of bronze metal heavily plated, sold
at 6s. and 7s. 3d. respectively. The Yale Gem pos-
sesses the merits of being a good time-keeper, and the
smallest pendulum clock manufactured. More attrac-
tive clocks, to my mind, will be found in tl e "Carlisle"
lever timepiece, which stands y\ inches in height in a
black ebonized case, and runs for 30 hours, sold at 13s.
and the " Yale Extra," a one-day timepiece, 9 inches
high, with engraved ebonized front and top, and French
dial, warranted, as the others are, to keep good time,
and sold at 6s. gd. A useful eight-day timekeeper for
the sitting-room, hall, or office, silent or striking, as
preferred, is offered at 46s. 6d. in the " Parlour Calen-
dar Clock," which possesses two dials, in the lower of
which the changes of the months, the days of the
month, and the days of the week are shown correctly
for Leap Year as well as for the ordinary year, the
weekly winding of the clock being all that is required
to produce all the changes that have been enumerated
as well as to keep the works in motion.
In page 94 I quoted from the Building News an
account of a trial of "The Patent Electric Paint
Remover," a speciality for the removal of old paint,
varnish, tar, smoke, stains, grease, wall-paper, etc.,
from wood, stone, iron, marble, etc., manufactured
only by the patentees, Messrs. Rendle Brothers, 8,
Westmifister Chambers, Victoria Street, London, S. W.
I had not then had an opportunity of testing this pre-
paration, as I said, and could not bear direct testimony
to its value. By the courtesy, however, of Messrs.
Rendle Brothers, who have sent me a sample tin, I
am enabled to confirm all that the representatives of
the Building News say in praise of this paint-remover,
which is certainly the best thing of its kind that has
yet been produced for the purpose for which it is
used. Its advantages are numerous. It is cheap,
being supplied in tins from 5 lbs. to 20 lbs. at the rate
of 6d. per lb., and presumably in larger quantities at
even a lower rate, as the patentees offer to make
special quotations for large quantities. Seconc'ly, it is
of a creamy consistency, devoid of smell, and does its
work of softening the old paint, and reducing it to a
condition in which the bulk can be scraped off, and the
remainder wiped or washed away without in any way
affecting the wood below, whose grain is in no way
raised or otherwise affected by its action, as it will gene-
rally be when the surface is left exposed to the action of
air and rain. Thirdly, it never fails in its effect, and
obviates any necessity of resorting to the troublesome
expedient of removing old paint by the action of heat, a
process which is known among painters as " devilling,"
and which often slightlychars and discolours the surface
of the wood that is subjected to it. For the removal
of paint from old oak, it is simply invaluable to the
collector of carved furniture, and especially panels and
ornamental work in this material, on account of the
special property it possesses of leaving the surface of
the wood below unharmed, and in the same condition
in which it appeared before the paint was applied to
it. It will remove the varnish from floors so treated,
and japanning, paint, etc., from all kinds of metal
work ; it will also remove grease and stains from
wood and marble when applied thinly to the part
affected with a brush, and a thin coat will cause the
complete and speedy removal of wall-paper from
papered walls, without the trouble, dirt, and delay
involved in first damping the paper with water, and
then clearing it away with a steel scraper. The
directions for use, which are very simple, are as
NOTES ON NO VELTIES.
381
follows : — " Gently stir the Remover before use. A
thick coat should be laid on the work with a palette
knife or trowel, and allowed to remain for about half-
an-hour. Clean all off, well wash down, and, when
thoroughly dry, repaint. One coat will be found suffi-
cient for ordinary work." The " Electric Paint Re-
mover " ought to be obtainable at chemists and oil
and colourmen throughout the United Kingdom, and
amateurs who require it will be doing good service
to themselves, and the patentees as well, by pointing
out its advantages to any local tradesman with whom
they deal for paint, glass, etc., and stating that
Messrs. Rendle Brothers require agents everywhere,
and will supply them on liberal terms. Every good
thing is liable to imitation, so buyers must take care
that the label bears Messrs. Rendle Brothers' regis-
tered trade mark — a trowel, and a pallette-knife crossed
saltierwise.
To judge from the letters that I have received
asking for a series of papers on " Printing for
Amateurs," it appears that a considerable percentage
of the readers of this Magazine take a deep interest
in the art which exercises so powerful an influence for
good throughout the whole world, and desire to gain
some knowledge of the processes and machinery
necessary for its prosecution, in order to enter on its
practice, partly for amusement and partly, though
less directly, for profit, inasmuch as a penny saved by
the exercise of any art or handicraft, is a penny gained,
if I may venture to revert once more to a truism
which has long since been worn threadbare by a repe-
tition, but which is so valuable from an economical
point of view, that its reiteration may well be for-
given. It will save a little space perhaps in " Ama-
teurs in Council " if I say here in reply, to all who
have written on this subject, and whose inquiries have
not yet been individually answered, that the promised
articles will be commenced in our issue for November ;
meanwhile, for the information of those who may
desire to commence operations at an earlier date, I
may take the opportunity of calling attention to a
handy little volume entitled, " How to Print," which
has been sent to me by Messrs. C. G. Squintani and
Co., of 3, Ludgate Circus Buildings, London, E.C.,
and of which a copy will be forwarded to any one
who may wish to have it, on receipt of 7d. in postage
stamps, being 6d. for the book itself, and id. for
postage.
In this beautifully printed volume, the amateur
will find everything that he can desire to know rela-
tive to the art of printing, the arrangement of type in
the cases, the various appliances required, the setting
of type in the composing stick, the transference of the
type from the composing stick to the galley, tying
and locking up the forme in the chase, with the neces-
sary furniture, the signs used in correcting proofs,
the method of " making ready " and inking the forme
for taking impressions from the type, printing the
number of copies required, cleaning the type when
the printing is done, and, finally, distributing it into
the cases. Space altogether forbids me from attempt-
ing to describe even a tenth of what is to be found in
this useful volume ; but I must not omit to direct
attention to the price lists of appliances, and the
various complete outfits for amateur printing, that
Messrs. Squintani and Co. supply, as well as the
specimens of hundreds of different kinds of types,
borders, and ornaments, which are supplied in "job
founts " of which the price of each, and the quantity
supplied for the money, in no case amounting to
more than a few shillings, are indicated so carefully
and so clearly, that it is impossible for any intending
purchaser to fail to see by aid of the " specimen of
founts " supplied, what he will receive in return for the
cash that must accompany his order, for Messrs.
Squintani & Co., deal only on that best of all com-
mercial systems, the ready money principle.
Messrs. Squintani & Co. are not only wholesale
and retail dealers in type and printing materials, but
they are also the patentees and manufacturers of the
" Model Printing Press," a self-inking press, which is
peculiarly adapted from its construction and strength
to the requirements of amateur printers, and which
is made in six different sizes, and sold at prices vary-
ing from £2, 10s. to ,£30, according to size. The
nature of the " Model Press " and its action will be
seen from the accompanying illustrations, of which
Fig. 19, represents the press, when the handle has
been brought down, in order to take an impression
from the type, and Fig. 20, when the pressure has
been removed, and the handle returned to its place,
causing the rollers, which have been brought into
contact with the inking disc while the impression
was being taken, to pass downwards over the forme,
inking the type for the next impression.
The construction of the " Model Press " is based
on what is termed the " bed and platen " principle,
the impression being produced by the operation of a
" twin " or union toggle, combined with a lever. The
mere downward motion produces upon the face of the
type a direct, steady, and powerful pressure, yet as
soon as ever a sufficient impression has been pro-
duced, the motion of the handle is stayed, and there
is a momentary "dwell" upon the type, that is suffi-
cient to " set the ink " upon the paper. It is just this
" dwell " upon the type that is so essential a feature
of the large and costly job presses, and which indeed
renders them more expensive than they would other-
wise be, owing to the mechanical means that must be
adopted to produce it. In the " Model Press," how-
382
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
ever, this momentary
continuation of close
contact between the
paper and the inked
forme, is produced by
a very simple device,
which enables its in-
ventors to give the
amateur a thoroughly
efficient press at a low
price, that will do its
work as well as a
more costly one.
The bed of the
press, as will be seen
from the illustrations,
is fixed in position,
and slightly inclined
towards the platen.
The frame that holds
the bed and the bed
itself, are cast in one
piece, which imparts
great solidity to the
press, and entirely pre
vents any
fig. 19. — THE
slurr " of the forme during the impression.
The chase, which holds the type or forme to be printed,
fits into slots cut to receive it at the lower side, the top
being secured in such a manner that it is fixed to the
face of the bed as rigidly as if it were one piece with
it, although it is so constructed that it can be released
and removed in an instant. On the back of the platen,
next the opera-
tor, are five
screws, which
act on the face
of the platen,
and regulate
the impression.
These screws
are turned with
a strong key-
wrench, that is
supplied with
the press.
In the illus-
trations, A is the
inking disc,
which revolves
slightly with
each impression
by a simple pawl
and ratchet ar-
rangement un-
derneath it, and
MODEL PSESS ' CLOSED FOR IMPRESSION.
FIG. 20. — THE 'MODEL PRESS, OPEN FOR INKING FORME.
which, owing to its
position, cannot be
shown in the engrav-
ing. A bracket, B, at
the back of the press
supports the roller
arms, C, which are
exactly balanced by
the balls, D. These
arms carry the rollers,
E, from the inking
disc, A, over the face
of the type and back
to the disc again,
giving a perfect distri-
bution of the ink with
each impression. The
motion is given to the
arms that carry the
inking rollers direct
from the platen by the
curved arms, F. The
grippers, H, H, which
are worked by a simple
arrangement, may be
adjusted to any required width, and can be secured in
an instant.
The power is applied in such a manner that there
is no lost motion. At the instant when the whole
power of the press is needed for giving the impression
on the face of the type, the inking apparatus has
finished its work, and remains stationary on the disc
until the impres-
sion is over. The
surplus power is
then used for
inking the forme
for a new im-
pression. The
ec o n o my of
power procured
by the arrange-
ment of the me-
chanism of this
press, and the
consequent ease
with which it is
worked, cannot
fail to impress
anyone who sees
it in operation,
or, better still,
puts it to actual
test by working
it himself.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
383
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
FThe Editor reserves to himself the right of re-
fusirg a reply to any question that may be frivolous
or inappropriate, or devoid of general interest.
Correspondents are requested to bear in mind that
their queries will be answered only in the pages of
the Magazine, the information songht being sup-
plied for the benefit of its readers generally as well
as for those who nave a special interest in obtaining
it- In no case can any reply be sent by post-]
Lens for Photography.
J. Sim (Brockhy). — You do not state in
your letter if it is a portrait or landscape
lens you require. I judge it will be
landscape ; for general purposes you will
find an Ahlanatic Doublet the most useful
and cheap lens ; they are suitable for
general landscapes, architectural subjects,
copying, and a very fair portrait may be
taken with them. These lens may be
purchased at Messrs. D. H. Cussons 5:
Co., 79, Bold Street, Liverpool ; price for
plates 4J by 3J to 5 by 4 inches, £1 5s. ;
6J by 4J to 7 by 5 inches, £2 5s. Messrs.
Cussons & Co. have a large quantity of
specialties suitable for the amateur.
Simple Silvering.
F. F. makes some inquiries respecting
the simple silvering recipes given in page
289. These must be understood as sup-
plementary to those published in the first
article on "Electro-plating at Home,"
pp. 9 — 11. F. F. will find therein full
information concerning the whole process
and its value.
Soap-Making.
W. C. (Alfrcton). — The second paper
on this subject appears in this part.
Caustic soda is said to be better than
potash for making hard soaps. The
caustic soda, which is manufactured and
sold at Philadelphia, U.S., for soap-
making at home, in that country, is made
and supplied here in iolb. tins by the
Greenbank Alkali Company, of St.
Helens, Lancashire. W. C. says : —
1 ' Recently there has come under my
observation a very remarkable soap made
by a Belfast firm, which is said to possess
curative properties in a high degree ; it is
a most excellent article for ordinary use,
and well worth its cost. It is preferred
by bleachers at 10s. per cwt. more than
the cost of soaps hardened with soda.
This soap is called ' Barilla Ash Soap,'
and, as its name implies, is made of Barilla
ash, in which it is said there is something
which makes it astonishingly curative and
most agreeable to the skin." Barilla is a
native soda generally imported from Spain
and the Levant, and there is no difficulty
in procuring it, but ' Barilla ash ' implies
a product obtained by incineration.
Please send name and address of the
Dublin firm alluded to above.
Polishing Floors.
T. S. ( Twickenham) is referred to the
articles on Floor Decoration, in Parts III.
and VI.
Self-Acting Fountain.
R. N. (Horncastle) writes, — "Seeing
one or two notices of self-acting fountains
in your excellent guide, I bug to give you
particulars of one invented by T. H.
Rushton, of Horncastle. Fig. 1 is from a
f:~
FIG. I. — RUSHTON S SELF-ACTING
FOUNTAIN.
photograph, showing the fountain deco-
rated and playing ; it will play forty
minutes, and can be started again in half
a minute. Fig. 2 shows a basin A, and
two cisterns B and c ; to start the foun-
tain, water is poured into basin, and runs
4
~-—-_-
n
B
D
j
1
H
L
C
F-1
u
J
FIG. 2. — INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION OF
FOUNTAIN.
through pipe D, filling cistern C, and
leaving basin half full, the tap in pipe E
is then turned, shutting off the only
escape for the air, leaving only the way
in through pipe D, and the way out
through pipe F ; now take the small bent
tube H, placing one end in pipe D in basin,
and blow for half a minute, this will drive
the water out of cistern c, through pipe
F into cistern B. While the water is
passing into cistern B, the air is escaping
through pipe E (replacing the water in c)
by the tap, which acts as a vent as well
as a shut off from cistern. Cistern c is
now empty, and cistern B full, and the
fountain ready for playing — turn the tap,
the water will then pass from the basin,
through pipe D into cistern c, driving
the air through E, and pressing on the
water in B, drives it through the jet G.
When done playing, turn off the tap, place
the bent tube H into pipe, and blow as
before, turn the tap and the fountain will
re-commence. This simple and efficient
fountain is sold for the small sum of
15s. 6d."
Painting Passage, etc.
X. Y. B. wishes to mention that he has
used the solution of the Indestructible
Paint Company (Cannon Street, E.C.) for
keeping the wet out of exposed brick w alls,
and that it has answered completely. He
has used the Enamel Paint, made and
supplied by this Company, for the walls
of the passage and staircase of his house,
and finds it to stand washing with soap
and even soda. This information will
doubtless prove useful to many of our
readers. The colours chosen, for the
walls of the entrance hall or passage —
light salmon above with a dado of sage
green below — will look well, especially as
the passage is fairly lighted. A little
stencil work, in darker shades, under the
cornice and over the skirting board, and
at the junction of the colours, would
greatly improve the appearance of the
hall and staircase. If the doors are to be
painted in shades of sage green, the
wood-work in the passage, if there be
any, as for example, a closet, etc., under
the stairs should be en suite. Graining,
however, appears to be preferable for the
doors, and then the colouring of the stairs
need not be ; altered. If of another
colour, the doors, etc., being sage green in
different shades, the tint should be chosen
to suit the linoleum of the passage and
the stair carpeting which should be in
harmony. X. Y. B. further wishes to
mention, for the benefit of his fellow
amateurs, that he finds a bench knife,
which can be purchased at Buck's for
3s. 6d., a very handy and useful tool.
Electric Lighting.
Amateur Electrician is referred to
the answer to Electric.
Naphtha and Shell-lac.
A. W. (Highbury).— I have never found
any difficulty in making this preparation
for coatingdamp walls, norhave I ever been
particular as to proportions. From 2 to 4
ounces of shell-lac to a quart of naphtha
will make sufficient to coat several square
feet of plastering.
3^4
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Organ-Bulldlng.
H. B. says: " I was rather surprised
not to see in the papers on the organ,
mention made of a very handy little tool
used by professional organ bellows-makers
for pressing out the glue and smoothing
down the edges of the leather. It is made
of a piece of hard wood about \ inch or
j} inch thick and about 4 inches long.
Across each end a saw-kerf is made, in
which is inserted a piece of thin bone or
ivory — generally a piece of ivory off an
old organ key. Keep a piece of damp
warm sponge in the left hand to wipe off
the glue as it is pressed out." Our cor-
respondent speaks of a sketch of this
tool, but no sketch was found in his letter.
His remarks on the " Exchange Column "
shall receive attention.
H. S. (Riddings). — Pitch pine will do
for the blocks of bourdon pipes, but it is
better to face it with mahogany. Three-
quarter inch board will do for 8 feet pipes,
but unless you intend making a separate
sound-board for them you cannot have
bourdons on this organ, as the channels
are much too small to supply them with
wind. The bellows are also too small.
The pipes can be bound with cord when
glueing up, and brads may be used as
well. The scale for the largest pipe would
be 6 inches by 5J inches. The second
stop should be a stopt flute made like a
stopt diapason but smaller in scale, or
you may have an open flute to sound
an octave above the diapason.
H. J. D. (Osmingitn). — A set of pipes
is technically termed a stop, but where
there is only one set or stop, as in the
scheme for this organ, no draw stop is
required. I do not think you will have
room for more than the two stops you
propose even if you plant the eight largest
pipes off the sound-board. Your plan of
making the valve-boards movable is the
one adopted for all large bellows, and is
very useful for getting at the valves if
they are out of order.
J. C. (Galway). — Pedal practice means
learning to use the feet to play the pedal
keys of the organ. The pedals are
described and illustrated in Part V. As
all large organs have pedals, you cannot
really learn to play the organ without
using them.
W. C. S. (Newburgh).— Your pipe is
long enough to sound the proper note. I
have just made a round stopt diapason
which is only ij inch diameter, and it
gives the correct note (Tenor C) at a
speaking length of 24^ inches. Your
pipe being much larger in scale, viz., if
by 2 inches, Jwould be considerably shorter
in speaking length. You have either too
much wind, in which case plug the hole
in the foot with two or three little wedges
of wood to reduce its size, or the mouth
wants cutting up higher. A pipe pro-
perly made should scarcely want blowing,
merely breathing into it should make it
sound. A pipe overblown sounds either
the fifth above or the octave. With
regard to your other difficulty, no key will
open more than one pallet in this organ.
Thus, if you press down the C C sharp
key it opens the pallet of that channel
which is at the right hand side of the
sound-board. The action is thus : the
key being pressed down at the front raises
the back or tail of it, and on the tail end
is a sticker connected with the roller arm
immediately over it. At the right hand
end of the roller is another arm which is
connected by a short sticker with the back
end of the back fall immediately under
the C C sharp pallet, and as that end is
pushed up the front end comes down and
opens the pallet by means of the pull-
down. The D D key acts on the back-
fall of the D D channel pallet only, and
that channel is at the left-hand side of the
sound-board almost immediately over the
key tail.
F. Fox (Bristol). — You appear to have
overlooked the fact that the Clarabella
pipes are open pipes, and are therefore
nearly twice the size, every way, of the
stopped pipes for the same notes. The
scales given in page 2S7 of Part VI., are
consequently smaller and not larger than
that given in Part II. The scales enclosed
with your note are not properly set out.
The distance between the 4 inch line and
the 2 inch line should be 2 feet, and the
distance between each of the dividing
lines would therefore be 2 inches, instead
of only about \ an inch as in your
sketches. The distance between the
2 inch line and the 1 inch line should be
12 inches, and for the next octave 6 inches.
Study the setting out of the scale in page
190, Part IV., and the reply to "Presto"
in page 191. Do not destroy the pipes
you have made to these scales as they will
answer, but set out the scale for the treble
in the proper way. Your third octave of
pipes could be made to serve as the second
octave of the treble. The Clarabella
pipes are tuned by means of the tin lid
mentioned in the article. This lid is
inserted in a slit at the back, and is large
enough to cover the top of the pipe, but
is never shut close down. The pipes
sound best if they do not touch each
other anywhere, but they are often packed
close together at the sides.
Mr. George Dewak, 178, Drummond
Street, Euston Square, writes to say that
he can supply keys for organs in either
single or double rows at a very cheap
rate.
Household Clocks.
Frederick Hodgkinson. — It is pro-
bable that the pallets of your timepiece
are loose on their arbor, or that the part
acting as crutch is loose ; see to these, and
if you do not discover the defect send a
rough sketch of the arrangement.
N. S. (Chudleigh).— Your suggestion
shall be attended to in forthcoming
articles.
George Clare. — If you remove the
dial of your clock you will be able to see
the pin which lifts the lever that releases
the striking train. You can easily adjust
this pin to the proper position. The hour
wheel and minute wheel probably require
shifting.
A. E. B. — The adjustment of clock
pallets is the subject of the next chapter
on Household Clocks ; when it appears
you will find an answer to your question.
Nottingham. — Your former letter did
not reach the writer. The wheel that
you should shift is the one next to the fly.
Adjust this till the tail of the hammer
clears the pins. The suggestion that you
make may be carried out after the present
series of articles is finished. Skeleton
clock construction forms the subject of an
article now in preparation, and which will
be published when opportunity offers.
No Name. — A querist asking for com-
plete instructions how to fit up a skeleton
striking clock omitted to append a signa-
ture to his letter. The subject will be
treated upon as mentioned in the reply to
" Nottingham."
Stencilling.
J. B. (Sheffield). — The cartridge paper
used for the stencil-plate, of which you
send a sample, appears to have been
stained in the pulp, and the papermaker
only can tell what colouring matter was
employed. You can stain white cartridge
to any tint you desire by immersing the
sheets in water with which a very small
quantity of aniline dye (Judson's) has
been mixed, and then straining them.
Lathes and Turning.
Pin Lento.— A four jaw chuck is illus-
trated, together with about a dozen
others, in The Metal Turner's Handbook,
price is., published by Messrs. Lockwood,
Stationers' Hall Court, E.C. This
manual would assist you very much in
the various subjects on which you seek
information. After you have gleaned
what you can from that handbook send
a specific query and you shall have a
definite reply. Probably some of the
suggestions you make will be carried out
after the present series of articles is
finished.
A. E. B. — The method that you have
adopted for fixing your American chucks
on the mandrel nose is perfectly correct
apparently. The chucks should run true,
and if they do not the vendors ought to
change them.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
385
Chair Making.
J. B. (Tttsworih) is thanked for his
letter on this useful and interesting subject.
Auto-Pneumatic Fountain, etc.
H. S. (Argyllshire). — The address of
Messrs. Kessel and Son, the makers of
the Patent Pneumatic Fountain, is South-
wark Bridge Road, London, S.E. Ar-
ticles on the manufacture of paper and
vellum would, I fear, be out of place in
this Magazine, but the subject of heating
greenhouses by hot air will be taken up.
The second series of papers on Organ-
Building, in which the cheap pipes will be
described, will be commenced in Part XII.
Cost of Band Saw.
A Handy Man. — Messrs. M. Powis
Bale & Co., 20, Budge Row, will be
happy, to supply you with a | in. band
saw, 23 gauge, brazed, set, and sharpened
ready for use for is. gd.
French Polishing.
C. X. (Shoeburyness). — Instructions on
this subject have been given. A post card
sent to the firm by whom ' ' Wheeler's
AmericanWood Filler'' is sold will procure
you the desired information.
Poplar Wood.
B. — The wood of the poplar is white,
soft, and brittle. It is used in the manu-
facture of children's toys, and being soft
it is used in horizontal sections by glass
grinders and lapidaries for polishing. It
is not liable to shrink, warp, or swell, and
for these reasons is useful for backgrounds
for fretwork, linings, and veneered work.
Drawings to Scale.
B. G. (Mount Shannon). — It has been
sought to explain fully what is meant by
a scale of so many inches to the foot. In
all cases, when it is possible, the scale on
which the figures are drawn is mentioned
and the full-sized measurements are given
in the description.
Scagliola.
W. D. (Dublin). — Instructions will be
given in the manufacture of scagliola and
in making artificial stone and marble.
Wood Filler.
F. S. (Reigate). — Mix a little colouring
matter with the wood filler in order to
assimilate it to the tint of the wood.
Taxidermy, etc.
B. A. (Gravesend) and An Amateur
Worker. — You will have noticed that
two brief papers touching on Taxidermy
have been given. Later on the subject
shall be gone into fully. Mr. Edwinson
will supply the hints you ask for on the
new secondary (galvanic) batteries, in a
future part.
Picture Frame-Maklng,
H. M. C. L. — An article on this subject,
and the appliances that will be helpful to
an amateur, will be given shortly.
Zoetrope, etc.
I. A. L. — As the winter approaches
instructions for making scientific toys of
this description shall be given.
Working Models.
I. E. R. (Teddington) shall shortly see
the paper he wishes for in a future part.
He is by no means so bad a letter-writer
as he modestly thinks. He writes : — " I
have made (and did it in three days) the
Japanese Cabinet given with Part I., and
I like it very much. I put looking glass
at the back of it and velvet on each shelf ;
the looking-glass, six pieces, cost me
only od. I mention this as others who
are making it may like to know. I found
the parts fit well together and easy to
make. I did not put hinges to
I the doors but just a small brass
Z. screw at the top and bottom
- of each door thus, and cut
; off the heads of the screws, and
before I put the case together I
made holes for the projecting parts
- of the screws. This I find much
the best way for all small doors.
; Wire will do as well as screws. I
I turned little bone knobs for the
handles of the doors out of an old
pen handle. I made the cabinet of oak
\ inch thick.'1
Amateur Dentistry.
A Paper Stainer. — It is not in my
power to give you information on making
artificial teeth, and I am afraid it is a task
on which an amateur would come utterly
to grief. Your suggestions shall have
attention. You will have seen from
" Amateurs in Council " that very many
amateurs do really care about Organ-
Building and work with a will at it.
Fret-Sawing Machine, etc.
J. T. F. (Brixton). — Send a description
of the improvements you are making in
your fret-sawing machine, it will be useful
to many. Papers on fret-work will
appear at no very distant time. I am
glad you agree with my remarks on the
introduction of the human figure, animals,
etc., in designs for fret-work. J. T. F.
recommends the designs sold by Mr. J.
Mercier, High Street, Slough ; Messrs.
Booth, Bros., Duhlin ; and Messrs. Bern-
rose and Sons, Old Bailey, as the best he
has seen. The only way to renovate worn
and rusty leather on dining-room chairs
is to re-cover them.
Instantaneous Grip Parallel- Vice.
E. W. H. (Chippenham) is thanked for
his communication which shall receive
attention. Entwistle and Kenyon's In-
stantaneous Grip Parallel Vice is described,
with another somewhat similar to it, in
"Every Man his Own Mechanic."
Double Dark Slide.
C. S. (Galway). — See Mr. Parkinson's
article on this subject in Part VII,
Concrete Paving.
R. C.J. (Brixton).— The floor to which
you allude is called in Devon a ' ' lime
ash" floor. It is made of lime, finely
sifted ashes, and sand in equal proportions
or thereabouts, spread over the surface
and beaten down. Quick lime should be
used. For your concrete paving, takeout
the earth to the depth of 8 or 9 inches.
For the first layer, mix coarse gravel with
sand and fresh burned lime or cement.
On this foundation spread a second layer
of finer gravel, sand, and cement, and
over this spread a surface layer of sand
and cement worked together in equal
proportions. Smooth over with a float, and
take care that no one steps on it before it is
set. (2) Your grindstone ought to work
with a treadle. If you call on Messrs.
R. Melhuish and Sons, and point out your
difficulty to them, they will show you how
to overcome it.
Carving in Ivory.
G. F. P. (Halifax). — Some notes and
instructions on this branch of carving will
follow the present series of papers on
" Wood Carving for Amateurs."
How to Clean Brass.
W. M. B. ( Walthamstow).— Practical
papers and suggestions from you will be
gladly received. W. M. B. writes : "The
mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids used
for cleaning brass can be bought of any
druggist by asking for ' dipping,' the best
is ad. per lb., a pint to the pound. The
process of ' dipping ' may be thus de-
scribed. The articles must be very clean ;
they must be dipped in the acid, then into
clean water, and then into lukewarm
water. They must then be dried in saw
dust, that from mahogany or box being
preferable to deal sawdust. The warm
water dries off more quickly and prevents
tarnishing. Hot water will tarnish."
Kindly contribute a paper on the subjects
you mention, namely Dipping, Dead
Dipping, Bright Dipping, and Burnishing
Brass ; Lacquering, Florentine Bronzing,
Green Bronzing, etc.
Amateur Bookbinding.
R. B. (Bedale). — Kindly send a paper
describing your "set out" of working
materials for bookbinding, with sketches.
It will not interfere in any way with the
articles now appearing on this subject,
and the cheapness of the tools will ren.
der the paper a boon to many an amateur
who has not much to lay out on appli-
ances for his work. You need not put
your real name to the article if you do
not care to do so.
Lapidary Work.
J. C. (Stoke Newington). — This subject
has been entered on the list of those
which our readers have suggested, but it
is not possible to name any fixed time for
its commencement.
336
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Making Wiped Joint.
B. F. W. {Forest Lane, E.).— Open
out end of one pipe with a turnpin, and
soil that end and that of the other pipe
with lamp-black and thin glue. Then
when dry, shave the soiled end of opened
pipe inside and out for about one inch
(for % or J-inch joint), and also the out-
side of the other pipe for ij inch, and
well "touch " the shaved parts, put them
together, and with a small ladle pour
plenty of hot metal into the soiled parts
to heat the pipe, and then a small, drib-
bling stream on to the shaved parts. Then
with a " cloth " about three inches square,
well touched, wipe the metal round the
joint, making it large in the middle.
Continue pouring metal and wiping till
the joint looks neat and symmetrical.
Then with a dull red-hot plumber's iron
{\\ lb.) melt off any metal that may be on
the soiled parts, and wipe smooth.
Finish by rubbing touch on joint. All
details will be given in a set of papers on
plumbing, etc., which will appear when
those on gas-fitting are finished.
Sharpening Tools.
C. E. S. {Camden 1 own). — Try olive
oil as a lubricant. You hold the plane
iron seemingly in too upright a position
and unconsciously vary the angle of incli-
nation when rubbing it on the hone. Any
jobbing carpenter in your neighbourhood
will show you how to do it for a small fee,
and a little showing is worth more than a
great deal of telling.
Red Paint for Houses.
St. E. — The dark red paint with which
many houses in the neighbourhood of the
South Kensington Museum is painted is
known as " terra cotta colour." I am not
aware that it possessed any peculiar protec -
tive properties,or that its composition differs
from ordinary oil colour. Can any reader
supply information respecting this paint ?
Amateur Printing.
E. W. C. {Stoke Newington). — A series
of articles on this subject will be com-
menced in Part XII., when the information
you ask for will be given. Meanwhile,
apply to M. Squintani & Co., 3, Ludgate
Circus Buildings, E.C., for their pamphlet,
"How to Print," post-free for 7d.
Carpenters' Bench.
G. P. W. {Fleetwood).— The construc-
tion of various kinds of carpenters'
benches is given in *' Every Man his Own
Mechanic." Whenever anything of this
kind is suggested that is possessed of
novelty and utility, it will be described and
illustrated in the pages of this Magazine.
microscopes.
W. H. E. {Tandragee). — You are
thanked for your good wishes. The con-
struction of microscopes, magic-lanterns,
and magic-lantern slides will be treated
in time.
Callipers with Adjusting Screw.
A. B. ( Whiiland). — I am not aware
that callipers are made on the principle you
suggest, that is to say, with an adjusting
screw by which the distance between the
jaws can be easily regulated, but any tool
maker will make you a pair.
Catch to Box.
Inceptor advises A. Jack to put a
rectangular brass (or wooden) plate over
the keyhole of his box. It should be held
in three of the corners by semicircular
headed screw nails. In the fourth corner
the hole in the plate should be enlarged,
so as to allow the nail to be pushed in, so
that it may move the catch. Part of the
wood behind the brass plate H must be
hollowed out where it is left white in the
sketch. In the space must be put the
FIG. 1.— CATCH OF BOX CLOSED BY SPRING.
FIG. 2. — BRASS PLATE CONCEALING CATCH.
FIG. 3. — MODE OF RELEASING CATCH.
catch A B G, turning on an axis at G. The
bent part A is pushed forward through a
hole above the brass plate H, into a hole
formed in the strip of wood M (which is
nailed to the lid) by a spring B, and thus
secures the lid. When the box is to be
opened the knob K is to be pushed in-
wards, this will cause A B G to turn on G,
and leave the hole in M, and the lid may
now be lifted.
Photographic Apparatus.
Amateur. — A series of papers on
making a set of photographic apparatus
by Mr. James Parkinson is now appearing.
Venetian Blinds.
I. D. (Llanelly). — A paper on this sub-
ject, with working drawings, is in prepara-
tion, and will appear shortly.
Model Engines.
Engine Driver. — Papers on the con-
struction and working of model engines
will be given in due course. Indeed, it
will be sought to touch on every subject
of interest in turn.
Polishing Ebony.
Fretwork. — Instructions for prepar-
ing and polishing ebonised wood have
been given already in the pages of this
Magazine, both in " Ways and Means,"
" Notes on Novelties,' and in a special
paper on "French Polishing and Spirit
Varnishing." If you are using ebony try
linseed oil or any good furniture paste.
This will heighten the natural colour of
the wood without coating it with an arti-
ficial gloss or surface.
Harmonium Reeds for Sale.
C. J. C. {Haverstoek Hill) writes, — ■
" I believe you will shortly commence
papers on ' How to Make a Harmonium,'
this being the case, I beg to inform you
that I have thirty large harmonium reeds,
the largest of which (bottom C) 4J inches
long and .J inch wide. These would do
excellently for forming a good ground
bass for a harmouium. To an amateur
who is about to build his harmonium, I
would sell them for 10s. I have also a
good set of organ pedals, thirty notes,
which would suit an organ, which I would
sell for£i."
Information Wanted.
J. T. F. {Brixton) wishes to know how
to remove the marble slab of a small
chamber cupboard which is cemented on.
It is grey marble, and only f inches thick.
Can any reader help him ?
Miscellaneous.
J. F. [Norton Canes). — (1) Nitric acid,
popularly called aquafortis, is commonly
of a reddish colour, unless pure, when it
is colourless. It is an intensely acid and
corrosive liquid, and is a powerful solvent
of the metals, and decomposes all vege-
table substances. (2) State what kind of
engraving you wish to effect, andthenatuie
of the material. (3) Messrs. R. Melhuish
& Sons, of 85 and 87, Fetter Lane, E.C.;
Mr. A. S. Lunt, 297, Hackney Road, E. ;
or Messrs. C. Churchill & Co. , 28, Wilson
Street, Finsbury, E.G., will supply you
with fret-saw blades if you cannot obtain
them nearer home.
H. S. {Reddings).— Vol. II. of AMA-
TEUR Work, Illustrated, will be
commenced with Part XII., dated Nov.
1882.
I. G. W. {Finsbury Park). — A design
for a couch in what may be termed coarse
fret work, in imitation of the form of the
Austrian bent-wood furniture, shall be
given. Instructions for all musical instru
ments that it is possible for amateurs
make will be given in due course, as
opportunity offers.
be
u-
to \
CASTING IN PLASTER OF PARIS.
38/
CASTING IN PLASTER OF PARIS.
By MARK MALLETT.
r
II. — Tools used in Casting— Wax Moulding— Piece
Moulding— Elastic Moulds— Casting from
Natural Objects.
B!HE tools required for casting are few and
simple, a basin and spoon being the
chief. Yet for backing up both mould and
cast, a mason's trowel of small size will be
found useful, and a "drag" will be required
for smoothing the backs of casts,
grounds, etc. A drag some three
inches long, such as that shown in
Fig. 1, can be cut with a file from
any piece of flat steel ; an old steel
stay-bone, for instance, makes capital
drags. For use in mending, and for
various purposes, a small steel spatula
will be indispensable. This instrument
is shown in Fig. 2. It costs oxl. at
the tool-shop. One end forms the spatula, the
other is a notched blade for scraping plaster.
Those commonly sold have serrated teeth, but an
improved form has square teeth like those of the
drag. These give a far better surface to the plaster.
For working on the plaster cast, small gouges of various
degrees of curvature (Fig. 3) are sold, also " riffles,"
which are diminutive rasps ; but these things may well
be done without by the beginner.
Indeed, good and experienced modellers, as a rule,
avoid working on the plaster cast as much as possible,
choosing rather to finish their work carefully in the
clay. A far better
surface, whether for
delicacy or effect, is
to be given in the
latter material. It
is ratWer the young
modeller, who is in
undue haste to cast
his work, who will
find himself obliged
DRAG FOR SMOOTHING BACKS
OF CASTS, ETC.
FIG. 2. — COMBINED SPATULA AND SCRAPER.
FIG. 3. —GOUGE FOR PLASTER CASTING.
to give much time to touching-up his plaster. The
tyro will see defects in the cast which had escaped
him in the clay. More especially he will be sure
to find that it has a "lumpy" appearance — that
there are hills and hollows where there ought to be
fiat surfaces or regular curves, and this he will have
to remedy. Sand paper, if used firmly, will do this.
The right sizes are middle and fine No. 2, coarser
will scratch the work, and finer will become choked
directly.
It should be remembered that it is whilst fresh from
the mould that the cast is in the best state to be worked
upon. There are cases in which the mould may be
worked upon with advantage. For instance, suppose
the model to be a relief, and that in course of the work
the background on which it is formed has lost its
original truth and evenness. The projections of the
model may render it difficult to get at and correct this.
But in the mould, where everything is reversed, the
ground becomes the most prominent and easily reached
part, and by the use of the drag we can in a few
minutes make our ground perfectly true and smooth.
Again, we may wish to put a name or other inscrip-
tion on some part of our model in
raised letters. To model raised letters
in the clay would be a work of con-
siderable time ; by incising them, in
reverse, in the mould, which will be
quickly done, we shall secure precisely
the same result, as the letters will
appear raised in the cast.
Some persons object to the brilliant
whiteness of plaster, and like it better
"toned down." It must be admitted that the effect of
toned plaster is more artistic. Yellow ochre imparts a
pleasing tone. To give a uniform tint take as much
water as there is any possibility of your requiring for
mixing the fine plaster used in facing your cast, and
stir in ochre. A slight tinge will suffice — much does
not look well, and moreover softens the plaster, and
then, as there will be a sediment, pour off your
coloured water for use into another vessel. It is im-
portant to mix enough, as it would be difficult to
make a second quantity of exactly the same shade.
The directions given above, so far as they treat
generally of the
mixing and man-
agement of plaster,
will equally apply
to casting models
of other shapes. I
have taken a " re-
lief" as an example,
because it is the
most simple form,
and can be cast in a single piece. Such additional
instructions as may be required to enable the amateur
to waste-mould a model in the " round," can be quickly
given.
Instead of a panel, let us suppose that a vase
has been modelled. This may serve as an illus-
tration of a simple object in the "round." If we
tried to mould this at a single operation, we should
find it impossible either to extract the clay or to clean
the mould. The mould must therefore be made in
two pieces.
To prepare this model for moulding, as shown in
R
388
CASTING IN PLASTER OF PARIS.
Fig. S, we must make a strip of clay, the sixth of an
inch thick, and about two inches wide, and stick it
edgewise round the vase, so as to divide the latter into
two equal portions. This collar can be supported by
wire pins, as shown at a, a, a. One side of the vase
can now be moulded, for the collar of clay will pre-
vent the plaster from reaching the other side. When
the first half of the mould is set, the collar must be
removed, and conical holes made at intervals, with
the end of the scraper in the edge of the mould thus
left bare. These are " key " holes, and as when the
other half of the mould is cast, corresponding "keys"
will be formed to fit them, they will enable the two
halves to be put together with the nicest precision.
Some clay-water must be brushed over the edges, to
prevent the two halves adhering too closely, and the
remaining part of the mould can then be cast. When
a model has to be cast in an upright position, as is
the case with a bust, or with this vase, plaster cannot
be poured upon it ; it must be thrown on with the
spoon.
The mould being finished, its two halves will
easily be forced apart by the mallet and chisel. The
clay can then be removed, the mould cleaned, and
fitted together again. The keys will ensure the pieces
fitting accurately. They then have to be tied together
as tightly as is possible. Perfect tightness is to be
secured by tying a piece of string or cord, according
to the size of the work, loosely round the mould,
passing a piece of stick through it, and twisting the
stick round and round. When you can screw it no
farther, secure the stick from untwisting by tying it
fast. You can then pour in the plaster gradually,
and well shaking and turning the mould about whilst
you do so. When the mould has been chipped off,
a little seam will appear on the cast where the two
pieces of the mould met, which will have to be
cleaned off.
A bust might be moulded in the above manner ;
but if so, the seam would necessarily pass down the
ears and along the neck and shoulders, where it
would be highly unsightly. The method shown in
Fig. 4 is therefore generally preferred instead. By
thus making a "pot-lid," the seam is formed only
on the hair, in a part where it will be little noticed,
and the opening thus made will allow of every purpose
of emptying and cleaning the mould of the head.
Sometimes a portion of the model may project
from the general mass of the work so far, that it
would be a difficult matter to mould it in situ. If so,
it may be cut off with a fine piece of wire, and moulded
separately, and afterwards refixed in its place.
As a cast becomes dry, a disagreeable yellow tinge,
the result of some impurity in the plaster, will some-
times come to the surface. To obviate this, the cast
should be placed with its back to a fire, and so dried.
As the water evaporates, it will bring out the dis-
colouration on the side by which it escapes, and the
front of the cast will thus be uninjured.
Wax- Moulding. — The above is the ordinary and
most useful method of waste-moulding ; but there is
another, which is sometimes applied to delicate models,
which will not bear the use of mallet and chisel. This
is practised by pouring melted wax over the model, to
form an inner mould, and then backing, as usual, with
plaster. This wax mould can be pulled away from the
cast, with a little warming, without danger to the
finest work.
It is by one or other of these processes that the
clay model has always to be transformed into a plas-
ter cast. But if it is required to multiply copies of such
casts, or of other suitable objects, other means than
waste-moulding will have to be resorted to. This must
be done either by an elastic mould, or by a piece mould.
Elastic Moulds. — First, as to the- elastic mould,
which is recommended — by its simplicity, and the
ease with which it can be made — for those purposes
to which it is suited. Its value may readily be per-
ceived. Fig. 6 may be supposed to represent one
quarry of a diaper, which has been modelled, and of
which a number will be required. Fig. 7 shows the
same in section.
It is plain that no mould formed in a single piece
from any rigid material, could leave this panel without
breakage ; but we get over the difficulty if we make
our mould of some substance so yielding as to allow it
to be drawn over the projecting points seen in the
section, and so elastic as, when drawn off, to recover
its former shape. From such a mould we may take
as many casts, in moderation, as we can require.
Various substances have been used for making
such moulds, but that most approved by the best
moulders is gelatine. Having first made a single cast
by the waste-moulding process, take best sheet gela-
tine lib., beeswax 4 oz., water J of a pint. Boil
them in a glue-pot till they form a thick syrup ; rub a
little oil (or what is better, hog's lard) over your cast,
and then pour on the mixture. It should be used warm,
but not boiling. The best and purest gelatine, at about
2s. per pound, should be used. Some use glue, or
cheap gelatine ; but these cannot be recommended.
When the mould comes to be filled, the plaster grows
warm in setting, and the heat thus generated is apt to
melt an inferior mould.
Piece Moulding. — By this method objects in the
round, objects in relief if they are large, and indeed
most objects from which a casting mould is required,
are moulded. It is by this method that the cheap
plaster images, and almost all the plaster casts sold
in the shops, are produced.
CASTING IN PIASTER OF PARIS.
339
Piece moulds are made of plaster, but in a number
of sections, so arranged that each piece can be pulled,
without obstruction, from the cast. That they may
thus "leave" freely, often necessitates that these sec-
tions should be very small and numerous. In making
a piece mould from a face, for instance, a dozen pieces
or more will often have to be made.
A piece mould cannot be taken direct from the
clay model. A cast must first be made by means of a
waste mould. This cast must, as a first step, be rubbed
over with a little hog's lard. Lard, on account of its
whiteness, is better than oil or any kind of grease,
which might discolour the work. This is to keep cast
and mould from sticking together. A little plaster
must then be mixed, and the first section of the mould
built up with the spatula on the cast. It will have to
be made some three-quarters of an inch thick, or more,
according to circumstances.
When this piece has set, it can be pulled from the
cast, its sides trimmed round with a knife, and lard
must be rubbed over them. It must then be re-
placed, and two more pieces can be cast on two of its
opposite sides ; the outer edges of which will in their
turns require paring and greasing ; and the work can
thus be carried on till the whole cast has been mapped
out and covered with pieces larger or smaller, as the
necessity for making them "leave" the surface freely
may demand.
Lastly, an outer mould or shell, in two or more
large pieces, to envelope and bind all the small pieces
together, has to be made. Before the mould is filled,
these have in their turn to be tied and bound together
with string. When this has been done— so closely will
all the different pieces, which have been cast one
upon another, necessarily fit together — the mould will
seem almost as firm and compact as if formed of a
single piece.
When such a mould is filled, a much thinner cast
may be made than in a waste mould. A defect be-
longing to the piece mould is that a little seam will
show upon the cast wherever two pieces meet, and
require cleaning away. A mould of this kind may be
kept for any length of time, and filled repeatedly; but
the seams will grow wider and more unsightly with use.
Piece moulding is a delicate and tedious operation,
and one which demands both skill and patience. Its
practice can scarcely be recommended to the ama-
teur, till he has had some practice in the manipulation
of plaster by simpler methods.
Moulding from Marble. — For reproducing marble
statuary in plaster, piece moulding is usually em-
p'oyed, nor is there any material from which a piece
mould can be more readily taken. Instead of lard or
oil, however, white curd soap, only, must be used on
marble.
Casting from Nature. — Among the applications of
the art of casting, none is more generally interesting
than this. It is within the reach of the most idle
amateur, and will well repay him for bestowing a few
odd hours upon it. To model a piece of good orna-
ment, or still more, faithfully to pourtray the form or
features of a friend, demands study and aptitude; but
by means of casting, results somewhat similar may
be borrowed direct from nature by any one. Let us
begin with the human figure.
Though of course inferior in those qualities to the
face, the human hand is full of character and expres-
sion. It is easy to recognise the hand of one with
whom we are familiar. A cast of the hand is a
pleasant memento, and few things can be easier than
to make such a cast.
The sleeve of the person to be operated on should
be rolled up, and a towel twisted round it at the point
at which the cast is to terminate. A little oil should
be rubbed over the skin. As a cast showing one side
of the hand will generally be all that is required, the
mould can be made in a single piece. A soft pillow
should be provided, a towel spread over it, and on
that a newspaper. With a little arrangement, the
pillow can so far be made to accommodate itself to
the form of the hand, and will so rise round it as to
leave no openings beneath ; for if openings are left,
the plaster will run into them, and there will then be
a difficulty in getting the mould away. The mould
can then be made in the usual manner. The hand
must of course be kept -perfectly still till the plaster
has set, or the work will be spoiled ; after it has set, it
will be still of necessity till the mould has been
removed. When the mould is finished the hand can
be lifted from the pillow, the paper will prevent the
plaster from sticking to the towel. Any little tongues
of plaster which may have found their way under the
fingers can be cut away with the scraper, and the
hand will be released without difficulty. When all is
finished, and the mould clipped away, the operator
can scarcely fail to be pleased with the result of his
labours. Every fold of skin, and line, and marking,
will be seen reproduced with the most microscopic
fidelity.
Both sides may be moulded if desired, and the
hand reproduced in the round instead of in relief, by
making a second half to the mould, according to the
methods already described.
Not so easy is it to mould the face or "mask," as
a cast of the face is called ; though this when taken is
a thing of far higher value, for in no other way is so
faithful a copy of the features to be obtained. The
person whose face is to be operated upon should lie
on his back, or sit with his head thrown backwards on
a cushion. Towels should be placed over the hair
39°
CASTING IN PLASTER OP PARIS.
and round the throat, to prevent
the plaster running where it is
not wanted. Whatever hair will
necessarily come in contact with
the plaster, as round the forehead,
the eyebrows, moustache, beard,
and whiskers, must be well plas-
tered down with soap. Casting
a male mask is a matter of far
greater difficulty in these days
than it was in those of our fathers
and grandfathers, when men went
clean shaven. The hair and eye-
brows are easily disposed of, but
the beard and moustaehe are less
tractable ; and the novice is father
advised to try his skill in the first
place on a boy or a woman. A
little soap or oil should be rubbed
over the skin, and as the mouth
will have to be kept close shut
throughout the operation, quills
or straws must be provided for
insertion in the nostrils, that
respiration may not be stopped. The plaster should
be mixed with warm water. The sensation when
liquid plaster is poured over the face is by no means
an agreeable one, and this precaution will tend to the
comfort of the patient ; besides, as it will lessen the
shock it will lessen the danger of any involuntary
movement of the muscles of the face, and that these
should remain rigid till the plaster has set, is essential
to success.
During the ten minutes or
so which must elapse before
the mould is hard enough to
be removed, the time will
pass tediously for the person
operated upon, and though
there will be no real difficulty
in taking it off, if the instruc-
tions given be carefully fol-
lowed, some little pain may
be occasioned ; for any stray
hairs which have become im-
bedded in the plaster, will
probably be pulled out, and
will come off with it.
In a cast thus taken, the
eyes will of course be closed,
and the expression will be
one of sleep. This is some-
times altered afterwards, if
the person who takes the
cast has somj little skill in
FIG. 4. — POT-LID IN MOULD FOR BUST.
FIG. 5.— METHOD OF MAKING MODEL FOR VASE.
modelling, the eyes can be carved
and made to appear open ; and
the remainder of the head and
bust can be modelled to the mask
from nature. But a work so
treated is rarely satisfactory. It
is really better and more valuable
as a memento when kept as
taken, and looks well if mounted
on a slab of wood, covered with
dark velvet.
Taking a mask in this manner
after death, though a melancholy,
is a much easier task. Under
such circumstances no danger of
failure is to be dreaded. That
impatience on the one hand, and
hurry on the other, which act as
disturbing influences in casting
from life, have not now to be
taken into account. A mask
taken after death forms a sad,
but precious memorial, and is an
invaluable help to the modeller if
a posthumous bust should ever be required.
Such small animals as are cased in fur or feathers
are difficult subjects for the caster, but fishes and rep-
tiles are well adapted for his purposes. These lower
organisations can, with little trouble, be arranged in
life-like positions and moulded, a little oil being first
brushed over them. Sand can either be packed
beneath them, so as to allow the mould to be taken in
one piece, or they can be half buried in that material,
and their upper halves first
moulded. They can then be
carefully lifted up, the sand
cleaned away, the edge of
the mould keyed and clay-
watered, and the second half
of the mould cast. By this
means casts in the round
will be obtained, and the plan
is admirable for reproducing
fishes or snakes, though not
so easily applied to reptiles
with feet, such as lizards.
Casts from animal life are
often of scientific value for
preserving the forms of re-
markable specimens. They
are frequently most useful,
for reference, to the designer
and carver in wood, stone,
etc., or they may be made
of service to those who work
CASTING IN PLASTER OF PARIS.
39-
FIG. 7.
in metal or electrotype. A prettier,
if not a more interesting depart-
ment in the "art of casting, is that
which deals with vegetable forms,
and chiefly with foliage. Leaves
are admirable subjects, and easily
dealt with.
If we take a single leaf and lay
it on a table or flat board with a
new to moulding, we shall at once
see that it does not lie flat. It will
touch only in two or three places.
It is not the custom of nature to
model her leaves in a single plane ;
she has so designed them, that
from whatever point of view we
may regard them, they will present
variety and beauty of curve. If
therefore we desire to reproduce the
leaf as nature has formed it, we
must not flatten it, or allow it to
be flattened by the weight of the
plaster. We must find means of
supporting it in its natural attitude. There are
different methods of so fixing leaves, but none is
simpler than to take sand, as advised in casting small
animals. Spread a level surface of this on your table
or board, and lay the leaf upon it. With the spatula
it is easy so to pack sand beneath the leaf as to support
it in every part. Leaves do not require preparing for
moulding by either damping or oiling.
When the mould has set, it may be lifted from the
sand, and the leaf will then be seen sticking to its
under surface. Probably the plaster will in places
have run in a little, and overlapped it. If so, such
superfluous plaster may be carefully cut away with a
pen-knife, after which the
leaf can be peeled from the
mould without difficulty ;
and the sand which adheres
to the outer surface of the
mould can also be brushed
away.
As the mould is chipped
off, the operator will indeed
be hard to please if he is
not both delighted and
astonished with the effect
of his work. He will see
every serration, every vein
and marking traced out
with the most perfect deli-
cacy in the pure white
plaster, and will be struck
with beauties of form and
FIG. 6. — QUARRY OF A DIAPER.
—SECTION OF QUARRY
FROM A TO B.
arrangement, which, when ac-
companied by their natural colour,
had wholly escaped his notice. By
exercising a little judicious pack-
ing, fruits and berries can also be
cast.
For the wood and stone carver,
and indeed for all who practise the
arts of decorative design, the im-
portance of possessing casts from
foliage cannot be over-rated: in no
other way can the designer so well
have nature at hand for permanent
reference. Such casts may also be
applied direct to the purposes of
decoration. For indoor uses, where
plaster can be safely employed,
casts from leaves and fruits, taste-
fully arranged, may be used for
capitals, cornices, diapers, etc. In
Fig. 8 a rough attempt has been
made to show how such familiar
leaves as those of the strawberry
and gooseberry might in this manner be utilised in
diaper as a wall decoration.
In this diagram only a simple arrangement of
detached leaves has been shown, each enclosed in a
sunk panel which may be struck with the compasses,
and cut out in plaster in a few minutes. But it is
possible so to combine different leaves and fruits as to
form most elaborate designs. In this latter case it
will generally be better to cast each leaf, etc., sepa-
rately, and afterwards to fit them in their places. If,
however, the design when thus put together has to be
repeated again and again in course of the decoration,
a gelatine mould should of course be taken of the
" repeat," copies of which
will thus be quickly multi-
plied. In Fig. 8 two gela-
tine moulds are supposed
to be employed.
It will thus be seen that
casting from nature may
by itself, and for its own
sake, be considered an in-
teresting art, and one
worthy the attention of the
amateur. The directions
given for carrying out work
of this kind for decorative
purposes will, it is hoped, be
of service to many to whom
the utilisation of natural ob-
jects in this manner has not
fig. 8. — leaves in diaper work as wall decoration, hitherto suggested itself.
392
THE ART OF PAINTING ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE.
THE ART OF PAINTING ON THE PHOTO-
GRAPHIC IMAGE.
By JOSEFS WAKE,
Head Artist to the Autotype Company, London.
HEN the first form of photograph, the
Daguerreotype, was introduced, the only
feasible method of colouring them was by
applying powder colours. The same
method was also employed to the next
step, viz., the collodion picture on glass. When a
method of printing on paper from a negative was per-
fected, then, and only then, there came a chance for
the artist. For our present purpose, photographs for
painting upon may be broadly divided into prints
produced by salts of silver, and those having carbon
as the material forming the image. Of the latter, the
Autotype is the most widely known.
Of silver prints there are two kinds generally met
with by the colourist — those most commonly sold in
the shops, such as cartes, cabinets, etc., having a glossy
surface, and known as albumenized paper prints ; and
those printed on what is called " plain salted paper,"
the latter having a surface somewhat like the smoothest
drawing-paper. Although the latter have many advan-
tages in the way of tooth, and ease of washing on the
colour, the image is fainter. The albumenized print
with its force and brilliancy, is decidedly the easiest
for the beginner and amateur, because the modelling
and intensity are all there, a slight difficulty with the
smoothness of the surface being all that has to be
contended with ; whereas, in the " plain salted," the
subject has to be built up, as it were, on a very slight
foundation. I may here mention a new kind of photo-
graph, the Argento Bromide, which partakes very
largely of the advantages of both, and is very agree-
able to work upon.
The carbon pictures, although smooth, are not so
difficult to work upon as the albumenized silver ones,
and they have this great advantage, that they may be
erased and scraped to almost any amount. The sur-
face never becomes abraded or rough, a very useful
peculiarity, as will be shown further on. They have
the further advantage of being permanent. They can
be printed upon any material — paper, wood, canvas,
ivory, or glass ; and when upon paper, may be tinted
or thickly painted in oil without any kind of prepara-
tion ; silver prints require sizing.
Having thus glanced at the advantages and dis-
advantages of each species of photograph for the
colourist's purpose, I will proceed to explain how to
tint a photograph, and then how to continue it into
something like a work of art in water colours, also
giving a list of the materials required ; to be followed
by systems of oil-colouring, working up in crayons,
etc., etc.
The chief materials required for painting on pho-
tographs are, firstly, brushes. Of these there should be
one good, large, flat camel-hair in melal rndafew red
sables. Those mounted in albata, with black handles,
are the best ; those in quills split up, and although
less costly to commence with, are dear in trie end.
Of these, a few of No. I size, one of No. 3, and one of
No. 6, will be found sufficient to commence with.
Sable brushes have lately gone up in price very much.
They are, however, absolutely necessary, nothing as yet
having been found to supply their place. The writer
much prefers all these flat, as a much greater diversity
of touch can be got than with a round brush, because
you can use the side or the broad part as occasion
requires ; they also appear to cling together, and
keep their points better. There is a kind of fan-
shaped brush, made for painting herbage, that is very
useful for painting hair in large work, also in fore-
grounds where a bit of landscape is introduced ; often
of great value, especially to full-length portraits. A
bottle of good gum-water is indispensable. There are,
no doubt, many makers of good artists' gum in Lon-
don, but that made by Messrs. Rowney, of Oxford
Street, appears to me to give a greater gloss with less
body of gum than any I have tried, and is therefore
less likely to crack ; but gum should always be used
as charily as possible, consistently with the effect
required.
For work of any size, a good easel is required ; it
need not be made of expensive wood, but it is a great
comfort to have it arranged so that the ledge on which
the picture rests can be easily moved up and down.
There are many such contrivances, doing away with
the necessity for pegs, which require to be taken out
and in every time you move your picture, and are a
nuisance. The most convenient of any is that known
as the Corbould Easel : it has a kind of desk attached
to it that can be inclined at any angle, and raised or
lowered to any height from the ground, so that you
can either sit or stand to it for small work ; whilst for
large work it can be removed altogether, and the easel
used as an ordinary one.
The following list of colours will be found to meet
every requirement :— Scarlet lake, crimson lake, ver-
milion, Venetian red, Indian red, burnt carmine,
raw sienna, Indian yellow, cadmium (this is an ex-
pensive colour, not absolutely necessary), Roman
ochre, gamboge, Prussian blue, indigo, French ultra-
marine, orange chrome, Hooker's greens, Nos. 1 and
2, emerald green, neutral tint, Roman sepia. Rubens
madder, brown pink, ivory black, rose madder, Van-
dyke brown, burnt umber, burnt sienna, raw umber,
and a bottle of Chinese white. As to the form in
VIOLIN MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
393
which they should be kept, I prefer the tubes for all,
excepting the Chinese white and the rose madder ; or,
if the tubes are too expensive, half pans are the next
best. There are now sold some small shallow pans
of moist colour, at one penny each, of most of the
colours, which are really excellent for the amateur or
beginner.
You will also require a drawing-board, a maul-
stick for resting your right hand upon whilst painting,
a few carpet pins, and a palette of some kind. "White
china, with six or eight " slopes " in them, are most
convenient ; also a bottle of liquid ox-gall.
For working upon carbon prints you will also
require a piece of ink-eraser, a piece of vulcanized
india-rubber, some powdered pumice-stone, and a
very sharp knife. A surgeon's scalpel, set in a black,
flat handle, is the best.
Suppose, now, we take a "carte "-sized silver print
that it is desired to colour. You had better first wash
over the face and hands a suitable flesh tint, to be
described further on. This sounds very easy, but is
in reality most difficult to the tyro. The first obstacle
encountered will be greasiness. The best remedy for
this is to give it a good licking with the tongue ; for,
as a pedantic old artist I once knew used to remark,
" There is something in the human saliva antagon-
istic to grease." Put it as we may, however, it is a
fact. If this process be objected to, the next best
thing is rectified benzoine washed freely all over the
print, and then allowed to evaporate perfectly. In
the case of a carbon print, a good steady rub with
your vulcanized india-rubber will generally suffice.
The colour of your general wash over the face must,
of course, depend upon the complexion of your sub-
ject ; but almost any complexion can be made from a
mixture of raw sienna, vermilion, and rose madder.
It is, of course, impossible to give proportions here
that can only be ascertained by practice and the eye
for colour of the artist ; the smallest possible addition
of burnt sienna may sometimes be required in very
bronzed complexions. Now you essay to put on your
wash, and if you only intend to tint your picture, this
must be got on evenly, and so as not to dry in ridges
and spots. This will require practice, for, unfortu-
nately, the surface of most photographs is not at all
what an artist would choose ; but he has got to make
the best use of what he can get. \\ hilst the wash of
flesh tint is still wet on the face, if a little rose madder
with a touch of vermilion amongst it can be dropped
dexterously just on to the part where the carnation
comes, much trouble will be saved afterwards ; but
the tint so floated in must be drier than the wash- —
that is to say, with less water amongst it. When all
this is quite dry, the iris of the eye must be tinted
with its proper colour, mixed with plenty of gum ;
Prussian blue for blue eyes, burnt sienna for hazel
eyes, adding a little raw sienna for yellowish-brown
eyes. Should the subject have on a black coat or
dress, a mixture of neutral tint, Prussian blue, and
ivory black, with plenty of gum, may be floated on,
but not so thickly as to hide the photograph, but only
to change the tint already there into a good repre-
sentation of black. The proportions of each must be
varied according to the tint of the photograph, making
it a greenish black for a reddish print, and a purplish
black for a brownish print, and so on. The hair may
next have attention, a suitable colour being washed
over it with plenty of gum to suggest its proper tint ;
sepia for dark brown hair, burnt sienna for auburn
hair, and a mixture of Roman ochre and burnt umber
for golden hair ; black hair can be treated like black
drapery ; coloured drapery can, of course, be tinted
with any colour found in the box to suit it. If, in
drying, the face has become uneven, the rough places
must be put right by means of stippling, which con-
sists generally of filling up the light places with
colour to match the surrounding tint in colour and
intensity. Any dark places may be removed with the
point of a wet brush, the white spot that will probably
result being filled in with colour. If the artist prefers
not to float the carnation into the cheeks, as above
described, the colour can be stippled on when the
general wash is dry, by putting minute touches of
colour side by side. This is all that is required for
what is called a photograph tinted in water colours ;
and a very great improvement it often is, especially
in, say a white photograph of a rosy person.
In my next paper I will show how to continue the
process into a finished picture.
{To be continued?)
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
Bj/ EDWARD E. ALLEN.
VII.— The Fittings and Appliances.
HE FITTINGS.— Having completed our
violin by varnishing it, the next step to
be considered is the fittings. These,
taken as a class, may be said to consist
of the pegs, the nut, the finger board, the
tail-piece, the rest, and the tail-pin, as necessary to the
existence of, and fastened on to, the violin when in
use, in manner hereinafter appearing. Beyond this,
other miscellanea, which might more properly be called
"appurtenances," exist, and consist of chin-rests,
mutes, and other accessories, which have a local
habitation in the pockets of a well-organised fiddle-
394
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
case. It has been the tendency very frequently, to
consider these fittings either too important or too un-
important, the results being, in the former case, to
produce complications which end in agony and vexa-
tion of spirit and a reversion to simplicity, and, in the
latter, to produce endless worry and difficulty. The
true secret of a well-fitted violin is to have all these
things, good in themselves, simple in construction
and application, and properly and scientifically applied
to the instrument, and how to produce this result is
the object of the present chapter. Besides noticing
them and their arrangement, I shall also advert to
some of the patent fittings, which have begun and
ended their useless existence unknown, and, in fact,
though years old, our readers may probably hear of
them for the first time through the medium of these
pages. To take all things in their order, we begin
with the pegs (d, Fig. 16). These are made of box-
wood, ebony, or rosewood ; in their simplest form
they are represented in Fig. 42 (a and b). All three
are, however, liable to ornamentations, which have
been noticed in Chapter VI., and are represented in
their most ordinary form at C in the same figure. Of
these three components, boxwood is the most inferior,
being hard and unyielding, which causes the pegs to
stick ; the most convenient are made of rosewood,
which, being springy and soft, are easily fitted, and
turn in the holes for tuning purposes with an ease
and firmness which commends itself at once to
amateurs, and especially to ladies, who should always
use them, as they reduce the operation of tuning from
a tiresome and lengthy operation to an easy and
instantaneous one. Their only disadvantage is that
they wear out sooner than ebony, which, if really
thoroughly well fitted, eclipse all others both for ease
in tuning, wear, and appearance. But the fitting must
be done by some one thoroughly experienced in violin
fitting, for a badly-fitted peg is an abomination. Full
instructions will be given for fitting pegs in a future
chapter. The best size is \\ inch long, the stem
tapering from | of an inch to ££ of an inch. Pegs
have been made also of rhinoceros horn, ivory,
and other fancy substances, but after a short trial
they have been pronounced utterly unsatisfactory,
and rejected. Fig. 43 represents a machine head ;
these certainly carry the palm, so far as ease in tuning
is concerned, but they soon wear out, and if they
become loose anywhere a jar is produced, calculated
to qualify the possessor for election to the first vacant
post of county lunatic. Patent pegs are all much of a
muchness. Fig. 44 represents one of these, the inven-
tion of Mi. Joseph Wallis, and has, at any rate, the
merit of complicated ingenuity to recommend it. A is
a metal stem ; B a metal screw, passing through an
ordinary peg-head c, and fitting on to the end of A ;
D D are two metal discs lying against the check of tl e
scroll. When the peg has been adjusted in the ordi-
nary manner, it may be rendered immovable, tuir.irg
the screw B by means of the key E. In 1876 a patent
was taken out (No. 4525) by Wm. H. Cooke, for
applying the ratchet system to ordinary pegs in a
manner which, in fact, was merely a complicated
machine head, the machine screw pegs turning ordi-
nary ones.
The Nut (s, Fig. 16) is a small piece of ebony
5 inch high, ■£■$ in diameter, I long, which inter-
venes between the scroll and the finger-board, and
over which the strings pass on small grooves cut in it,
to the bridge clear of the finger-board, its elevation
above which is only jV under the first, and ~j under
the fourth string.
The Finger-board (e, Fig. 16), is the most im-
portant of the fittings of the violin, its most ordinary
and correct measurement being iof inches long, the
breadth tapering from \\ inch at the bridge, to I inch
at the nut. Its diameter, so long as it is glued to the
neck, is T35 inch, from which point it tapers toTV inch.
At its broad end it is 2§4 inches (just under i\ inches)
from the bridge. Its distance below the strings at its
broad end must be very nicely adjusted, the correct
distances being about, below the E, Jjinch ; below the
A, J! inch; below the D, T\inch ; below the G, -^ inch.
The cutting of the bridge must follow the contour of
the finger-board, but not its height, for the finger-
board must be raised or lowered by cutting away the
wood of the neck, or inserting a shaving beneath it,
rather than that the bridge be made to suit the finger-
board. (See on this point Chapter V., par. " Bridges,"
P-255-)
Of course the finger-board must be rounded to coin-
cide with the ordinary cutting of a bridge. If the
finger-board be not rounded enough the E and G
strings will be too close to it, and the A and D too far
if the bridge be properly cut ; if it be too round the
opposite will be the result, and in high shifts the bow
will be apt to strike three strings at once. The bridge
and finger-board must each oblige one another, and not
each try to compel the shape of the other. The
boundary for the length of the finger-board, has been
set down as far as the upper corners of the fiddle,
and no farther. From the end of the neck, to the end
of the finger-board, its under side will be hollowed out
following the decrease in diameter. So far as it is
glued to the neck, the diameter must be perfectly
uniform, to preserve a level surface. The height of
the broad end above the belly, will vary with the model
of the fiddle, but it may generally be taken as -5% ; the
finger-board should be made of ebony, and its cutting
and fitting will be set down further on. Finger-boards
have been, and are still on cheap fiddles, made of
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
395
(□(CI I ( Si ^ FIG- 43- — MACHINE HEAD FOR
VfiiiA^V lU vtotin.
ii
FIG. 46. — ORDINARY
TAIL-PIECE.
3
FIG. 44. — WALLIS S PATENT PEG.
FIG. 4?.
FINGER-
BOARD.
FIG. 48. — COMBINED TAIL-
PIECE AND REST.
'CHi 6^\
FIG. 53. — SPOHRS CHIN-
REST.
FIG. 49.— spohr's tail-rest. For References to Letters, see Text.
A
A, Tail-pin.
B, B, Bottom
Block.
C, C, Linings.
D, D, Lower
Bouts.
FIG. 51. — TAIL-PIN IN SECTION.
FIG. 52. — TAIL-PIN IN ELEVATION.
A, Tail-pin. D, D, Lower Boats. E, Best.
FIG. 53. — HILL'S MUTE.
FIG. SO.— ZEBROWSKI S BRIDGE AND MUTE. FIG. 54- — HILL'S FIDDLE-HOLDER.
39<5
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
stained or veneered wood ; these are a fraud, and an
endless trouble as they are constantly wearing out.
Formerly, finger-boards used to be made curiously
ornamented and of fancy materials. Mr. Arthur Hill
has a wonderful collection of such curiosities, which
have been discussed under the head of ornamentations
in Chapter V., page 256.
Spohr is said to have recommended the hollowing
out of the finger-board under the G string to allow for
its greater vibrations, but my experience of this vagary
is that it is a worrying and useless eccentricity, whose
superfluity is only equalled by its unsightliness. In a
word, the finger-board should be perfectly plain,
polished, and true, as in Fig. 45.
As for patent finger-boards their name has been
legion, and countless contrivances " born to blush un-
seen," have increased the revenue as testified by the
records of the patent office.
In 1845, Robert Brooks took out a patent (No.
10,719) for finger-boards, the principle of all of which
was similar, viz., a double finger-board, between which
the strings ran, and were acted upon by means of studs
passing through the upper one, and kept above the
strings by a spring, which could be pressed down at
the right spot like the keys of a pianoforte. In 1852,
R. A. Brooman patented (No. 567) a similar, but not
so complicated a contrivance. In 1876, Daniel Demple
took out a patent (No. 3723) for a finger-board, which
had between the strings, rows of raised points on flex-
ible wires to guide the fingers. Pleasant to slide up
and down !
The Tail-piece (P, Fig. 16) is made as a rule, of
ebony, though useless, fancy things are sometimes to
be found beneath the glass-cases in a fiddle dealer's
shop, made of ivory, glass, and such like utterly unsuit-
able materials. Enough has been said in another
place of ornamental tail-pieces, they are generally what
may be termed " a frost," as regards their superiority
over the simpler forms (as in Fig. 46), they are
attached to the tail-pin of the fiddle, by a loop made of
a D tenor string (as in Figs. 46, 47, 48), sufficiently
long for the ebony to be supported by the tension of the
strings just clear of the edge of the fiddle or rest. The
orthodox dimensions are 4! inches long, \ inch thick,
1 J inch in diameter at the broadest, and f inch at the
narrowest part. The holes to receive the string should
be at equal distances from one another, as in the
figure, the slits into which they run, diverging towards
the edge, in such manner as that the strings should
run to the bridge parallel with one another, and not
fanwise, as in this latter case the bridge gets dragged
forward by the operation of tuning. The strings pass
from the tail-piece to the bridge over a kind of nut,
(A A, Fig. 46, etc.) formed of ebony or ivory, and let
into the tall-piece at TV inch from its broad edge.
The distance from the bridge, to the edge of the tail-
piece should be if inches. .
In Mr. Bishop's translation of Otto's work, a most
lucid description is given by the translator, of a tail-
piece invented by L. Spohr, by means of which the
portions of the strings, lying between it and the bridge,
could be so regulated as to produce certain intervals,
which might tend, perhaps, to modify little inequalities
of tone in some instruments, or prove advantageous
in other respects. Fig. 49 represents this contriv-
ance, A, B, and C being drawn half their actual size,
and D, E, F full or actual size. A consists of a fore part
e, and a hind part f, and is formed out of one piece of
wood or metal. The fore part is perfectly flat on the
top, but is worked out underneath, to the extent, and
in the manner shown in the section of the tail-piece C,
and in the view of the front end of it b. This fore
part has four long openings a a a a, placed at a suit-
able distance from each other, and made to receive the
like number of little pegs formed as at E. The hind
part _/"of A, which is semicircular, stands a little lower
than the fore part e, and has its upper edge rounded
off, as shown at c. It is chiefly remarkable for four
little slits, bbbb, made to receive the knots of the
strings, and for a little nut c c, formed of bone or
brass, which is let into the middle of the semicircular
part f. There are also two small holes d d, through
which the gut-loop is passed which connects the tail-
piece with the button. Four other small holes pass
obliquely from the upper, to the under side of the tail-
piece, as shown by the dotted lines ^ in c. E and F
are front, and side views of the little pegs which are
placed in the openings a a a a of A, and press on the
strings beneath the fore part of the tail-piece, as shown
at C. By moving them to and fro in their respective
openings, those portions of the strings between them
and the bridge, are lengthened or shortened, and thus
the different intervals are obtained. These pegs con-
sist of two parts, as at D, where h represents the knob
or cap, and i the pin, which is firmly glued into a hole
in the middle of it, after having first been passed
through one of the openings a from the under side ;
the little furrow k at the bottom of the peg is intended
to receive the string. From the section c, the mode of
attaching the string may be seen. After tying a knot
in the string /, it is drawn into one of the slits b, then
carried over the nut c, and passed through one of the
holes g. It then passes into the furrow k of the peg E,
and over the bridge in the usual way. This con-
trivance is very scientific and ingenious, but has been
but very little used.
Vuillaume's Sourdine pedal (Fig. 47), is an inge-
nious combination of mute and tail-piece, which en-
ables an instrument to be immediately muted or
unmuted by a player during a performance ; it is very
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
397
useful for effects, such as sudden echoes or short muted
passages, but it is too great a strain for the chin to
keep it in action long. Its principle is as follows : the
plate A stands up in the centre of the tail-piece, as
shown in the figure, this acts upon a bent spring below
the tail-piece, to the end of which is attached the arm
B, bearing the mute C on a sliding fitting D. By the
pressure of the chin upon A this spring is straightened,
and therefore lengthened, which pushes the mute C by
means of the rod B against the bridge. Its distance
from the bridge is regulated by the telescope fitting D,
which carries the mute C, and fixes it on the rod by
the screw E. Its only disadvantage is that it rather
deadens the tone of the fiddle, and is very apt to come
loose and jar.
A somewhat similar contrivance, or, rather, combi-
nation of bridge, mute, and tail-piece, was patented
(Xo. 3915) by Felix von Zebrowski. This bridge,
which is figured at A, Fig. 50, was, as will be seen,
composed merely of four uprights, with a base of the
ordinary sort and a top connecting piece. This tail-
piece was in appearance much like Vuillaume's (Fig.
47), but his stud a was fitted into a slot, into which, it
being a screw, it could be fixed. The arm b, instead
of carrying a metal mute C, carried a plate shown at
B, Fig. 50, bearing three cushions of leather c C C,
which fitted into the three openings D D D of the bridge
A. To apply the mute, the stud A had to be unscrewed,
pushed forward in the slot till the plate B embraced
the bridge, and there refastened. It was very inge-
nious, but not nearly so simple in application as the
ordinary mute, which it did not exceed in efficacy,
whilst the tone of the fiddle was seriously impaired by
so unorthodoxly-shaped a bridge.
The Tail-pin (q, Fig. 16) is the peg of ebony or box,
which is firmly fixed into the bottom block, as in Fig.
51, through the centre of the join of the lower bouts,
as in Fig 52, to which is fastened the loop, or gut
attachment of the tail-piece (b, Fig. 46). It requires to
be very carefully fixed as it has to withstand the
entire tension of the strings. Directions as to its fitting,
etc., will be given in a future chapter. Its length is
regulated by the depth of the block, the diameter
of the knob is f inch.
The Rest is that small piece of ebony, or other hard
material (e, Fig. 52) over which the gut passes from
the button A to the tail-piece. It measures, in length,
if inch ; breadth, j^ inch. Its depth and shape are
regulated by the edge of the fiddle whose shape it
follows : its only office being to protect the edge of the
fiddle from the gut loop, which would otherwise cut
into it with the tension of the strings.
These fittings, therefore, having been duly appor.
tioned to the fiddle, there remains only to string the
fiddle to have it ready to play upon. In the next
chapter I shall shortly describe the operations through
which strings pass before they reach us as strings ; but
in the meantime we must consider before leaving our
fiddle, the various appliances which are to be found in
every fiddle-case, and which include chin-rests, mutes,
gauges, string-box, rosin, tuning-forks, etc. The first,
and most important of these is —
The Chin-rest, which in its most primitive form
(represented in Fig. 53) is said to have been invented
by L. Spohr, is, without doubt, a great convenience to
violinists, as the hold which it gives the chin, which
could not otherwise be obtained but by great pressure,-
imparts a freedom and ease to the left hand in shifting,
which comes of its being rendered absolutely un-
responsible of the retaining of the fiddle, in its proper
position, beyond merely supporting it at its proper
angle. Some people prefer to place a pad to fill the
hollow beneath the collar bone, but it is not so
certain ; others again aver that it checks the vibra-
tions of the belly, but the field of contact at an
almost quiescent point being so small, and in the
newer forms being reduced absolutely to a minimum,
I think we may dismiss this complaint as practically
without foundation. It was founded on this supposed
disadvantage that Ole Bull took out an English paten1
in 1879, (No. 1604) for several wonderful and cum-
brous arrangements of rest, or holder, embracing
almost the entire base of the fiddle, attached to the
tail-pin or bottom block of the fiddle. Following the
same line of thought, Zebrowski, at the same time that
he patented his tail-piece and bridge-mute (Fig. 50)
projected a holder of the ordinary shape, which
instead of clipping the fiddle, was attached to a strap
extending by a hook from the lower left-hand corner
of the fiddle, to the tail-pin, to which it was firmly
attached. His principle seems to have been with a
view to prevent the imaginary checking of the vibration
by a tiny clamp, to clasp the entire left hand lower bout
with a thick strap. Comment is needless. The name
of the fiddle-holders is legion in their improved form.
A good typical specimen, and one which is beyond the
reach of the " vibrationists," is the latest introduction
of Mr. W. E. Hill (Fig. 54), which is formed of
vulcanite and nickel. Its composition gives it ascen-
dency over its rivals, than which in other respects it is
neither better nor worse. A form of rest forming one
piece with the tail-piece, and with it affixed to the tail-
pin, is represented by Fig. 48. It has this disadvantage,
that the chin pressing upon it, twists the tail-piece, and
throws the strings out of tune.
The Mute is that appliance formed of metal or
other material which, being clipped on to the bridge,
checks its vibrations, and thus deadens the tone of the
entire instrument. The common and most familiar
form is executed in metal, and a very efficacious one is
393
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
that one known as the Mysterious Mute, which is com-
posed of horn and brass. After trying all sorts I have
discarded all others in favour of the one represented
full size in Fig. 55, introduced a short time since by
Mr. W. E. Hill, which is formed of vulcanite, moulded
all in one piece, which precludes the possibility of jar,
and being formed of an
elastic, though resisting ma-
terial, clips tightly, without
destroying the bridge. On
the action of the mute enough
has been said when discuss-
ing bridges (page 255). The
Vuillaume and Zebrowski
mutes have been already
described under the heading
of tail-pieces. As effective a mute
extemporised by placing a
FIG. 56. — SINGLE FIDDLE CASE.
as any may be
penny or half-crown,
behind and against the bridge by setting it, under
the A string, with its edges resting on the E and D.
There are an immense number of different kinds of
rosin, or rather different arrangements of rosin. Many
soloists of celebrity use a common lump of kitchen
rosin, in spite of what all the books ever written on
the subject say. The more ordinary forms are all equally
good in spite of the eulogies inscribed on the labels ;
the only thing to be noticed is, that as there are
trifling differences in their composition and substance,
you should never change your rosin, that is, that if
you want to try a new sort of rosin do not do so till
you have your bow re-haired. To my mind the most
convenient form is the
square Vuillaume cake,
which is enclosed with a
tab of red leather in a
square box, its advantage
over the other kinds is
that it does not leak and
fill the compartments of
one's case with rosin dust.
Gauges are all more or
less of the same pattern,
and are almost all equally
deceptive and unsatis-
factory. The right plan
is to get a gauge of the
ordinary form and efface
the markings ; then, when by chance you happen to
have on your fiddle a set of strings true to one
another, and well suited to your instrument, pass the
gauge on to them (below the bridge ; not above,
where they are thickened with rosin), and mark your
gauge for yourself, in which way you get some guide
more reliable than the common brass fork which is
usually supplied for the purpose.
FIG. 57. — DOUBLE FIDDLE CASE.
Mr. Hart has shown me a very sensible and in-
genious, if rather cumbrous, appliance termed a
Chordometer, with which, by means of a lever arm and
micrometer scale, the exact diameter of any string
from a double bass C, even to one no larger than the
finest hair, can be accurately ascertained and recorded.
Tuning-forks axe toys
always convenient, and some-
times useful in settling dis-
putes as to pitch, or for pieces
in which the violin has to be
tuned to uncommon intervals,
and notes to which the ear is
unaccustomed. I have found
most useful a tuning-fork
which, by means of sliding
weights embracing the prongs, can be altered at will
to give any required note. Otherwise an A tuning-
fork is always handy.
String-boxes are another requirement of the fiddler.
I have seen it recommended to wrap up spare strings
in a piece of oiled bladder, but a more messy, horrid
performance it is to my mind difficult to imagine. It
is also suggested that a piece of oiled flannel be kept
in the string-box, but the effect is equally nasty.
Unless you live far away it is never necessary or con-
venient to keep more than one spare set of strings by
you, and if you are a long way off, a note to a London
dealer will always bring them down by post. The
best vehicle to contain the strings is an ordinary
japanned box with two openings on opposite sides, in
one of which the gut
strings, and in the other
the covered strings, are
kept. This subject will
be more fully discussed in
the chapter on strings.
Every case should con-
tain a small strong pair of
scissors, and a pairof long-
pointed tweezers for mani-
pulating the strings inside
the peg box. The fiddle on
being put away in its case
should be wrapped in an
old silk handkerchief, and
many people use a fiddle-
blanket, that is, a thin pad of flannel, or quilted satin,
shaped to the inside of the case and covering up the
fiddle. A common accessory of the amateur is a pad or
cushion used for holding the fiddle ; this is not to my
mind so efficacious or convenient as a chin-rest, but
this has been discussed above in the paragraph on
chin-rests. And, lastly, a word on the case in which
the fiddle is kept, these are either single, as at Fig. 56,
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM. 399
or double, as at Fig. 57. These last are very hand-
some, but wofully massive and heavy; if you carry
your riddle about much nothing can beat the American
cloth oblong cases, which hold music, and are very
light, but are bad as permanencies, as people have a
knack of sitting upon them, very considerably ad
damnum of the contained fiddle (and its owner). The
papier-mache cases which follow the shape of the fiddle
are very convenient, but they do not hold music, and
if the fiddle is high built, it runs a chance of being
cracked by the bow in the lid. After trying all sorts
I have come to the conclusion that nothing is better,
than Fig. 56 of French, or light English make.
The next chapter (on strings) will bring us to the
end of the theoretical discussion of the violin. I
shall then recapitulate some of the eccentricities of
form, and innovations to which the fiddle, like every-
thing else, has from time to time been subjected; for
such vagaries, though useless and as such abandoned,
involve the consideration of scientific principles most
interesting to the fiddle-maker ; after which from the
discussion of the bow I shall proceed to close these
articles with a detailed exposition of the practical
manual processes required to solve the problem,
" Given ; a log of wood : make a fiddle."
{To be continued.)
BOOTS AND SHOES :
HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
By ABEL EARXSBAW.
VI.— Hand-Sewn Boots (continued).
Preparing the Boot for Stitching— Channelling the Sole —
Stitching — Closing the Channel — Additional Hints on
Finishing.
it HE last chapter left the hand-sewn boot
nearly ready for the process of stitching.
All the preliminary work had been got
over, the welt firmly sewn in, the hollow
between the edges of the upper filled up,
the waist strengthened by a shank, the sole fixed on
temporarily, and the heel built, sewn down, and its
construction completed. The next process consists in
firmly binding the sole to the welt by means of
stitches in such a way that though the head of the
stitches may be seen on the welt close to the upper,
no trace of them shall be discoverable on the sole.
The sole stitches, as I have earlier explained, are
made with a finer thread than those used to bind the
welt, upper, and inner sole together. They are,
however, much more numerous, being never less than
eight to the inch, more often twelve, and sometimes,
when the work is done by exceptional workmen, and
it is very light in the sole, twice or thrice as many
again ; but there is no need for the amateur to crowd
stitches too closely together, if he does he will
probably cause the holes made for them to break into
each other and so spoil his work.
The worker should at this point pay particular
attention to the position of the sole. Its edges should
now correspond exactly with those of the welt, which,
as I have previously stated, should project one-eighth
of an inch beyond the edge of the upper leather. At
any point where it is seen not so to correspond, it
must be trimmed with the knife until it shows evenly.
The next operation is to cut a groove in the sole for
the stitches to lay in ; this is known as the channel,
and it will hereafter be spoken of by that name. The
channel is formed by making an almost direct down-
ward cut in the sole, a little more than a sixteenth of
an inch from the edge in the fore part, and about
three-sixteenths from the edge in the waist. In
making it, especial care is necessary to avoid a two-
fold danger — the first being of cutting through the sole,
and the second of allowing the knife to slip out of
the leather altogether, and seriously damaging the
amateur himself.
Commencing from the left-hand side of the sole as
it is turned upwards, and from the corner of the heel,
the channel cut must be made directly downwards
until the joint is reached when it comes closer to the
edge, here it is allowed to slant slightly inwards.
The cut is continued at a regular distance from
the edge all the way round the fore part until
it reaches the opposite joint, where it again goes
further inwards and is made perpendicularly. Its
depth, except in a very light sole, should be one-
eighth of an inch, without variation. As it has
to be made with the point of the knife, there is no
difficulty in determining the depth of the cut while it
is being made, and it can be regulated accordingly.
The next step is to open the channel ready for the
stitch. For this purpose an instrument with a dull
point is required; the blade of a knife, the cutting edge
of which has been thoroughly rounded, will answer as
well as anything. This being inserted in the cut, the
leather on the inner side of it is turned back as far as
possible, and the bottom of the incision exposed to
view. The shoe is now ready for stitching, and the
amateur having prepared his threads, in the manner
previously explained, and given them as much twist-
ing as they will retain, may now- begin by thrusting
his stitching awl through from welt to channel, at the
right-hand corner of the heel, and passing his thread
through the hole until an equal length is obtained on
each side. The worker must now pass his stitching
awl and make way for the next stitch, and must bear
in mind that the hole is always to be made by a direct
thrust ; to wriggle the awl through the leather causes
40o
BOOTS AND SHOES: HO W TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
not only a larger hole to be made than is required, but
a disturbance of the position of the sole — a matter very
carefully to be avoided. The instructions given for
sewing will also answer here, for although the position
and length of the stitches are different, the method
of inserting them is the same. A straighter awl has to
be used in the fore part than in the waist ; the neces-
sity for this will be at once seen by the worker when
he has the last before him. All the stitches must be
of the same length, and must fall evenly at the bottom
of the channel, and be made to appear in a bead-like
row on the side of the welt nearest the upper. As the
thread becomes dry consequent upon its having
passed through the leather several times, the wax may
be passed lightly over it, and its strength and ad-
hesiveness restored. If the awl sticks or the leather
seems too hard for it to pass through, its point may
occasionally be thrust into a piece of beeswax, the
only lubricant allowable.
When the stitching has been completed, the
channel has to be closed up again. To do this the
heads of the stitches therein should be rubbed with a
dull instrument — a blunt pointed piece of wood or
bone will do. The rubbing will take away to a certain
extent the irregularities, if any exist. The small
scraps of wax which will be found here and there in
the channel are to be scraped out, and a little smooth
flour paste put in. The outer lip of the channel has
now to be pushed upwards and inwards, with the
back of the knife, and the inner lip brought forward
to meet it, thus enclosing the stitch completely. A
few drops of water must now be thrown upon the
bottom of the sole, and a thorough rubbing given to
it all over with the sleeking stick. This process is
termed scouring, and its use is to finally "bed" the
sole into position, while at the same time it cleanses
the grain of the leather from certain chemical matters
which, if left in, prevent it from having a clean and
white appearance when finished. Whatever " burr,"
or loose leather there is beyond the edge of the
channel may now be trimmed away — of course, the
solid leather outside must not be interfered with.
The channel is a weak point in all sewn boots, and
great care has to be exercised lest it should be
in any way damaged, or driven or squeezed out
of place. The fore part iron may next be pressed
round the edge as though it was being used to
" set " it in finishing, this will help to close the
channel still more firmly, and will harden the leather
outside it. A cold iron is used on this occasion. The
stitches on the top of the welt may now be rubbed
with the blunt pointed bone, and the welt pushed as
far as it will go in a downward direction so as to
cause it to join the sole thoroughly.
The boot is now ready for finishing, but it is
advisable that it should be laid aside until most of the
moisture has evaporated. Practised workmen may
succeed in finishing their work while it is very damp ;
but as a rule, the finish so put on, looks very indif-
ferent after the boots' have stood a day or two. The
process of finishing has been described in a previous
paper, and it will therefore be unnecessary it should
again be gone into at length. There are, however,
some small differences which the peculiar construc-
tion of the hand-sewn boot necessitates, and these may
be briefly indicated.
First, the fact that a line of stitches exists scarcely
more than a sixteenth of an inch from the edge,
renders extreme caution in trimming necessary. As
the edge of the sole has earlier been carefully rounded,
it will be better for the amateur to trust to his rasp for
levelling it, rather than the knife ; and in using the
rasp it must be with care, otherwise the stitches may
be bared here and there : if once they are seen in the
edge, there is no possibility of covering them up again,
but they must be allowed to remain though they dis-
figure the edge. Both in the fore part and the waist,
the welt must be taken off at an even distance from
the stitch. The heel also requires very careful mani-
pulation, for it will be remembered that only a small
portion of the sole turns over and covers the seat
stitches and edge of the upper ; then the rasp is here
also to be brought into use, and when the knife marks
have been thoroughly effaced, any inequalities at the
seat should be trimmed away, and the seat formed by
the use of a " breaker," a small notched tool with a
guard which forms a small ridge, while the face of the
tool presses the edge of the sole against the upper.
The fore part and heel are next to be scraped, and
the seat "set" with the seat- wheel, a little gum and
tallow having previously been rubbed on the leather at
this point. Sand-papering is the next operation, and
after it is done the loose fibres, which will again have
formed a " burr" on the sole side, may be filed off, the
file being, of course, directed towards the centre of
the sole, thereby causing no disturbance to the
channel. A little gum and tallow may now be rubbed
on the fore part, and without "colouring" it, it may be
"set" up, the fore part iron being only partially heated.
The front or breast of the heel may next be treated,
first with rasp and next with sand - paper. A dry
rubbing with the sleeking-stick is now to be given the
sole so as to set the grain thoroughly hard, and the
ink applied to the edges of the sole and heel. From
this point the general instruction given in the paper
on finishing may be followed out. As the fore part is
being ironed up the worker must take pains to see
that the lip of his iron just covers the line of the
channel. In order that it may be completely hidden
a little white wax may be lightly rubbed on its outer
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
401
edge, and this when melted by the heat of the iron
will spread evenly, and completely obliterate any
trace of the groove beneath. The channel in the
waist will be hidden consequent on the pressure
brought to bear on it by the waist iron. Sometimes
ornamental devices are impressed by the workman
over the channel line in the waist. However, as the
amateur may be supposed to have no one to please
but himself, and as such devices are merely intended
to strike the eyes of purchasers, without conferring any
actual extra value on the articles ornamented, it
becomes a question for him whether it will be worth his
while to do more than see that the edges of sole and
heel are thoroughly well set and polished, leaving the
stones of the street to work their will on the leather
which in wear comes next them.
( To be continued!)
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO
MAKE IT.
By CBJ.ELES SPEA'CEK.
III. — The Lawn Gymnasium.
HE Lawn Gymnasium is of very simple
construction, as the illustration (Fig. 5)
will show, but it admits of so many
varieties of gymnastic exercises that it has
been not inaptly termed the ne plus ultra
gymnastic apparatus, so many are the appliances of
which may be fitted to it. For instance, with only the
trouble of removing each as its place is required for
another, here we have — a plain sitting swing, a pair of
hand-rings, trapeze, horizontal bar, jumping stands, etc.
Many frames of this kind cannot fail to catch the eye
of the traveller in the gardens beneath him, as he
passes swiftly by the tops of houses by the district
railways, through the suburbs of our large towns. On
closer inspection, however, most of these are found
very crude in idea and imperfect in construction, made
most likely by the local carpenter, after a drawing
which shows only the elevation without the foundation
or superstructure, the consequence being that, owing
to the neglect of adequate underground support, the
machine is generally very rickety, very shaky, and
very unsafe.
Before commencing operations on the wood, the
amateur should make a careful working drawing of the
Lawn Gymnasium, both in front elevation and side
elevation. The representation of the perspective view
given in Fig. 5, as far as a sketch of the kind can be
said to be to scale, is on a scale of just one-third of an
inch to the foot ; but this will apply only to the up-
rights and cross-pieces. The scale on which the ama-
teur should make his own working drawings should be
one inch to the foot, which would give a figure three
times the height and three times the width of the
accompanying illustration.
The material required for the frame should be of
sound yellow fir timber, free from knots, the following
being the requisite quantities for the size of Lawn
Gymnasium that I would recommend— viz., 12 feet
high, above ground, by 6 feet wide.
MATERIALS.
2 15 ft., 7 by 4 yellow battens.
1 7 ft.. 7 by 2i „
2 3 ft., 7 by 2h „
4 2 ft., 3 by 3 „
1 7 ft-, 3 by 3 „ „
1 6 ft, 5 by 1 „ „
2 Cornice Pole Ends.
PAINTS.
2 lbs. Lead colour and 1 lb. Ultramarine blue.
The tools are the same as those used for the garden
swing, and the prices of paints and materials may be
ascertained by reference to the paper on this subject.
First plane the two 15 feet uprights all over,
excepting the part which is to go underground, and
chamfer, or round, the edges and also the top (7 feet by
2} inches). The two sole pieces must be halved into the
bottoms of the uprights, and spiked together, or drawn
together with a half inch bolt. The struts are cut and
fitted as shown (b e), and spiked on. The 3 by 3 inch
stretcher piece (c) will now have to be mortised into
the two uprights, which will keep them parallel, and
at an equal distance apart at the top, viz., 6 feet. The
whole being sunk underground to the depth of 3 feet,
gives the entire frame great strength, and prevents any
oscillating movement when it is fixed. The part
which is to be placed underground must be tarred
over in the same manner as described in the in-
structions for the Giant Stride. An ornamental board
(C, D) inch in thickness perforated with a fret-saw, and
two cornice pole ends (e e) screwed to each end of the
beam, gives the whole a good finished appearance.
We now come to the fittings. The two hooks from
which the ropes are to be suspended should be made of
| inch round iron, and must be secured into the centre
of the top cross beam, 20 inches apart from each
other. The ropes, 2i inches circumference, should be
of the best Russian or Italian hemp, spliced with a
thimble, and a dog or spring hook at the other end.
This hook is made to open and shut, so as to take the
rings, trapeze, or whatever may be required ; and the
ropes should be 6 feet in length, so that whilst
hanging by the hands the feet of the performer will
clear the ground. The rings — hand-rings is the
technical term for them — are made of round iron J inch
diameter, 6 inches across, and should be covered with
402
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
leather. The trapeze bar is made of the best straight
grain white ash, mounted at each end with two gun
metal socket eyes, thus : with a \ inch pin or rivet
passing through it to prevent it from coming off. The
bar should be 18 inches in length, ij inch diameter.
They are often made with a steel or iron core running
through the centre which
adds materially to the
strength. In fact, all pro-
fessional gymnasts use
the steel cored bar, but
for private use plain sound
ash, while much less ex-
pensive, is perfectly safe,
provided that the ends
are properly fitted in.
We now come to the
horizontal bar (f), which
is, as shown, supported by
two wooden brackets (G, G)
made of hard wood, oak,
ash, or beech for prefer-
ence, the size of each
being 5 inches wide, 8
inches long, 2 inches deep,
with a square cut in the
top if inches. The full
depth of 2 inches is to
admit of the square end of
the bar which is dropped
in and taken out as other
apparatus is being used.
It is secured by two f inch
iron pins, passing through
the bracket and centre of
the bar. The bar is 6 feet
in length, 1 1 inch in dia-
meter, and is made of
straight grained white
ash. It is first cut square,
and the centre part should
be turned round in a
lathe, leaving the two
ends square to fix into the
brackets. Should the bar
be required smaller in
diameter, a steel core
should be put through the
centre to insure sufficient strength, but for ordinary
practice you will find the above a convenient size.
But when I come to deal more particularly with
the horizontal bar, apart from the Lawn Gymnasium,
I will enter fully into details. The seat or foot swing
is simply a piece of any sort of sound wood iS
inches long, and about 3J inches square. Round
FIG. 5.— THE LAWN GYMNASIUM.
the edges and ends, and with a centre-bit bore two
£ inch holes through the seat, at the distance of ii in.
from each end. Should the rope run larger, of course
the holes would have to be made proportionately
larger also. Two short pieces of rope, the same size
as before described, are required for the rings, trapeze,
etc., to bring the foot-
swing down to within
about two feet from the
ground. These are passed
through the holes in the
seat and secured by a knot
termed a " Turk's head,"
the other end to be spliced
round a thimble. It is, I
suppose, needless to say
that, when the swing is
being used, the trapeze,
horizontal bar, rings, or
whatever other apparatus
is depending from the
beam, will be removed,
though in the illustration
the whole apparatus is
shown together.
The jumping stand is
constructed by boring into
the uprights a series of $
inch holes, commencing 2
feet from the ground, each
hole to be 2 inches apart,
up to 5 feet in height. Drive
into these holes Jinch iron
pins, to project about f of
an inch from the upright.
These will form excellent
supports for a jumping
stand, and you must be
careful in fixing the pins
that you are precise in
your measurement, so that
those on one side of the
upright are exactly level
with those on the other.
The line (l) is of any stout
cord — an ordinary clothes
line will do - 9 feet in
length, with canvas bags
(J J) filled with sand attached to each end to render it
taut. A wooden or metal line is dangerous, in case of
the foot catching it while taking the jump, whereas a
cord line, in similar circumstances, is harmless; as,
when caught, it is immediately carried off the pins,
which, it is almost needless to say, should be without
heads, and of one size throughout their entire length.
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
403
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS:
HOW TO ADJUST, CLEAN, AND REPAIR THEM.
By PATTL N. RASLVCE.
V. — Clock Escapements.
SCAPEMENTS are deserving of the chief
consideration of amateur clock-jobbers.
The escapement of a clock has the
greatest influence on the entire me-
chanism. If there be errors in the con-
struction of the escapement, clocks will not perform
regularly, no matter how perfect all the other me-
chanism is. The motive force after it has been trans-
mitted through the entire train of wheels, reaches the
escapement so enfeebled that it must be utilised to
the best advantage. The large treatise on Modern
Horology, by Claudius Saunier, is devoted chiefly to
the consideration of escapements. An English trans-
lation of this valuable book has recently been pub-
lished by Mr. J. Tripplin, of BartleWs Buildings, E.C.,
and every horologist would learn something by a
careful perusal of its contents. I am indebted to this
book for some of the information forming the sub-
stance of this chapter. A smaller work — The Watch-
7>iakers' Handbook — by the same author and trans-
lator, was noticed in Part VI. of this Magazine.
Escapements used for clocks of various kinds are
usually comprised under three varieties. , Recoil
escapements, in which the supplementary swing of
the pendulum
/x^ ^N after a tooth has
E / N. \ p- escaped causes
a backward mo-
tion to the es-
cape-wheel.
Dead-beat es-
capements, in
which the tooth
of the escape-
wheel falls on a
pallet face form-
ing an arc of a
circle struck
from the centre of motion of the pallets ; in this the
escape-wheel remains stopped "dead" during the
supplementary swing of the pendulum. Detached
escapements, in which the escape-wheel does not act
directly on the pallets, excepting during a very brief
period; this form of escapement is used mostly for
turret clocks, and others where the motive power is
variable. All these varieties of escapement have
peculiar characteristics, and each is advantageous for
M.
c-
■^mmh
FIG. IO.— RECOIL CLOCK ESCAPEMENT.
FIG. II. — RECOIL CLOCK ESCAPEMENT.
certain purposes, it will therefore be useful to give a
description of each one.
Recoil escapements are most frequently used in
ordinary household clocks. Eight-day English clocks
usually have recoil escapements. Robert Hook is
credited with the invention of the recoil or anchor
escapement in
the latter half of
the seventeenth
century. Reid,
in his Treatise
on Clock and
Wa tchm aking,
published in
1S26, thus points
out the proper-
ties of the recoil
escapement.
When the teeth
of the escape-
wheel drop or
fall on either of
the pallets, these, from their form, cause all the
wheels to have a retrograde motion, opposing, at
the same time, the pendulum in its ascent, the
descent being equally promoted from the same cause.
This recoil, or retrograde motion of the wheels,
which is imposed on them by the reaction of the
pendulum, is sometimes nearly a third, sometimes
nearly a half or more of the previous advancement of
the movement. This is perhaps the greatest or the
only defect that can properly be imputed to the recoil
escapement. It is the cause of the greater wearing in
the holes, pivots, or pinions, than that which takes
place in a clock having the dead-beat escapement.
This defect may partly be removed by making the
recoil small, or a little more than merely a dead-beat.
After a clock with a recoil escapement has been
brought to time, any additional motive force that is put
to it will not greatly increase the arc of vibration, yet
the clock will be found to go considerably faster. It
is known that where the arc of vibration is increased
even but very slightly, the clock ought to go slower.
The force of the recoil pallets tends to accelerate and
multiply the number of vibrations according to the
increase of the motive force impressed upon them,
and hence the clock will gain on the time to which it
was before regulated. Professor Ludlam, of Cam-
bridge, who had four clocks in his house, three of them
with dead-beat escapements and the other with recoil,
said, " That none of them kept time, fair or foul, like
the last ; this kind of escapement gauges the pen-
dulum, the dead-beat leaves it at liberty." The reader
must recollect that this was written upwards of fifty
years ago. In the last handbook on watches and
4°4
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
clocks published, da'ed six months ago, we read of the
recoil escapement that, when well made, it gives very
fair results, but ihe pallets are oflen very improperly
formed, although none of the escapements are easier
to set out correctly. There are still people who
believe the recoil to be a better escapement than
the dead-beat, mainly because the former requires a
greater variation of the driving power to affect the
extent of the vibration of the pendulum than the
latter does. But the matter is beyond argument ; the
recoil escapement can be cheaply made, and is a useful
escapement, but beyond question it is inferior to the
dead-bent for time-keeping.
The instructions for setting out a recoil escape-
ment given by Mr. T. J. Britten, in his Watch and
Clockmakers' Handbook, are as follows : Draw a
circle representing the escape-wheel which we assume
to have thirty teeth, of which number, the anchor
embraces eight. Mark off the position of the fourth
tooth on each side of a vertical line drawn through the
centre of the wheel ; draw radial lines, which will
represent the backs of the teeth. The position of
the teeth is easily ascertained by a protractor thus :
the space between the teeth is equal to 3600 divided
by the number of teeth, that is sf§° = I2°- There are
seven spaces between eight teeth, so that the space to
be marked off between the teeth is equal to 120 -f- 7,
that is 84° ; half of this on each side of the vertical
line will be 42" from the 900 line on the protractor.
The centre of the motion for the pallets is at a point, on
the vertical line, fourteen-tenths of the radius of the
escape-wheel from the centre of it ; that is to say,
measure the radius of the escape-wheel, add four-
tenths of the distance, and mark a point on the vertical
line which will show the centre of the pallets. From
the centre of the pallets draw a circle through the
points, of the teeth marked on the circumference of the
escape-wheel. The arc of this circle will be found to
bisect the vertical line midway between the centre of
the pallets and the centre cf the escape-wheel. From
this circle, struck from the centre of the pallets, draw
tangents through the points of the teeth that are
marked. These tangent lines show the positions for
the faces upon the pallets, but these faces are always
rounded somewhat in practice. The pallets are cut
off at those points which allow half the impulse to each,
that is, when one tooth drops off one pallet, the point
of the other pallet is just midway between two
teeth. The illustrations of the recoil escapement show
this. The form of teeth shown in the escape-wheel
isadopted, so that if the pendulum is swung excessively,
the points of the pallets butt against the thick roots of
the teeth, and do no injury as they would if the teeth
were nearly straight, and the motion of the pendulum
arrested by the face of the pallet butting on the tops.
The diagrams, Figs. 10 and 1 T, show how to draw
a recoil escapement. These illustrations are lettered
to facilitate the description ; and if any reader has a
clock provided with this form of escapement, which he
suspects to be faulty, it will be very easy to draw a
diagram showing accurately the proper form, and then
compare it with the actual dimensions and shapes
of the various parts.
A piece of thin sheet metal is the best material to
draw such a diagram upon ; sheet zinc is convenient.
First drill a hole to represent the centre of the escape-
wheel, and enlarge this to allow the axis of the escape-
wheel to go through, andy?/ where the wheel lies in
contact with the plate. Draw the various lines, by
means of a scriber, so as to get the position of the
pallet-centre and then gauge the position of the actual
pivot holes in the clock. Of course the hole must be
drilled in the metal plate to correspond with the pivot
hole in the clock. The hole is enlarged to fit the
pallet axis, and the escape-wheel and pallets may be
tried on the plate. Having due regard to any pecu-
liarities of the especial escapement being examined,
proceed to draw the various lines as indicated in the
accompanying diagram, and any error in the form of
the pallets will be shown by comparison. It may
possibly appear somewhat erratic to suggest that an
amateur may correct errors in escapements produced
by professedly skilled clockmakers. If the workman
really worked on correct principles, no doubt the
suggestion would be erratic. In practice, however,
many clocks are made by men who work alone, with-
out any knowledge of theoretical principles, and who
idolatrously worship the " rule-of-thumb." These
workmen by practice attain considerable skill, and are
able to produce 'good-looking work at a low price.
They seldom have any opportunity of seeing the
practical result of their labour, and hence have no
knowledge of any defects that may exist.
The diagram, Fig. 10, is lettered as follows: — A is
the centre of the escape-wheel, B the centre of the
pallets, C, D, is a horizontal line drawn through the
points of the escape-wheel teeth ; E, A, is a line drawn
from the centre of the escape-wheel through the point
of a tooth on the left, and F, A, a corresponding line on
the right, G, B, is a line from the centre of the pallets
through the point of the escape-wheel tooth on the
left, and h, b, a corresponding line on the right. With
B as centre a circle is drawn through the points where
the lines F, A, and G, B, intersect each other, and also
C, D, on the left, and the lines F, a, and H, B, intersect
C, D, on the right. From the point of intersection on
the right, divide the half-circle into six equal parts, and
five-sixths of the semi-diameter of the circle will give
the point I. 'Ihe line from I to the point of the tooth
gives the face of the pallet on the right, and the line
HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.
405
C, D, gives the face of the pallet on the left. The
length of this pallet is determined by the line drawn
from the centre B, and distant from it precisely half
of the space between the wheel-teeth. By these
means the various dimensions are obtained. The
shape of the pallets may be made to suit the fancy so
long as the faces against which the escape-wheel teeth
impinge are kept to the form indicated. In the
drawing, the tooth on the right is shown just free of
the pallet. The arrow indicates the direction that the
wheel travels, the tooth on the left impinging on the
pallet forces it upwards, the tooth sliding along its
face till it reaches the end, and the pallet on the left
will then be in the position to receive the tooth shown
inside the circle. Practically the pendulum continues
to swing some distance after the tooth has escaped,
and the non-acting sides of the pallets must be so
formed that they are quite clear of the backs of the
tee:h. These parts of the pallets are shown drawn
from the centre P., and will therefore be correct.
The diagram, Fig. 11, is lettered in precisely the
same manner, the proportions being, however, dif-
ferent. The diagram of the escape-wheel is drawn,
and the radial lines E, F, are drawn through the
points of two teeth, as shown. The lines G and H are
drawn and their intersection at B gives centre of the
pallets. The faces of the pallets are determined in
much the same manner as previously described. The
point 1 being five-sevenths of a semi diameter from
the point of the tooth. These illustrations are merely
intended to show the extended application of the
principles that have been explained.
Dead-beat escapements are an improvement on
the recoil. Regulators and the better class of house-
hold clocks have dead- beat escapements. George
Graham invented this form of escapement about the
beginning of the eighteenth century. The term dead-
beat is in contradistinction to recoil. The faces of the
pallets in a dead-beat escapement are concentric
with the centre of oscillation, so that during the
supplementary swing of the pendulum the train re-
mains perfectly stationary. The impulse is given to
the pendulum through another face of the pallet which
is inclined to the axis of oscillation in the same as a
recoil escapement pallet. Dead-beat clocks, having a
seconds hand, and watches also, remain perfectly
dead during the greater portion of time. The
seconds hand jumps from one division to another,
and remains. With recoil escapements, the seconds
hand wiil be observed to jump from one division to
another, but instead of remaining dead it goes back-
wards till the pendulum, or balance, has completed its
supplementary vibration, then the hand goes forward
gradually till the tooth escapes, then it jumps, and
then the retrograde motion is repeated.
Reid says of the dead-beat escapement : " On an
additional motive force being put to it, we find that the
arc of vibration is considerably increased, and in con-
sequence of this the clock goes very slow. There are
two causes which produce this : the one is, the greater
pressure by the escape-wheel teeth on the circular
part of the pallets during the time of rest ; the other
is, the increase of the arc of vibration. With regard to
the recoil, it was observed that an additional force
would make the clock go fast, and with a dead-beat,
the same cause produces the opposite effect." These
facts were pointed out in the earlier chapters of these
articles. When the same cause produces diametrically
opposite effects on the two forms of escapement, the
means of adjustment are obvious. It is necessary to
modify the two forms, and this is now done successfully.
Pallets should be so formed that they have but very
little recoil, and then a variation in the motive force
or in the arc of vibration of the pendulum will produce
hardly any appreciable variation in the time-keeping.
Reid says that clockmakers in general have an
idea that in an escapement the pallets ought to take in
seven, nine, or eleven teeth, thinking that an even
number could not answer. This is by no means
essential. The distance from the centre of the pallets
to the centre of the escape-wheel also is not determined
by any rule. The nearer the centres less will be the
number of teeth that are required to be taken in by
the pallets. When the arms of the pallets are long,
the influence of the motive power on the pendulum
will be greater than when they are short. The depth
that the pallets engage in the wheel teeth will determine
the angular motion of the pendulum necessary for the
teeth to escape.
The instructions for drawing a dead-beat escape-
ment, I will quote from Mr. Britten's modern Hand-
book. " Draw a circle representing the escape-wheel,
assuming it to have thirty teeth, and the pallets to
embrace eight of them, set off on each side of a centre
line the points as described with the recoil escapement.
The position for the centre of the pallets will be the
point where tangents drawn from the points of the
teeth intersect. The width of each pallet is equal to
half the distance between one tooth and the next, less
the amount of the drop, this need be very little. The
escaping arc, is 2°, being 1° 30' for impulse, and 30' for
repose. The width of the pallets may be got by
diawing radial lines barely 30 on each side of the
points of the teeth, then from the intersection of those
radial lines with the circumference of the wheel, draw
arcs from the centre of the pallets, and these arcs wi.l
be the faces of the pallets. From the centre of the
pallets draw lines through the points where the faces
of the pallets intersect the circumference. (These
lines will be the same as those drawn to find the centre
406
A FEW WORDS ABOUT PIANOS.
of the pallets.) Mark off i°3o', above this line on the
right, and the same amount below it on the left, where
those lines intersect the faces of the pallets these
terminate. A line from the intersection of the right to
the outer face of the pallet, where it intersects the
circumference, will give the impulse plane of that
pallet. The other is got by the same method, re-
membering to make the plane I °3o' long. The escape-
wheel should be very light, made of hard brass well
hammered ; it is usually about one inch and a half in
diameter. The pallets are frequently jewelled. . A
heavy pendulum is necessary to unlock the escapement
from the pressure of the wheel teeth on the locking
faces of the pallets. This is more frequently the case
when heavy weights are used, and these are necessary
when the trains are not perfectly accurate."
Detached escapements are seldom used for house-
hold clocks. The gravity escapement, invented by
Mr. Denison, and used for the great clock in the
Houses of Parliament, Westminster, is perhaps the
most useful form of detached escapement. Some
forms of " remontoir" as that used in the South Ken-
sington Museum, were formerly used extensively for
turret clocks, and others where the driving power is
subject to considerable variation. The" remontoir"
consists of a contrivance, a spring or a weight, which
acts direct on the escapement, the contrivance being
wound up by means of the ordinary train, at short
intervals. Any irregularities in the wheel work would
thus have no influence on the escapement, and any
power might be added or withdrawn without in the
least affecting the time-keeping; providing always
that there was sufficient power to act on the "remon-
toir." Regulators and expensive clocks, having pen-
dulums beating seconds, are sometimes made with a
double three-legged gravity escapement. The escape-
wheel having but six teeth renders the employment
of very high numbered wheels, or else an extra wheel
and pinion, necessary, in the going train. Considering
the extreme accuracy that can be got from a Graham
dead-beat, the extra cost of a gravity escapement is
hardly ever incurred. With a turret clock of large
dimensions the extra wheel in the train is an advan-
tage, as it assists to equalise the power transmitted to
the escapement.
There are many other forms of escapement, but
most of them are seen but rarely ; it is therefore un-
necessary to allude to them. A form of escapement,
frequently seen in French time-pieces that have the
escape-wheel exposed in front of the dial, is the
"Brocot," named from the inventor. The visible
escapement is generally provided with semi-circular
ruby pallets. Those pallets are fixed into a brass
anchor. The impulse is given by the action of the
teeth of the wheel on the curved face of the pallets.
Great care is necessary in oiling these escapements,
because it generally happens that oil applied to the
pallets runs towards the anchor and there adheres, so
that it is practically useless. With good jewels the
want of oil is not productive of serious inconvenience,
but steel pallets sometimes found in the Brocot
escapement soon suffer.
The pin-wheel escapement, invented by Lepante,
about the middle of the last century, is used for
regulators and some turret clocks. The escape-wheel
is peculiar from having the teeth projecting parallel to
the axis. The pins are made of brass, and in some
clocks they are round, but in that case their diameter
is very small. Semicircular pins acting on their
curved faces are much stronger, and recently an im-
provement has been affected by cutting a piece from
the curved part of the semicircular pins. The pallets
for this escapement are made of steel, and are very
near together, the pins acting successively, so that
the pallets embrace but one tooth. The pin-wheel
escapement has this advantage over the Graham, that
it need not be made so accurately, and that it will act
when the pivot holes of both wheel and pallet axes are
worn, better than Graham's under similar conditions.
{To be continued.)
A FEW WORDS ABOUT PIANOS.
By W. W. C.
OME little time since, a friend of mine
wrote to me, saying that he had pur-
chased a piano which he had seen adver-
tised in the list of those for the disposal
of which the reasons given are usually
more plausible than reliable. He was convinced he
had got a bargain, a trichord cottage of well-known
make, nearly new, for ^25, from a "lady giving up
her establishment." The only drawback was a buzz,
only audible occasionally, and not heard before pur-
chase. Would I oblige by trying the instrument, and
finding out what was wrong. I tried it one evening —
it so happened it was a musical evening — and there
was no buzz. Well, at my friend's request I called
round again, this time in the morning, and on trying
it, it gave a most pronounced buzz. However, the
cause was simple, and quickly discovered. On raising
the lid the buzz ceased. When I called previously
and the music was in full force, the lid was raised and
there was no buzz. Examination showed that the lid
was set a trifle high at one end, the hinge at that end
was accordingly lowered, the lid was fitted closely, and
the defect was permanently remedied, and the instru-
ment was rather better than when new.
A FEW WORDS ABOUT PIANOS.
407
This set me thinking about common defects in
pianos which, although their cause is not often ap-
parent on a simple inspection of the instrument, are
yet frequently remediable by anyone possessing ordi-
nary powers of judgment and a pretty good ear. Now-
adays it is the rule to find a piano of some sort or
other, wherever one goes. Of pianos at very low
prices there is always now a large supply — some I
must admit excellent, but very many more of poor
quality— Obtainable at sales, or from "furniture-piano-
forte-makers," or from secondhand dealers. But the
buyer has, perhaps, had to take his purchase as
Barnum took Jumbo — "as it stood ;" and when the
article has arrived home, or has been in use a little
while its defects become strikingly apparent.
Some of these playful manifestations we will now
notice.
I. And, first, the Buzz. — This is identical with the
noise one may hear on a summer afternoon when
proposing to take a nap, some evil-minded blue-bottle,
however, disposing to the contrary. It is the most
important of the minor defects of a piano, as it is
generally also the most persistent, and is a result
which operates to produce the utmost displeasure and
annoyance, both in the player and in the listener.
The conditions in which the buzz may occur are
various, and except in one case, simple and easily
removed.
1. Shavings. — These may have been left in the
bottom of the case or at the lower ends of the wires.
If present they will be at once seen on removing the
lower panel, i.e. the one below the key-board.
2. Loose Fittings. — If shavings are not the cause,
this may be found in a loose fit of the upper or lower
panel, or of the fall, or of the bar upon which the
fall rests, or of the lining under the key-board,
or the fall may not truly lie back when opened,
or the lid may not rest evenly upon the sides and
front It is astonishing how slight a defect in the fitt-
ing is sufficient to cause a buzz. It is scarcely neces-
sary to mention that when the piano is played, the
whole instrument is thrown into a state of vibration,
but it is perhaps less generally known, or at any rate
thought of, that particular parts of the instrument
separately vibrate to different notes, so that when the
note is sounded which is accordant with that which a
particular part of the instrument will give when struck,
that part will be put into a state of special and sympa-
thetic vibration, if there be any, no matter how slight,
insulation of the part. A very common illustration of
this may be given. It is a well observed fact that
some notes on a pedal organ are much more sonorous
than others, and have the power of making the build-
ing in which the organ is played shake. When this
occurs, if the windows do not fit very well they rattle.
The reason is simply this : the walls if struck with
something capable of acting on all parts of them
simultaneously, would give that note the peculiar
power of which is so evident. The windows, sepa-
rately, do not vibrate to the same note, and so that
note-wave does not produce in them a similar vibra-
tion to that which it produces in the walls. So when
the -windows are not firmly fixed there is a fault in the
continuity of the structure, there arises a separate
vibration, and the result is a jarring rattle. Now as
to our piano. If its several parts are so accurately
and tightly fitted that the whole affair is practically
cut out of the solid, then all is well ; but if there is a
loose or disconnected part, then that part will vibrate
irregularly when that note is struck with which its
note is accordant — in other words, it will buzz, and this
buzzing may be heard though in a less degree when
the harmonics of such note are sounded. To discover
the cause : first raise the lid. If the buzz ceases, the
cause lies in the fitting of the lid, which must be
properly adjusted by raising or lowering one, or both
of the hinges at the back. If not, remove the upper
panel. If the buzz ceases, the next step will be to find
out what part of the front causes it. The panel being
replaced, the buzz will probably again be heard. I
say probably, because it may so happen that by merely
taking out the panel and putting it in again the defect
in the fit may be remedied. But if it is not so
remedied, the spot or part, the looseness of which
causes the buzz, will be found by pressing the panel in
its frame, or the frame itself downwards, inwards,
outwards, or sideways, until the disagreeable noise
ceases. It is possible that a piece of ordinary writing
paper gummed or glued on at the spot, pressure on
which has stopped the buzz, will be sufficiently thick
to produce a perfect fit. If the manipulation of the
front does not bring about the desired result, it will
be necessary to proceed in the same manner with the
lower panel, the key-board lining the fall, and the bar
on which the fall rests. The fall is removed by simply
raising it. I mention this because if the fit is perfect
this part of the instrument is not easily removed.
The bar beneath is fixed by a sunk screw at each end
to the frame of the piano. The key-board lining is
usually sprung into position, wedging itself into the
slits which receive it, and the defect will be an imper-
fection of the wedging. A thin slip-wedge will at once
remedy this defect.
3. Torsion of Sound-board. — This source of trouble
is to be found in the woodwork adjoining the iron
studs which, when the lower panel is removed, are
visible at the base of the piano, projecting through the
sound-board. This is originally cut away just enough
to admit the passage of the studs without contact.
These studs, however have a very sharp rise, and it
408
A FEW WORDS ABOUT PIANOS.
APPLICATION OF TONING
TOOL TO LEATHER OF
HAMMER.
may happen that by the tension of the strings there is
produced in the lower part of the board a certain
amount of torsion, and very little suffices to bring the
two into contact. When this takes place a buzz re.
suits. The remedy is obvious, and the means a thin
narrow sharp knife.
4. Omission to Tone, or Imperfect Toning. — A new
instrument is not, as a rule, toned at first. No doubt
a very great difference has been noticed in the tone of
different pianofortes, and even in the tone of different
notes on the same piano —
some when struck giving a
slightly muffled sound, some
a pure, clear, continuous
note of perfectly smooth and
even quality, like that of a
thoroughly sound bell of
sterling metal, some a sharp,
clean, short ring as of a
metal harmonicon of ex-
aggerated dimensions, and others a sound, more or
less between a twang and a thud. These differences
are largely dependent upon the material of the frame
and bridging ; and it may be said broadly that ceteris
paribus the tone will vary between sharpness and
shortness, and softness and rotundity, according as
metal or wood predominates. But quite distinct from
these qualities, accidental to the material, is the clear-
ness and bell-like ring which is given by a perfect
instrument, and this is the result of effective toning.
The operation is simple,but delicate in the extreme,and
the affected part, the felt covering the hammers. This
felt, which is of a very fine kind, varies occasionally
in density, and this variation may sometimes produce
a buzz. The operation improves the quality of the
tone, and removes the buzz (when attributable to the
cause under consideration) by equalising the density,
and consists in pricking the felt on the upper part of
the hammer with the toning tool, which, in its simple
form, is a fine steel fork of three short sharp prongs.
The felt is not perpendicularly prodded, but the points
of the fork are stuck into the felt as often as is requisite
to produce the correct tone, and in the direction
shown in the illustration, the motion being that indi-
cated by the darts. This operation depends for its
success upon a delicate hand, and a still more delicate
ear, as over-prodding is injurious to the felt, and ruin-
ous to the tone.
In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the buzz
will yield to one or other of the remedies indicated.
If it does not, the case is out of the amateur's hands ;
the cause will be insufficient tightening of leading
screws, or defective fixing of the foundations, or im-
perfect gluing, and the instrument must be given over
to a pianoforte maker. If the amateur were to meddle
further with it the probabilities are that he would do
more harm than good.
II. The second defect which I will notice is in the
Repeti'i ion. A key will not rise to the level instantly
the finger is raised, it rises either slowly or not at all.
This may result from one of two causes. Either the
key has warped or it has swollen.
I. The Warping of the Key will probably be the
result of the piano having been subjected to extremes
of temperature — a very high one in the summer, and
a very low one in winter — or taking two bitterly cold
days in winter, perhaps one day the room is without
warmth of any kind, the next it has a roaring fire.
It is a popular, but entirely erroneous belief that by
opening the windows on a sultry summer day, a room
is cooled ; and in winter the atmosphere in this
changeable climate is every now and then so laden
with sticky, dirty particles, that it is not astonishing
that many a housewife omits ever) thing she can that
assists in the deposition of " matter in the wrong
place." Thus we find when the thermometer is stand-
ing in the sun at 130°, the windows wide open ''just
to let in a little fresh air, you know," and the piano is
put into a dry hot air bath. Winter comes, and with
it, wet, frost, and smoky fog, which insinuate them-
selves through the finest cracks. But ''a fire makes
such dirt," or the chimney is incurably smoky, and so
no fire is lighted, and poor piano suffers and gets
rheumatic. It inevitably gets rapidly out of tune, and
after going through such an ordeal for two or three
seasons the keys very likely stick. To remedy this,
raise the lid and remove the front, the fall and the bar,
raise the key by the forepart, above the pins which
keep it in position and draw it forwards. Where the
key rubs its neighbour it will generally appear chafed,
but if no chafing is apparent, just rub the side lightly
with blacklead, and replace the key — it will now
blacken its neighbour at the point of contact, and at the
corresponding part of itself it may be rubbed down
very slightly with glass paper, first No. 1 then No. o.
1. The second cause of this defect, viz , Swelling of
the Key, is the result of damp alone, which operates by
decreasing the size of the holes into which the fixed
pins fit, and these are accordingly more or less gripped
by the key. Perhaps only one is tightened, more
likely both. On taking the key out it will be at once
apparent whether both pins are gripped or only one,
as the piece of cloth in the forward hole, and the wood
jself in the case of the other one, are dented and
blackened. The hole may be enlarged to the neces-
sary extent by shaving the wood wiih a fine penknife,
but preferably by filing it with a fine fret-file of
oblong section. No more should be taken off than is
just sufficient to enable the key to work freely, as
otherwise the key will rattle and work unevenly.
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
409
III. The third defect to be noticed may be remedied
with even less exertion than the proverbial turn of the
wri-t, and occurs in pianos with the ordinary common
action. From constant playing, the fine wire screw
seen in the sticker or upright rod about two and a half
or three inches above the key-board, works out a little,
and the connections with the hammer handle being
slackened, the pull-back of the hammer is weakened,
and the hammer itself returns either very slowly or
not sufficiently to produce a sound when the key is
again struck, and the hammer should hit the string.
The remedy is of course to tighten the cjnnections
by screwing in the wire again, until the fall of the
hammer is perfect.
IV. Lastly when a certain note is struck a click may
be heard. This may only happen when the dampers
are raised by the loud pedal being on. When the
front is out, it will be observed that attached to
the sticker is a wire which, when the loud pedaj
is not in use, raises the damper of the note struc^
and keeps it up while the key is held down so as to pro-
duce a sustained sound. The click is caused by the
striking of the wire against the adjacent hammer, and
will be obviated by bending the wire away from that
hammer. The defect may arise from the wire having
become bent towards the hammer which it strikes
against, and this will result from its being either natu-
rally or (more likely) artificially too long, so that when
the damper is raised there is too great pressure exerted
on the wire lengthwise. In this case the damper lies
above the line, and the defect will be remedied by
lowering the button at the top of the wire. It works
on a screw cut in the end of the wire, and should be
lowered to such extent that when the wire is quite
straight the damper above should be in an exact line
with the others.
=>-=4<=-C:
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
By B. TV. DENNIS.
III.— Cast Nose-pieces.— Screwing and Cutting
Iron Tubes,— Making Pendants, etc, — Safety
Cocks for Churches. — Prices of Fittings,
N the first chapter was described the
method of putting up gas brackets,
when composition tubing was to be
used to supply them with gas ; in the
case of iron tubing a slight variation is
made, in that cast nose-pieces (Fig. 30) are used
instead of ordinary ones. They are furnished at one
end with a J (brass) external thread, and at the other
with an internal screw to fit i, $, or £ iron tubing.
The mode of using them is obvious, one is screwed on
to a piece of iron tube projecting so far from the wall
as to just let the external screw come through the
mahogany block, and the bracket is then screwed on,
a similar method being adopted for pendants. Cast
nose-pieces are also made with a long * (brass)
external thread and a short external one (Fig. 31) to
fit into an elbow or other fitting, but are not so much
used as the former — one disadvantage being that if
pliers are used for screwing them in part of the thread
will be destroyed .
To those who intend doing much gas-fitting with
iron tubes, a set of screwing tackle will be very neces-
sary. Its use is to cut screws on iron or brass tubes
and also internal threads, into which the tubes will
screw. Fig. 32 represents a stock containing a
pair of dies for cutting an external screw thread.
Fig- 33 (a and b) are taps for cutting internal screws.
These are always in pairs, one "taper" and one
"plug,'1 that is, having parallel sides. The former
alone is sufficient when it is required to tap a
thoroughfare hole, that is when the tap can be
screwed right through it, but when this cannot be
done the taper tap prepares the way for the plug tap
which is then used to finish cutting the screw. The
most necessary set that an amateur would require
would be a stock with a pair each of J, |, and | dies,
and also a pair of taps to each size ; a pair of f
(brass) dies are also useful, and a pair of 5 (brass) taps
are indispensable. Fig. 35 gives an enlarged sketch
of the middle part of the stock. A A are V-shaped
slides on which rest the dies. B is a set screw which
regulates the pressure of the dies together. C is a
notch into which can be introduced the end of the
" tommy," or small steel bar D used to screw up B,
when it is necessary to remove the dies.
To cut a screw on the end of a pipe, say f , fix it, if
a short piece, in a bench-vice with clamps of lead
round it to prevent it being crushed, having first
lightly filed the part on which the screw is to be cut.
Then having unscrewed the set-screw almost out of the
stock, take that one of the pair of i dies marked I (Fig.
34), and push it along the slide up to the end, placing it
so that the I on it comes against the I on the stock, and
then put in No. 2 in a similar manner, leaving them
some distance apart. The stock must then be placed
so that the dies may inclose the end of the pipe to be
tapped, and the set screw must be screwed up
moderately tight, observing that the top surface of the
die stock should be about a quarter of an inch below
the end of the pipe. Then taking the stock by the
handles gently turn it round to the left, so as to bring
it about a third of its thickness off the pipe, and then
turn it back again to the same place as before. The
set screw must then be tightened, and plenty of oil
4io
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
must be used on the dies. Keep on then working the
stock round the pipe, tightening the dies when the
end is reached till the thread is cut sufficiently deep
to go easily into the socket. The dies must only be
tightened when at either end, as otherwise the thread
will not be evenly cut, and will be deeper in one place
than another. When about to replace the stock after
taking it off to examine the thread, take the pipe out
of the vice and screw it in between the dies with the
fingers, and do not put the stock into the pipe, or
three hardened steel wheels, which can be brought
together by means of the screw b. To cut off a piece
of tube, loosen the wheels and put them over the pipe
at the required spot, and having tightened the set
screw, draw the tool round the pipe, which in a few
turns will be cut off. One of these tube-cutters, costing
16s. at Buck's, will cut any size pipe up to one inch-
When cutting off pieces of loose tubing, two wheels
should be taken out and one only used, the object of
having three being that tubes fixed in a corner or
FIG. 30. — CAST NOSE-
PIECE FOR IRON
TUBING.
FIG. 31. — CAST NOSE-
PIECE FOR ELBOW, ETC.
-ENLARGED SKETCH OF MIDDLE PART
OF STOCK.
AA, Slides for Dies ; B, Set Screw;
C, Notch for Steel Bar D.
FIG. 32.— STOCK, WITH DIES FOR
CUTTING EXTERNAL SCREW THREAD.
A, " Taper.'
B, "Plug.'
FIG. 36. — VICE FOR HOLDING PIPES.
FIG. 34.-
■PAIR OF DIES FOR EXTERNAL
SCREWS.
FIG. 33. — TAPS FOR INTERNAL
SCREWS.
the thread will probably be crossed and rendered
useless.
Fig. 36 shows a vice made on purpose for holding
pipes for screwing purposes. A A are two V-shaped
ridged jaws which can be brought near together by
means of the screw B. These vices are indispensable
for holding long tubes. They cost from about 12s.
upwards at Buck's.
Another very useful tool is a tube-cutter (Fig. 37).
A half-round file can be made to do duty for this, but
does not work so neatly or rapidly as the cutters, and
mor ver is soon worn out. In Fig. 37, A, A, A, are
against a wall can be cut off without having to take
the cutters all round the pipe.
Note. — When it is necessary to alter pipes which
are fixed up with many branches out of them, it is
often better to cut through them, and put in a new
piece than to pull all the branches out. The new
piece would be put in with a connector as described
on page 294.
Some instructions will now be given for making
pendants, etc., from the stock sizes of iron barrel and
fittings.
A p endant in the shape of an L (Fig. 42) can be made
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
411
I %- l-IRON
&
FIG. 42. — L PENDANT.
FIG. 46. — BRACKET.
FIG. 45.— NOZZLE GAS-COCK.
FIG. 47. — TUBE CONNECTOR.
FIG. 49. — STAR.
FIG. 50. — CONTRIVANCE
FOR LOWERING LIGHT,
USED IN CHURCHES,
ETC.
mm
FIG. 52. — UNIVERSAL GAS TONGS.
— > TO CALIXRIE5
TO AISLES
"IU OUTSIDE LAMP9
== FIG. 51. — TRIPLE
E ARRANGEMENT OF MAIN
IE COCKS.
FIG. 53. — ADJUSTABLE
WRENCH.
412
PRACTICAL GAS-FITTING.
by taking a piece of J-inch tube of the required length
having a flange (Fig. 38) furnished with a |-inch
internal screw-thread, screwed on to one end and with
\ to % diminished elbow on the other, into the outlet
of which must be screwed a piece of J tube somewhat
shorter than the piece of i inch.
A gas- cock of the kind shown in Fig. 39 furnished
with a J (iron) internal and a * (brass) external screw
thread must then be screwed on to the end of the f tube,
taking care that the handle of the gas-cock may point
downwards or on one side at right angles to the j-inch
tube. The small elbow of brass (Fig. 40) carrying
the triangle (Fig. 41) to support the globe, must then
be screwed, on to the external thread of the gas-cock,
and the pendant (Fig. 42) will then be complete.
For making aT-pendant the same directions apply,
with the exception that either a flange or a cup and
ball can be placed at the top, and that a diminished
T-piece instead of an elbow will be used.
In case it should be wished to have some means of
supplying a gas-pillar or gas-stove from one of these
pendants, instead of the elbow or T-piece mentioned
being used, in the first case a T-piece as shown in
Fig. 43, and in the second case a cross as in Fig_
44, should be used, a nozzle gas-cock (Fig. 45) being
screwed into the $ outlet of the fitting, it being
remembered that the § (brass) screw-thread of the
cock is the same as the A (iron) screw-thread of the
fitting.
A bracket can be made by screwing a length of
§ barrel into a flange, and putting on a gas-cock as
described for the pendant. (See Fig. 46.)
A gas-pillar can be made by connecting a 2 T-piece
having a £ outlet to a § flange by means of a nipple,
and then screwing into the T-piece a length off tube
having at the upper end a gas-cock furnished with a
straight fitting and triangle instead of an elbow. Into
the outlet of the T-piece must be screwed an india-
rubber tube connector (Fig. 47) by means ofa J nipple,
or piece of the screwed part of a nose-piece. The
flange must then be screwed to a block of wood suffi-
ciently large to be steady, having first blocked up the
hole at the back of the flange with A, plug. (See
Fig. 48.)
Fig. 49 represents a star, that is, a number of short
brass tubes fitted with burners screwed into a central
boss finished with a screw-thread to fit iron barrel.
They are made in various sizes. A main-cock is
screwed into the boss, and the iron tube is screwed,
into the upper part of the gas-cock. A cup and ball
should be placed at the top.
It may here be mentioned that iron tube can be
readily bent if made red hot.
Fig. 50 shows an arrangement very much used in [
churches, etc., to enable the gas to be turned very low, I
and yet to be certain it will not quite go out. A is a
main-cock placed in the outlet pipe B B of the meter,
c, c are bent pieces of 5 tube screwed into the pipe
B b, their other ends being screwed, one into the
union, and the other into the body of the gas-cock D.
To fit one up, drill a hole into the pipe on each side of
the main gas-cock, and " tap " each of them with the
I (brass) taper tap. Then take two bent pieces of
^ iron barrel, which when connected by a gas-cock
will reach fron one hole to the other, and having
screwed one end of each into the holes, screw the nut
of the union off the one on to the body of the gas-cock.
If then, while the gas is full on and alight, it be turned
down low at the main-cock A, there will be no fear of
its going out, if the small cock be open, as enough
gas will pass through that to keep it all alight.
In churches and other large buildings, however,
it is advantageous to have more than one main-cock
for turning off, that is, there should be one say, for
the galleries, another for the aisles, and another for
any outside lamps — all these being fitted with the
safety cock just described. This is easily arranged,
as can be seen in Fig. 51. a is a main-cock on the
outlet pipe of the meter. B is a cross screwed into A,
having main-cocks C, C, C screwed into its arms, two of
which are, however, fitted with elbows, to turn all the
pipes in the same direction. Each of the three cocks
shuts off one section of the gas in the church, so that,
for example, the gas can be left full on outside, whilst
inside it can be turned down low. A similar arrange-
ment on a smaller scale can be applied to lodging-
houses, so that when gas is not wished for by a
lodger, it can be turned off outside the room, so as to
prevent surreptitious use.
The following is a list of prices which may be
found useful :
Iron tubing, from 2d. per foot. Fittings for ditto,
from id. upwards. Cast nose-pieces, 4d., 6d. Elbow
ditto, 3d. Barrel unions, f, 4d.; i, 6d.; f, 8d.; £, lid.
Small gas-cocks, 8d. to is. Main ditto, is. 3d. upwards.
Stars, various. Elbows and triangles, 6d. India
rubber tube, 3d per foot upwards.
Fig. 52 shows a pair of universal gas-tongs, that
is, which will fit any size of iron barrel. On looking
at the sketch it will be seen that the movable tongue
B can be moved nearer the hook c by means of the
screw A, and so can be made to fit any pipe that may
be in the hook. The handle must be moved in the
direction of the arrow. It must be remembered,
however, that as one pair of tongs is required for the
pipe and another pair for the socket, two of the
universal tongs would be required for work unless one
pair of ordinary tongs were used. They are rather
expensive (19s. 6d.), and being very heavy, are awkward
to use for small tubes.
WOOD- WORKING MA CH1NER Y FOR AM A TE URS.
4i3
Fig. 53 is an adjustable wrench for screwing up
backnuts, unions, and other flat side fittings. The
movable jaw A can be moved out by screwing the
handle B. They cost from about 2s. upwards.
In conclusion, I would strongly recommend all
tools bought should be of English make, and com-
bination tools should be carefully avoided if good work
is wished for. G. H. Buck, in Edgware Road, is always
to be depended on for having the best tools at low
prices.
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR
AMATEURS.
By A. J. IF. TAYZER, C.E.
(For Illustrations, see Supplement to this Port.)
A Simple Foot-Power Band-Saw Machine.
N the general arrangement of the small
foot-power band-saw machine, a design
for which is given with this number of
Amateur Work, Illustrated, it has
been endeavoured to keep the details of
the machine as simple as possible. To avoid compli-
cation the plan for keeping the saw at a proper
tension has been considerably modified, and so
arranged that the bottom of the screw, Fig. 12 on
drawing, for raising or lowering the top saw wheel,
may be made to rest on a thick india-rubber washer,
which for so small a machine would afford elasticity
enough to allow for the expansion and contraction
of the saw, and also for any jarring to which it may
be subjected during work. A more perfect arrange-
ment, though slighdy more troublesome to make,
would be to coil a spiral spring round Fig. 12,
allowing it to rest on the lower lug shown on the side
view of the column, in this case the screw Fig. 12
must be allowed to pass through the lower, as well as
the top lug, thus allowing the sliding block Fig 7 to
ride upon the spring.
In making patterns for this or any other machine,
the larger pieces should be made in pine, and all
the smaller ones in Spanish mahogany, of course it is
only necessary to make patterns for the cast-iron
work. The wood used must be perfectly dry, or the
patterns will shrink in the sand. For the benefit of
those who may not be conversant with the various
parts composing a band-saw machine, we will here give
a brief description of them as shown in the drawings.
Fig. 1 represents two views of the column or frame
of the machine, it is a flanged casting made all in one
piece, the main frame should be f inch thick, the
side flanges may be | inch or less. The diameters of
the holes given are finished size, they should be cored
out at least i of an inch smaller to give room for boring
out to the exact gauge. The face of the casting on the
top must be either planed, or chipped and filed smooth.
Fig. 2 is the top saw wheel. This should combine
strength with lightness in the greatest possible degree,
the boss of the wheel should be bored out large in
order that a gun-metal bush, Fig. 20, may be inserted
into it. The wheel should be carefully turned and
balanced, and bored out perfectly true, and afterwards
covered with two thicknesses of leather : the first
layer of sole leather which should be riveted through
the periphery of the wheel with copper rivets ; the
second thickness should be of buff leather, and should
be carefully cemented on the first, and finished off
perfectly true upon the pulleys ; the thickness of each
layer should be about -J- inch.
Fig. 3 is the bottom saw wheel, and is similar in
every way to the top one, except that it is keyed fast
on to the spindle, Fig. 17, instead of revolving upon it
like the top wheel. In this wheel, though shown the
same size as Fig. 2 in the drawing for the sake of
uniformity, the boss might be made much shorter
and lighter with advantage. Both saw wheels are of
cast iron.
Fig. 4 is a cast-iron grooved driving-wheel, taking
i. gut band for imparting motion to the saw wheels
through the small cast iron grooved driving pulley.
Fig. 5 is the small cast-iron driving-pulley, which
should be keyed fast on the spindle, Fig. 18, and runs
on the opposite side of the column from the saw wheels.
Fig. 6 are various views and sections of the cast-
iron table which carries the wood to be sawn. It
should be accurately planed on the surface, packing
pieces should be fitted into the opening shown in the
table for the saw to pass through, the side ones may
be made of mahogany but the back one should be of
steel to receive the back thrust of the saw, or a roller
might be fitted into lugs beneath the surface of the
table. On the bottom view of the table are shown
three lugs, the longer one to the right receives the
half-quadrant, Fig. 1 5, for canting the table for bevel
sawing to any desired angle ; the two smaller ones are
bored to receive a spindle which passes through the
boss in the projecting arm of the column upon which
the table is allowed to swivel.
Fig. 7 are several views of the sliding block or
bracket which carries the top saw wheel spindle,
Fig. 16. This block is allowed to rise and fall in the
upper part of the main standard by means of the
hand wheel Fig. 11, and screw Fig. 12. To take up the
slackness of the saw when in work, either a washer of
india-rubber or a spiral spring may be used, as already
explained, to allow automatically for the expansion
and contraction of the saw.
414
ELECTRIC BELLS.
Fig. 8 is a small cast-iron bracket, which is bolted
to the front part of the main frame to carry the saw
guide.
Fig. 9 is the wrought-iron saw-guide. It is fitted
with boxes through which pass pieces of hard wood
serving as guides to the saw during its cut ; the guide
may be raised or lowered through the bracket as
desired, and is held in position by a set screw.
Fig. io is the crank which should be made, in
preference of malleable iron, though it might also be
made of cast, but would be more liable to fracture ; it
should be keyed on to the spindle, Fig. 18, on the oppo-
site side of the main frame from the driving wheel.
Fig. 13 is the treadle, it should be made of
malleable iron, and works on the spindle, Fig. 19,
which should be shrunk and pinned into the boss
shown in the lower part of the main frame.
Fig. 14 is the connecting rod made of wrought iron
for connecting the crank with the treadle.
Fig. 15 is a half-quadrant made of cast-iron, to be
fixed on the longer lug beneath the table.
Fig. 16 is the top saw wheel spindle ; this should be
either of steel or wrought iron, it should be shrunk
and pinned into block Fig. 7, the collar shown upon
it can be either welded or shrunk on. The wheel
revolves upon this spindle, and is kept in position by
a washer and nut, not shown in drawing.
Fig. 17 is a spindle, also either of steel or wrought
iron for the bottom saw wheel. This spindle has the
saw wheel firmly keyed upon one side and the
grooved driving pulley, Fig. 5, upon the other ; the
middle passes through a gun -metal bush, Fig. 21,
fitted into the third boss from the bottom of the main
frame.
Fig. 18 is the spindle for carrying the driving
wheel and crank, which are keyed fast on either end ;
this spindle simply passes through the second boss
from the bottom of the main frame and has no
bush.
Fig. 19 is a small wrought-iron spindle carrying
the treadle, and should be firmly shrunk and pinned
into the first boss on the bottom of the main frame ;
it might also be fastened in a simpler manner by
means of a set screw.
Fig. 20 is the gun-metal bush for top saw wheel
this bush should be keyed into the boss of the wheel_
Fig. 21 is the gun-metal bush for the spindle of the
bottom saw wheel, it should be keyed into the boss on
the main frame ; both these bushes might also be
fastened by means of a feather which can be left on
the casting by tacking a small piece of wood to the
pattern.
Fig. 22 is a thumb-screw, made of wrought iron,
shown full size in the drawing. This screw passes
through the groove shown in the half-quadrant, Fig. 1 5,
nto a hole which should be tapped through the main
frame to receive it, a washer about A of an inch thick
should also be used with it, to prevent the possibility
of its working slack.
Fig. 23 is a wrought-iron thumb-screw, two of
which can be used to keep the wooden packing pieces
or saw guides which pass through the boxes in Fig. 9
in position ; a similar thumb-screw may also be used
in the bracket Fig. 8, in the place of a set-screw for
fixing the guide at any required height. If the
spindles of the machine are of wrought iron it is
necessary to be particular to see that they be made
of sound material, and entirely free from seams. As
a small machine of this description must of necessity
run only at a slow speed, and as the work is not
heavy, and if economy be an object the gun-metal
bushes for top saw wheel and bottom saw wheel
spindle may be dispensed with, in which case, the
boss of the wheel in one case must be accurately
bored to receive the spindle, and the boss on the
frame in the other. Care must also be taken that
holes be drilled in the bosses, so as to provide efficient
means of keeping the spindles well lubricated.
ELECTRIC BELLS.
By GEORGE EDWWSON.
III.— The Battery.
|HE bell being made and adjusted, we have
next to turn our attention to the selection
or manufacture of a suitable battery to
work it, and in this must be guided by
the nature and duration of the work to
be done by the bell. The battery usually sold with
electric bells by their makers, is composed of two
cells of the form known as the Le'clanche' battery, so
called from the name of its inventor (a Frenchman),
but this is only one of several forms of manganese
batteries. This type of battery is the best for small
bells, where an intermittent current only is required —
that is to say, where the bell only requires to be rung
for a few seconds at a time, with intervals of several
minutes, hours or days between. When bells are to
be in constant use, as in hotels, warehouses, etc., it is
necessary to be provided with a battery of another
type, which I will notice as we proceed. The main
principles to guide us in the choice of a battery, are
those of pushing power and constancy. We must
have enough current to attract the armature and
hammer with sufficient force to give a smart stroke to
the bell, enough power to force that current through
the leading wires and connections, and enough con-
stancy to ensure the same power bein always at our
ELECTRIC BELLS.
415
command, for, if this is liable to fail at any moment
within a period of a few months from the time of set-
ting up the system, we lose confidence in the bell as a
sentinel or servant. It is sometimes profitable to
study a question from a negative point of view, and it
will be well for us to do so here, in a brief review of
those batteries
which are not suit-
able for electric
bells.
The Daniell in
its many forms
would be an ex-
cellent ' batter)' on
account of the mild-
ness and constancy
of its current, but
it is unsuitable, be-
cause it is trouble-
some to keep in
order. When left
to itself for any
length of time its
salts crystallise out
over the tops of
the cells and the
connecting screws,
destroying every-
thing within their
reach. This
troublesome action
is known by the
name of exosmose,
and is apt to ex-
tend so far as to
cause an entire
cessation of work —
through corrosion
of the connecting
wires, disruption of
the porous cells,
and intrusion of
the copper salt into
the zinc compart-
ment. Some forms
of this battery are
used in such con-
stant work as controlling clocks and working con-
tinuous electric and telegraph signals, but better
batteries have been found to work electric bells. The
nitric acid batteries invented by Professors Grove
and Bunsen, are not available for this work, because
of the noxious fumes given off whilst at work, the
corrosive action of those fumes on all connections,
the consequent trouble to keep them in order, and
the too powerful character of their current. A similar
objection cuts off the single fluid bichromate batteries
in addition to their known inconstancy, whilst this
latter feature condemns the use of the Smee and
Walker cells for this purpose.
We want a cell or battery, then, that will be al-
ways ready to sup-
ply current to our
bells in such a form
as to ring them
effectually, without
burning the contact
points of the ap-
paratus or corrod-
ing the connections.
We want to set up
this battery, and
feel sure that it will
be in order, ready
for use at any time
within the next
three or six months,
without daily or
even weekly atten-
tion. Such a bat-
tery has been found,
and is represented
by the various
forms in which
m a g a n e s e sur-
rounds the negative
element, the lead-
ing type being the
Ldclanche' cell,
shown at Fig. 23.
This cell is com-
posed of an outer
containing glass
vessel, two-thirds
filled with a half-
saturated solution
of sal-ammoniac, in
which dips a rod of
zinc to form the
positive element,
and a pot of porous
white earthenware
containing a strip of carbon packed in position with
a mixture of broken carbon and peroxide of manga-
nese. This form is patented, and the manufacture
of the cells is undertaken in England by a telegraph
company at Silvertown in Essex.
The cells may be bought of most dealers in elec-
trical apparatus at the following prices:- —
No. 1, 1 pint cells, 3s. 6d. to 4s., complete.
fig. 31.
FIG. 23. — LECLANCHE CELL COMPLETE. FIG. 24. — SECTION OF POROUS CELL
SHOWING CONSTRUCTION. FIG. 25. — CARBON PLATE FOR POROUS CELL
FITTED WITH LEAD HEAD AND BINDING SCREW. FIG. 26. — ZINC ROD FOR
OUTER CELL. FIG. 27. — CARBON PLATE AS PLACED IN MOULD TO RECEIVE
LEAD HEAD. FIG. 28. — METHOD OF PREPARING CARBON TO RECEIVE
ELECTROTYPED HEAD. FIG. 29. — SECTION OF GAS BARREL MOULD FOR
ZINC ROD, SHOWING METHOD OF INSERTING CONNECTING WIRE. FIG. 30. —
MOULD TIED WITH STRING OR WIRE, READY FOR USE. FIG. 31. — PLAN OF
CONNECTING CELLS IN SERIES TO FORM BATTERY.
416
ELECTRIC BELLS.
No. 2, 2 pint cells, 4s. 6d. to 6s. 6d., complete.
No. 3, 3 pint cells, 6s. to 8s. 6d. „
The sizes indicate the capacity of the outer cell,
with the porous pot in position. It will be noticed
that the price increases in excess of the increase in
size, this is caused by the additional capacity of
larger porous cells as follows: —
No. I, size of porous cell 4! by 2 inches.
No. 2 „ „ 6 by 2$ „
No. 3 „ „ 7 by 3 „
Some dealers sell the cells in two conditions —
viz., sealed and unsealed ; others sell the porous cells
charged ready for use apart from the outer con-
taining pots. As the glass cell is not an essential
part of the battery, it may be easily replaced by one of
stoneware, and a good working manganese battery
made up as follows : Procure any ordinary stoneware
pot, a salt jar will do, or the containing pot of any
other battery, also get a pot of porous earthenware of
an equal height, and a diameter proportionate to that
of the outer cell — that is to say, the charged porous pot
should go into the outer cell, and leave from £ inch to
J inch space all round it. This porous pot and its
charge demands our particular attention, for it is the
essential part of the battery ; we therefore see that it
is free from flaws and cracks, and not charged with
salts from other forms of batteries. All being right in
this direction, we must get a plate of carbon wide
enough to slip easily into the cell, and long enough to
stand A inch above the top; this must be prepared to
resist the creeping action of the battery salt which will
otherwise creep up and destroy the binding screw and
connections. There are two methods of preparation —
one by melting lead around the top of the carbon to
imbed the binding screw in a head of lead, the other
by electro-depositing copper on the top of the carbon
plate, and soldering the screw thereto. To do the first,
get some lead and some fine sand, melt the lead in a
ladle, well dry the carbon, fix the binding screw to it
and stick it upside down in the sand, then press
the carbon into the sand to the depth of f inch
and mould a cavity around it for the lead, clear
all the sand away from the carbon and pour in lead
to form the head, as shown in Fig. 27. When it comes
out of the mould it will be rough, so we trim it up with
an old knife and a rasp file, and coat it with Brunswick
black before it is quite cold. To electro-deposit a
head of copper, we merely suspend the carbon by a
copper wire to the negative pole of a Daniell oraSmee
battery, and cause about an inch of the carbon to dip
into a saturated solution of sulphate of copper, then
we dip a strip of copper into the same solution and
attach it to the positive pole to form an anode, and pass
a current through the solution until the immersed end
of carbon is completely covered with a film of copper.
This must be then withdrawn, rinsed in water and
dried, the binding screw soldered to it in the usual
way of soldering with soft solder, and the whole
covered with Brunswick black. The copper will be
better secured if we first prepare the carbon as follows :
Take a rasp file and score a few notches in the part to
receive the copper, also bore a hole through the top of
the plate, and tightly insert a peg of copper, then take
a piece of paraffin, i.e., solid paraffin, and melt it by
the aid of a hot iron well into the carbon in a line
around the carbon, represented by the dotted line in
Fig. 28. When the copper has been deposited, we
must bore a few holes in it, and soak it in water to
remove any of the copper salts remaining under it in
the pores of the carbon.
The strip of carbon thus prepared, Fig. 25, is now
to be placed in the porous cell, and packed in position
in the centre of the cell, with a mixture of peroxide
of manganese and small lumps of carbon, and the cell
filled up to the dark shaded part shown in sketch,
Fig. 24. The preparation of this mixture is as
follows : Get some retort carbon, i.e., the carbon found
in gas retorts, and break it into small pieces, about the
size of peas, then sift out all dust from them. Also
procure some best black needle manganese, or the
same in small lumps, also of the size of peas, and sift
the dust from lumps. Then mix the carbon and man-
ganese together in equal parts by weight, or better
still use a spoon to take up the ingredients, and pack
the carbon with equal alternate layers of broken
carbon and manganese — that is to say, put in a
spoonful of broken carbon on each side of the carbon
strip, then a spoonful of manganese on each side, and
so on until the cell is full. Then seal it with a layer
of molten pitch (shaded black in sectional sketch of
porous cell) and set aside to cool. When the pitch
seal is cool and firm, it must be pierced with two holes,
one on each side of the carbon ; this is effected with a
pointed iron wire made hot and thrust into the seal,
and down to the depth of £ inch into the mixture
beneath. The top of the cell must now be painted
with Brunswick black to prevent the ammonia salts
from creeping up outside, and to impart a finished
appearance to the cell.
As the manganese used in charging the porous
cells of those batteries is not unfrequently adulterated
with inferior ingredients and valueless oxides of this
metal, the purchaser should be careful to state that
he requires pure black peroxide of manganese, or
binoxide of manganese in needle form, or in the form
of coarse grain, known also under the names of man-
ganese deutoxide, and pyrolusile. The inferior oxides
are the red oxide, housmannite, the sesquioxide,
mangattite or braunite, and a glistening black oxide
named varvicite. The price of the black peroxide of
ELECTRIC BELLS.
4i7
manganese varies with different vendors, one price
list offering the best lump manganese at 4d. per lb.,
whilst another offers the best needle manganese at is.
per lb. Porous cells can be purchased ready charged
for use from 2s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. per cell. Mr. Blackwell,
of 26, Chapel Street, Liverpool, supplies manganese of
guaranteed purity, and every other requisite for making
up manganese batteries.
The next part requiring attention, is that of the
zinc bolt to form the positive element of the cell.
Any little strip of zinc will serve the purpose for a
short time, and in home-made cells formed out of salt
jars, a narrow strip cut from an ordinary battery plate
will do as well as a rod. It is not necessary to have a
large zinc surface in this form of battery — indeed, some
manipulators aver that a small rod is best. The rod
shown in sketch (Fig. 26) is that usually employed in
the approved forms of this battery, and can be bought
from most dealers at a price varying from 6d. to is.,
according to size. The experience of those amateurs
who have tried to cast their own zinc rods, show that
it pays better to buy them than to make them at home,
but, as this will not be likely to satisfy my readers, I
will give them directions for their guidance in casting
the rods. Zinc will melt at a temperature of 4120
Cent., or 7750 Fahr., or at a dull red heat, it may there-
fore be melted in an iron ladle in an ordinary stove,
or fire with a good draught ; but it will be well not to
melt it in an iron ladle, because the ladle will henceforth
be totally ruined for the purpose of melting solder, and
the zinc melted therein, will be alloyed with iron.
For a similar reason the zinc must not be melted at a
blacksmith's forge. A convenient mould may be made
out of a length of gas barrel split in two parts length-
wise. This may be done with a slitting file or by a tool
known as a hacksaw, the barrel being held in a vice
whilst we slit it. The two halves must then be
smooth filed, smeared inside with tallow, and bound
together with twine or fine wire, if the former, we must
bed the mould in sand, or in ashes whilst casting the
zinc, else the twine will burn before the rod is cast.
The wire which forms a connecting strip between the
cells, is cast in the zinc rod. To do this, take a piece
of thick copper wire (about No. 10 or 12 B. W. G.) of
7 inches in length, insert 1 or 2 inches in the lower
end of the mould, and secure the wire in its place in
the centre of the mould with a plug of hard clay, then
bend the free end of the wire up by the side of the
mould (see Figs. 29 and 30), and bed the latter in its
position for pouring. Melt the zinc in an old fireclay
or plumbago crucible, well stir it with a green stick
whilst it is melting, and when the greenish white
fumes are coming off from its surface, throw on a
little powdered resin, skim back the dross with the
stick, and pour the molten zinc into the mould. The
fumes are poisonous, and must therefore be avoided
as much as possible, hence the necessity of melting
zinc in a fireplace having a good draught.
When the mould is cool, it may be taken apart, the
zinc rod trimmed and filed, the copper wire covered
with tarred tape or with melted gutta-percha up to
within 1 inch of the end, and the top of the rod
covered with a coat of Brunswick black. If a strip of
zinc is destined to form the positive element instead of
a rod of that metal, the copper wire should be soldered
to it, and then receive similar treatment to that of the
rod in preparing it for the battery. It is not necessary
to amalgamate the zinc rod, although this is done by
some persons.
The various parts of the battery being ready, we
have now to put them together. Some of the Bruns-
wick black will have got on the binding screw on top
of the carbon, and on the wire leading from the zinc
just at those points where we wish to connect them
with the line wires. We must clean off the black with
an old knife and a piece of emery cloth. Take a pint
of rain-water, dissolve sal-ammoniac in it until it will
dissolve no more, then add another pint of rain-water
to it and it will form a half-saturated solution of sal-
ammoniac. Place the porous pot in position, then the
zinc rod, then two-thirds fill the outer pot with the
sal-ammoniac solution, pour a little water into the
holes left in the pitch seal, and the battery will be
ready for work. It matters but very little whether
carbon or zinc is connected to the line wire which
leads to the + or — screw of the bell, one element
must be connected to one line, and the other element
to the corresponding line wire. In connecting up the
cells in series, form the clean end of the wire from the
zinc into a loop or eye, pass it over the binding screw
of the carbon in the next cell, and secure it there as
shown in sketch.
Before buying or making an electric bell battery
we must take into consideration the amount of work
likely to be required of the battery, and here I may
explain that two cells, one within the other as shown in
Fig. 23, do not in themselves constitute a battery, but
merely one cell of a battery, although for the sake of
convenience we name it a battery when used by itself
As in choosing a team of horses for the purpose of
drawing a waggon load of goods to market, we should
have regard to the weight of the load and the state of
the road, selecting heavy horses for a heavy load, and
a long team to mount steep hills, so, in choc sing a
battery we proportion the size of the cells to the
size of the bell, and the number of cells to the
probable resistance of the circuit. The work done by
an electro-magnet, such as that used in electric bells
is effected by the resistance which its coils offer to the
passage of the electric current, and the power of that
4i8
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
current to overcome resistance, and, as friction is
necessary as a factor to promote motion in machinery,
so is resistance to produce mechanical effects from an
electric current. But the resistance of the circuit of
an electric bell may be divided into two parts or
qualities — viz., efficient and inefficient resistance.
Efficient resistance is that offered by the magnet and
the apparatus itself, and is necessary to the working
of the bell. Inefficient resistance is that offered by
the line wires, battery terminals, and other parts of
the circuit, apart from the battery and the bell. It is
even necessary to balance the resistance of the battery
with that of the circuit, including the apparatus to be
worked by it, in calculating the efficiency of the work ;
but I will not go into that matter here. I have
already said enough to show that the resistance of the
line wires is not necessary to the proper working of
the bell, and therefore economical considerations will
suggest that this resistance should be reduced to a
minimum. But we cannot do without line wires, and
we must have them led from the battery and the
signalling station to the bell, wherever that bell may
be. Then, as the resistance of the fine wire increases
in proportion to its length, even as a road does by the
steepness of its hills, we must seek to overcome the
resistance by putting more cells into the battery in
tandem, or, as electricians term it, in series. Hence
if a 2j-inch bell can be rung satisfactorily through a-
circuit of a dozen yards by the current from one cell,
we shall require two cells (coupled up as shown Fig.
31) to ring the bell when placed at a distance of 25
yards, and the three cells to work it at a distance of
50 or do yards. Here the similitude between the
battery and a team of horses fails, for the addition
of cells in series has an inverse value to that of
increasing a team in tandem, each additional cell
added in series gives a large increase of pushing
power to the current. This subject will come before
us again when treating of the line wires, so I will not
continue it here.
Other forms of manganese batteries have found
favour with electricians beside that known as the
Le'clanche". For instance, there is the Le'clanche
reversed (used to ring large bells in hotels, etc.)
wherein the zinc rod goes into the porous pot, this is
placed in the centre of a stoneware cell, a strip of
carbon also goes into the outer pot whilst the space
between its sides and those of the porous cell is
packed with the mixture of broken carbon and
manganese, and the porous cell is charged with the
solution of sal-ammoniac. Then there is the Grenet
cell, wherein a canvas bag is substituted for the pot of
porous earthenware, and common salt for that of sal-
ammoniac. Readers out of the way may try this
form, but it does not compare favourably with those
in which porous pots are used. The makers and
patentees of the Le'clanche have also introduced a new
form difficult to imitate, wherein they use agglomerate
blocks composed of 40 per cent, manganese, 50 per
cent, crushed carbon, and 10 per cent, shellac, moulded
together and submitted to a pressure of two tons to
the inch whilst hot. Some firms make up their own
manganese cells, and by modifying the amount,
quality, condition, etc., of carbon and manganese, or
of the cells, evade the patent rights — in fact, the use of
manganese for battery purposes, not being itself the
subject of a patent, is free to all, the honour
of discovering its application to this purpose being
due to M. de Rive, not to M. Le'clanche".
PHOTOGRAPHY :
ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
By ARCHER CLARKE.
will carefully peruse the three
IV.— Manipulations.
N resuming this series of papers on Photo-
graphy, unavoidably interrupted through
the serious illness of Mr. T. Dunman,
who unfortunately has since died, the
writer has to imagine, in a great mea-
sure, the plan the author intended to pursue.
If the amateur
papers written by
Mr. Dunman, he
will find Apparatus
is described in Part
I. of this work,
Chemicals in Part
II., and the Dark
Room in Part III.;
whilst to those who
are skilled in cabi-
net work, Mr. J.
Parkinson, in Part
VII., shows how to
make a capital
camera, with dark
slide and tripod
stand, all of the
most approved and
modern pattern.
We will now suppose apparatus bought or made,
chemicals obtained from a photographic chemist,
or from some photo dealer. And here let me
most earnestly warn the amateur from trying to
obtain his chemicals from the ordinary chemist's
shop, as failure is almost sure to follow. The drugs
they sell are doubtless good enough for a physician's
12. — TIN BISCUIT-BOX CONVERTED
INTO A DARK LANTERN.
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
419
THE DIPPER.
prescription, but useless to the photographer, who
wants what he asks for, and that in a fresh condition ;
for even such a common article as distilled water, if
obtained from an ordinary druggist's, is almost sure
to be contaminated, and so rendered chemically unfit
for use.
After this, the next sub-
ject on the list is the Dark
Room. Should one not
have been made, a make-
shift may be put up with,
as the season is so far ad-
vanced, and we are anxious
not to further delay. Any
room, sbed, cupboard, cel-
lar that white light can be stopped out of, and the win-
dows covered with non-actinic, ruby or orange paper
— a small window of say 18 inches
to 2 feet square will require one
thickness, but anything above that
size should have at least two thick-
nesses, and if a south light, it is
possible three will not be found
too many; if the place chosen has
no window, such as a cellar, a dark
lantern is needed. A tin biscuit-
box with a glass front, to be ob-
tained in any grocer's shop, is
easily converted into a lantern in
every way suitable for the purpose.
Cover over the glass with one
thickness of the non-actinic paper:
the best way to attach it is to
thoroughly brush boiled oil over the
paper some eight or twelve hoars
before fixing, it will now adhere
without further trouble, and is much more transparent,
and still, strange to say, more trustworthy. For
daylight the paper goes on inside the room, but for
artificial light outside the
lantern. A small chimney,
say 8 or 9 inches high, by
i£ in diameter, must be at-
tached to carry off the pro-
ducts of combustion ; this
should be made after the
principle of a magic-lantern
chimney, as shown in Fig.
12, so that no white light escapes. As Mr. Dunman
has previously observed, foggy pictures are very fre-
quently produced by the amateur, and the one great
cause of this is white light affecting the plate.
Therefore be careful.
Now to actual practice. Chemicals all mixed,
glass cleaned, camera fixed and focussed — ray on a
FIG. 16. — MAT FOE
MOUNTING PLATE.
FIG. 13. — METHOD
PLATE WITH
FIG. 15.— RACK USED IN
DRYING PLATE.
bust, an engraving, or a sitter — it is best at first to
have an inanimate object, an excelled subject is one
of the large bills issued by auctioneers, nailed or pasted
on a board, this hung against the wall or standing in
a chair either in the garden or in a well-lighted room,
gives you a very steady " sitter."
To pour the collodion on the
glass plate ; this can be done in
the light, say standing at your dark
room door. Take the piece of
glass, previously cleaned, you in-
tend to make your picture on, and
henceforward called the plate, pass
the dusting-brush (page 58) over it
back and front, holding the plate in
the left hand by one corner, as shown in Fig. 13.
Now take the collodion bottle in the right hand, and
with the little finger of the left hand
remove the cork or stopper, still
holding the plate ; then turn the
left hand so that the plate is quite
flat or level. Pour at least twice to
three times as much collodion as
you think will be required ; incline
the plate the least trifle to No. 1
corner, then to Nos. 2 and 3 (Fig.
13), and as it reaches No. 4, insert
that corner in the mouth of the
bottle ; the surplus is poured off
gently, not raising the plate above
an angle of 45 degrees. Rock the
plate to and fro, to prevent streaks
forming, and to aid the even
deposit of the collodion film now
on the plate. When set, incline
to a horizontal position for a few
seconds. To tell if set, touch the surface at
one corner ; it should receive the impression of
the finger without tearing \ — - ,
away. It is now ready to be
immersed in the bath (see
page 56). Close the dark
room door, as this and any
subsequent operation must
be conducted in non-actinic
light.
To excite the film, known as
sensitising the plate, remove ™. 17-— preserver for
the bath cover (page 57), and
raise the dipper from the bath with the right hand.
Place the plate on the ledge or prongs, and gently
lower with one even steady movement ; the least
pause will cause a straight line to appear on the
finished negative. I need hardly say the uncoated
side of the plate rests against the dipper (Fig. 14).
S 2
OF COATING GLASS
COLLODION.
420
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
Now replace the bath cover, and if not done before,
cork the collodion, as this substance, being composed
of ether, alcohol, etc., evaporates if left uncorked.
The time the plate is left in the bath varies. With a
new bath, and at this season of the year, two to
three minutes is sufficient. If the collodion gets thick
do not immerse so quickly as if thin, and in damp or
cold weather the plate takes longer to set ; so it takes
longer to excite the film.
After the plate has been in the bath one minute, it
is gently moved up and down ; do not take it out of
the nitrate of silver solution until the moving has been
continued some few seconds. Now raise the plate up,
still retaining it on the dipper, and just glance at it.
The plate will be sure to look what is known as
"greasy," i.e., the silver solution will be in patches and
drops, return plate and dipper at once to the bath, and
at the end of one or two minutes look again. If now the
film is perfectly smooth and a nice cream colour, it is
ready for use ; if not smooth, but still oily-looking, let
it remain a little longer, say another thirty seconds.
Then gently raise the plate, letting the surplus bath
solution drain back. Take the plate off the dipper,
and stand it upside down (that is, No. 3 and 4 corners
at the top) on a filter paper against the wall. Take
the dark slide, and at the four angles of which small
pieces of filter or blotting-paper have been placed, to
receive any moisture, gently lay it face downwards ;
cover the back of the glass with blotting-paper ; shut
the door or shutter of the dark slide, and the plate is
ready for the next operation of receiving the image, as
seen on the ground-glass of the camera.
To Expose the Film. — The subject or sitter having
been placed in position (see page 31), previous to
coating the plate, and a final adjustment made whilst
the plate was sensitising, all being now ready, the
cap is placed on the lens ; then the focussing screen,
known as the ground-glass, removed, and the dark
slide inserted in its place. If you have a live sitter,
it is as well to just see all is right before removing the
ground-glass. Previous to drawing up the shutter of
the dark slide, cover it well over with the focussing
cloth (see page 34), otherwise light will get to the film.
Now uncap the lens, and with a watch take the
seconds. After the exposure is over, re-cap the lens,
and shut down very gently the sliding shutter of the
dark slide, or the drainings of the plate may splash up.
Remove from the camera into dark room, and replace
the focussing screen in its place.
Time of Exposure. — There is nothing in the whole
range of photographic manipulations more important
nor anything that goes to make or unmake a perfect
picture, than the correct time the plate is exposed to
the light passing through the lens. With a portrait
combination (see page 33), a half-length or bust
picture taken out of doors, would require about three
to five seconds with the second or third sized stop or
diaphragms inserted in the lens, counting from the
largest : but if an animal, say a cat or dog, is to be
the subject, place them in sunlight, and it is probable
the mere taking the cap on and off will be sufficient.
Again, suppose a landscape is attempted and a small
stop used, it will depend then if an open subject, or
not, be chosen ; suppose we suggest a view from one
of the bed-room windows, taking care the window is
open and the sun at our back, or at least at the side,
so as not to shine into the lens, but on to the view,
about twenty to twenty-five seconds ought to suffice,
unless a very open view, then less. By practice, a
sort of instinct grows on the photographer, and so,
according to the light, he gives twenty or thirty
seconds. The brightness or vice versli of the image
on the ground-glass is a very fair guide, supposing
the light is constant. After rain the light is very
actinic. More will be said on this subject later on.
To Develop the Image. — A small quantity, say one
ounce, of developing solution (seepage 57) is poured
into a small glass measure, known as developing cups,
the plate is withdrawn from the dark slide and held
in the left hand by No. 4 corner (see Fig. 13), over the
sink or basin, carefully pour over the plate some of
the developing solution,* starting at the left hand
bottom edge, and with a rapid motion pass the cup
along that edge, not touching it, however, and at the
same time make the solution flow over the plate in
one even wave, spilling as little as possible of the
solution off the plate. In a few seconds, supposing
the sitter to have been a lady or gentleman, the cuff,
collar, and other white portions will appear. Then the
face, hands, and so on till the whole of the subject is
well out on the plate. It is advisable to gently rock
the liquid on the plate to and fro, as it helps to prevent
stains and increases the density of the deposit. If a
positive is aimed at, use the first developer mentioned
at page 57, and reduce the exposure at least one-third
to what has been mentioned, and stop the develop-
ment by pouring water upon the plate, before you see
all the details come out, or come up, as the profession
calls it. Should a negative be desired, then use the
second-named developer and take care to develop iv ell
out, remembering it is the commixture of the solution
on and in the film with the developer that produces the
picture, and not the developing solution alone. It is
the free silver on and in the plate that builds up the
image. When all the details are developed out, the
* Methylated spirit is now sufficiently pure for photographic
use. That sold by grocers as "burning spirit" — i.e. , for the
little spirit cooking stoves— is the proper sort. Do not buy
methylated finish ; it is vile stuff, except to thin down paint.
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
421
plate is washed under a moderate stream of water from
a tap or jug, and in the case of a positive is now fixed,
that is, the unaltered iodide of silver has to be re-
moved. This is effected by cyanide of potassium. The
best plan is to have a similar sort of bath without the
case, as Fig. 7, page 57, for, like the silver or sensitising
bath, the cyanide can be used over and over again, whilst
the developing solution once used, goes down the sink,
and the developing cups are well washed out. After
the plate has been fixed, which may be seen by the
cream colour disappearing from the shadows and from
the plate, it is well washed and set up to dry. There
are small racks sold for that purpose (Fig. 1 5). The
plate can be dried at once by gentle fire heat or let dry
spontaneously. If a positive, the film side is varnished
with crystal varnish, the glass side or back of the pic-
ture with black varnish or a piece of black velvet ; it
is then mounted in what are termed mats (Fig. 16),
and preservers (Fig. 17). The frame, or preserver, is
laid on a table, then a piece of glass fitted into it, then
the mat laid on the glass, and lastly the varnished
positive is placed in, the edges of the preserver turned
down, and the whole is ready for the little frame.
Such is the brief history of a positive.
To Return to the Negative. — This will require to
be strengthened or as it is often called redeveloped or
intensified. The film having been thoroughly washed,
the negative has poured over it a small quantity of a
solution : Pyrogallic acid, 12 grains ; citric acid, 20
grains ; water, 10 ounces. A little of this, say half an
ounce, in a clean developing cup, not the one used for
developing — these cups are generally sold in nests of
three — is poured over the plate a few times. Then
drain back into the cup, and add three or four drops
of silver solution made thus : Nitrate of silver, 20
grains ; distilled water, 1 ounce. Flow this over the
plate until the high light grows denser. If the solu-
tion turns very muddy throw it away and make a
fresh lot. Wash and fix as for a positive; the plate
may now see daylight. After fixing wash again. Dry
and varnish with negative varnish. These varnishes
are best bought ready made, as indeed, everything
should be at first by amateurs.
In a future number instructions for a good well-
tried negative varnish will be given, one the writer has
used in commercial practice for over fifteen years.
In the next part Photographic Printing and Toning
will be considered, and the names, with addresses, of a
few of the best houses for amateurs to deal with.
(To be continued?)
*»* The appearance of the above article from the pen of
Mr. Archer Clarke will be a sufficient answer to all corre-
spondents who have written to inquire when the series of
papers on " Photography," commenced by the late Mr. T.
Uunman, would be resumed. — Ed.
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
By PAUL N. HASLUCK.
IV.— The Poppit-head ; How to Bore Headstoeks.
HE last chapter contained a description of
a back-gear headstock, which was illus-
trated by Figs. 7 and 8. The poppit-
head belonging to the headstock before
described, is shown in Fig. 10. It is 4J
inch centre, and drawn to the same scale as Fig. 7
on page 200. It is scarcely necessary to repeat that
these lathe heads are manufactured by The Britannia
Company, Colchester, and that particulars as to prices
may be obtained by direct application, enclosing a
stamp for reply. By the way, this payment for the
postage of a reply is a system that amateurs should
adopt more generally. I say advisedly more generally,
because I believe that when asking for information,
frequently purely for their own benefit, people enclose
a stamp for reply only in exceptional cases. To any
one wanting certain information, a penny is not a
severe tax ; but to be called upon to give information
gratuitously, and in addition to find stationery and
pay postage, is an unwarrantable imposition on any-
one's good nature. With a publication, the answering
of queries forms part of its existence, and no charge is
made for the information afforded, beyond the price
of the issue. With a private individual, the matter is
quite different ; and judging from personal experience,
which is amply confirmed by inquiry of others, I am
induced to bring the subject thus prominently before
my readers, though I do not claim for it a place under
" Lathe-making for Amateurs." Let this hint suffice
to explain why in some cases queries are unanswered.
Now to return to our subject.
The poppit-head shown at Fig. 10 is a necessary
part of any lathe, on which work is to be turned be-
tween centres. It is also used when drilling, to force
the work against the drill. The barrel, a small piece
of which is shown projecting at the right hand end, is
actuated by the leading screw to which the hand-
wheel is fixed. The projecting end of the barrel is
bored out to hold centres of various forms, adapted
for different purposes. In some poppit barrels the
hole is screwed to take the centres, but the screwing
has no point to recommend it, and is in many ways
less desirable than a coned hole. In times gone by
the lathe-makers probably considered that centres
would be held more firmly by being screwed in, but
now the fallacy of the idea is established. A plain
cone fitting is excellent for many purposes, and I have
seen lathes having only a plain cone for the nose on
which the chucks fitted, and on which they were fixed
by a gentle pressure.
422
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
A few dimensions of the poppit illustrated will be
useful. The extreme length of the base is 5! inches,
that is the part that rests on the lathe bed ; the width
is 3j inches. The cylindrical part, which is bored
out to receive the barrel, measures 6^ inches long and
is 1 1 inches in diameter. The cap on the end is
\ inch long and if inch in diameter ; this cap is held
by four small screws put in radially. The cap is to
confine the lateral motion of the leading screw, of
which more later on. The upright pieces from the
base to support the cylinder are fully half an inch
fhick, the space between them is 4 inches. The
angles are filled in with corner pieces to strengthen
the casting. The base has two small lugs projecting
in the centre, which are fitted between the ways of the
bed ; these lugs are half an inch deep, and are planed
or filed to the width of the bed. The small boss in
the centre is to strengthen the part around the hold-
ing down bolt. The hand-wheel on the end of the
screw is \\ inches in diameter, the rim is circular.
Five arms radiate from the central boss. The small
handle shown projecting from the rim is about 2
inches long, and frequently is not used in engineers' '
lathes.
The hole through the centre of the cylindrical part
is bored out parallel and smooth about 1 inch in
diameter, and it is essential for executing accurate
turning that this hole be bored true with the base.
That is so that when the poppit-head is fixed on the bed,
it shall have the barrel quite parallel, both vertically and
horizontally, with the surface of the bed. In practice
the hole is frequently bored first, so as to get it central
in the cylindrical part of the casting, and the base is
afterwards made true with the boring. This is the
method best suited to amateur lathe-makers. The
poppit is bored first, then the base is filed to fit the
lathe bed, and at the same time adjusted to make the
boring true with the bed. This accomplished, a boring
bar is fitted into the poppit-head and used to bore the
holes in the mandrel headstock, the base of which has
been previously fitted to the bed. For boring the hole
for the front collar, the poppit is placed in its usual
position, that is on the right of the headstock. The '
positions of the headstocks are reversed for boring the
hole for the back collar. The poppit is fixed on the
left of the headstock, and the boring bar is used from
the front end of the poppit.
This method of boring the mandrel headstock
ensures parallelism in the mandrel bearings, providing
the boring of the poppit-head has first been accurately
adjusted. This adjustment is done by filing the base
of the poppit so as to bring the boring level with the
bed. The lugs fitting between the beds are also filed
so as to bring the boring in a straight line with the
bed. A straight parallel bar, say two or three feet long,
fitted in the boring, will show the adjustment that is
necessary. A very slight error in the length of the
poppit will appear greatly magnified when the bar is
inserted. The eye alone will show any error that is
appreciable in practice. Viewed from above, the bar
should appear in a straight line with the central space
along the bed. Viewed horizontally both ends of the
bar should appear equidistant from the top of the
lathe bed ; this distance may be gauged by measure-
ment, but the practised eye will show any appreciable
error.
Perfect truth in the line of centres, that is absolute
coincidence of the axis of rotation of the work with
the bed along which the headstocks slide, is essential
for good and true work when done with the slide-rest
The subject, therefore, is of great importance. Lathes
that are cheaply or carelessly made, frequently have
the axis of the mandrel and the axis of the poppit
barrels not in a straight line with each other, and,
moreover, sometimes neither axis is parallel with the
bed. These defects seriously interfere with the pro-
duction of good work. If true work is required, time
spent in correcting fundamental errors will be well
employed. Some manufacturers bore the two head-
stocks of a lathe quite independently of each other,
and though each may be correct when considered
alone, yet they do not necessarily correspond. The
method of boring the mandrel head by the aid of the
poppit-head which is previously got true by gauging,
answers very well for the requirements of an amateur.
Manufacturers of quantities of lathes use a more
expeditious and equally good method. Some dummy
headstocks are prepared to serve as bearings for a
boring bar fitted to them, so that it revolves perfectly
true with the lathe bed. The headstocks to be bored,
are first drilled roughly to allow the boring bar to pass
through, they are then bolted to the bed, the bearings
for the bar are also fixed, and the bar is put through
the whole. The bar has various mortised holes in it
into which small cutters, adapted to bore the various
holes required in the castings are fitted The bar is
made to revolve by a crank handle, or more frequently
by steam power, and it is then fed through the castings.
By this plan, the various holes for poppit barrel, front
collar, and back collar, are bored perfectly true to each
other, and to the bed on which they are fixed. It is
only when several lathes of uniform size are to be
made, that the expense of a boring bar, and the
necessary paraphernalia belonging to it can be
judiciously incurred. Consequently, this method of
boring out the headstocks, is not the one to be
practised by amateurs.
With every appliance within reach the fallowing
method would be the one that I shoulc adopt for
boring a single pair of headstocks, working as an
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
42
amateur. I make this distinction because an amateur
has for his chief aim the production of good work, the
time and trouble spent on the production are of
secondary importance. A professional has for his
chief aim getting money, and economy of time means
a larger margin of profit. For this reason principally
things are manufactured in large numbers. Anyone
making, say, a dozen lathes alike, should produce
them much more cheaply, proportionately, than one
making only a single lathe. For boring a pair of
headstocks, as an amateur, I should commence opera-
tions on the poppit-head I should make an ex-
amination of the casting generally with a view to
seeing that it was sound and fairly true. If seriously
defective in either respect, I should consider any
labour spent upon it as waste of time. Having a good
casting, the hole for the barrel has to be bored first.
In some castings the hole is cored out, but in others
the cylindrical part is solid. If the hypothetical
casting that we have in hand is solid, the two ends o
the cylindrical part are carefully
centred and a hole bored completely
through. About f or J inch dia-
meter will be a suitable size for a
headstock from 4 to 6 inch centre,
but we will now confine ourselves to
4£ inch lathe heads. A hole being
bored or cored through the poppit
mount it on a lathe between centres,
chucked by the boring. The poppit
will swing on a 5j inch lathe. Set
the machine going, and observe if the
cylindrical part of the poppit runs
true, taking a general average of the whole length, it
will be easy to adjust the truth by merely chamfering
the edge of the hole at either end as may be wanted.
When the cylindrical part of the poppit-head runs
true, oil the centres, and with a tool in the slide-
rest turn the two ends true on the circumference and
on the face, rounding off the extreme corner slightly.
This operation must be done carefully so that the
turned parts are really true with the casting regarding
this as a whole. The lathe may then be cleared for
the next operation.
Chuck the poppit-head by the turned part of the
back end either in a self-centring chuck or in a wood
chuck turned out to fit. So long as the chucking is
quite true it need not be particularly firm, as the front
end of the casting will be supported in a collar plate.
Mounted on the lathe in this manner the hole through
the casting may be bored out perfectly true with the
chucking, that is with the outside of the cylindrical
part, by tools in the slide-rest. A deep hole, such as
the one now under treatment, will require special tools,
and the best way to bore it is with a half round or
FIG. 10. — THE POPPIT-HEAD.
D bit. If a bit of this form is carefully started in a
truly bored hole it will continue to bore truly, and will
finish the hole fairly smooth and parallel. A hole
f- inch in diameter having been bored, the poppit
is unchucked and the lathe cleared for the next
operation.
The poppit-head is to be chucked between centres
by the hole just bored. Unless very large cone points
are fitted to the lathe on which the work is done, it
will be necessary to fit centre-pieces into the ends of
the hole. These centre-pieces are merely discs of
metal having a central hole chamfered to fit the cone
point, and turned true on the edge to fit the hole
tightly, a slight fillet being left to prevent the disc
being pressed into the hole by the wedging action of
the back centre. Chucked by these centre-pieces the
poppit will revolve freely and true with the boring.
A tool is fixed in the slide - rest and a cut taken
completely over the surface of the front (left hand)
upright, shown in Fig. 10. Perhaps two or three cuts
will be necessary to reduce the sur-
face of the rough casting to a truly
turned surface which will be exactly
at right angles to the boring, both
vertically and horizontally. The
right hand end of the base may
also be turned true in a similar
manner. There is no necessity for
doing this work except that it im-
proves the appearance of the casting.
Low-priced machinery would be left
in the rough.
The base of the headstock has
now to be made to fit on the bed. It may be
filed, but planing is a better method. I have sup-
posed every appliance to be within reach, so in-
clude a planing-machine. A pair of V blocks are
wanted to chuck the poppit headstock for planing.
It may be well to explain here in passing, that
chucking is the operation of fixing the work to be
operated upon either on the lathe or the planing-
machine. The appliances used to effect the chucking
are called chucks. A straight parallel bar of round
steel, which will pass through the hole in the poppit,
either freely or fitting tightly, is put through the hole,
and its ends are supported in the V blocks. This bar
is fixed on the bed of the planing-machine perfectly
parallel with the travel of the bed. The bar is
clamped down in the V blocks, these being placed
near to the casting, and securely fixed. The casting
is then placed with its base uppermost, and by means
of a couple of clamps it is fixed on to the bar. A stop
is arranged on each side of the base to prevent the
casting turning on the rod, and a stop to resist the cut
of the tool is also provided. In this way it will be
424
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
noticed the position of the poppit-head on the planing-
machine is regulated entirely by the boring. First, a
cylindrical bar is chucked true on the planer, then the
poppit is chucked true on the bar. The base is then
planed flat, leaving the lugs precisely the right width
to fit in the space between the beds. These lugs
need not be exactly vertical with the hole for the
barrel, because the line of centres are not required to
be precisely in the centre of the bed. By careful
gauging the lugs are made to the correct size, and the
casting is taken off the planer. It should then fit the
bed.
The planing will generally be found to be a trifle
out of true, and the fitting will require adjustment
with a file. The first operation after planing is to
carefully test the truth of the work so far as it has
progressed. The headstock is placed upon the lathe
bed, for which it is intended, and with a carefully fitted
bar projecting from the boring, the height at both
ends is gauged. The parallelism vertically is also
gauged, and if any error can be detected, the base of
the poppit is filed to remedy it.
If the planing is done on a perfectly true machine,
and the work has been chucked properly without
springing it, the casting should not require any ad-
justment with a file, but unfortunately machines are
not always perfect, and chucking is often done care-
lessly, hence subsequent adjustment is generally need-
ful. In days gone by when surfaces were chipped
and filed, the process of getting them level was a
continual succession of testing and improving. The
machinery now in use ought to produce work that
is practically perfect, and it will do so if properly
constructed and properly used. Many people who
make lathes send the beds to be planed, and fondly
imagine that they are true when returned, but
this is seldom the case. Sometimes the fault re-
sults from the inefficiency of the workman, some-
times from that of the machine, and sometimes
because the money paid for the work will not pay for
making it true. Work gets chucked without proper
packing, and is thus warped when fixed. Machines
are used with some of the various slides too loose.
Work that is planed true on one part and which is
subsequently planed on another part will warp, and
the first planing should be done over again. Suppos-
ing an ordinary double flat lathe bed is planed abso-
lutely true on the bottom surface, and then turned
over on the planing-machine, clamped down securely
and planed on the top.
As soon as the skin of the casting is removed, the
tension on the metal is relaxed, and it will probably
warp. The top side may be planed perfectly true, and
if the work is bolted sufficiently firmly to the bed of
the planer, it may correspond with the bottom surface
first planed ; but directly the work is released it
assumes a new form, and neither top nor bottom are
true. When we are dealing with metal that is per-
fectly homogeneous, this warping does not occur. The
skin of cast-iron which is cooled somewhat suddenly,
however, exercises a powerful tension on the inner
part. When planing or turning castings, recollect
this, and rough out the article all over before finishing
any one part. Taking a lathe bed as an example, it
should first be planed roughly on its lower surface,
edges, etc., then turned over and planed on its upper
surface and edges. The ends of the bed should then
be centred, and turned true on a lathe. These pro-
cesses will have removed the skin from all the parts
that are to be planed. The bed is then laid carefully
on its top surface, the end butting against a fixed stop,
and carefully fixed with clamps, every care being
taken to prevent warping it. The bottom is then
planed all over with a finishing tool. The bed is re-
versed, and the top similarly treated. This will pro-
duce a true bed, if the casting has not been sprung by
the chucking.
Returning to the poppit headstock, these extra-
neous observations on planing do not apply to it. The
truth of the boring made through the cylindrical part
will not be influenced to any appreciable extent by
planing the base. The hole will be all the better for
carefully broaching out with a reamer, if the boring
tool has left it rough. A reamer or broach will regu-
late the diameter and remove any asperities. We will
suppose this done, and the poppit-head fitted on the
bed, so that the boring is in every way, vertically and
horizontally, parallel with the lathe bed. The bed
itself must be true, which may be tested by sliding the
poppit-head along it, and observing that it fits equally
well at all parts. The straightness of the bed may be
tested with a good straight-edge, and winding strips
will show whether it is in-winding. A true bed is, of
course, the foundation of a true lathe, and if the bed
is untrue it will not avail much to make the head-
stocks true.
The mandrel headstock should next claim atten-
tion ; it must be fitted on to the bed. The casting
should first be inspected to see that it is sound and
passably shapely. It has then to be lined out for
planing. The positions of the front and back bearings
are carefully gauged and marked with a fine centre
punch. Lines are drawn from these dots vertical to
the base, and the base line is then marked on both
ends precisely equidistant from the centre marks.
This process of lining out offers a good scope for
the exercise of judgment. Castings are all more
or less misshapen, and in lining out the general
average should be considered, so that when finished
the casting may appear fairly true all over. Where
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
425
bosses are cast in which holes are to be drilled, centre
the bosses as nearly as possible. If there is a thin
place in a casting, sacrifice some thick place to bring
the scant part up, and so on. Do not start with an
idea that some part of a casting is intended for a base,
and that the other parts must be squared up to it. If
such a course is pursued, the result will be most inele-
gant. Bearing in mind these hints, line out the man-
drel headstock to the best advantage, so that the
centre points indicating the positions of the mandrel
bearings are in the best position that the particular
casting allows.
Chuck the headstock on the planing machine so as
to plane the base to the lines that have been marked.
The method of chucking will depend entirely on the
form of the casting, and it is therefore not possible
to indicate any special precautions. Suffice it to say,
that the base is to be planed true and fitted on to the
lathe bed ; the execution of the work must be left to
whoever has it in hand. A headstock having a fiat
front head is frequently conveniently chucked on a
right angle chuck, that is a bracket-shaped chuck used
on the planing machine. The headstock is bolted
against the chuck, and the overhanging end is
supported by packing, and an additional clamp may
be used to it if the shape offers a place for a clip to
hold. When the base has been planed so that it fits
the bed, the front of the casting may be planed flat,
and at right angles to the base, if a first-rate job
is intended. The headstock being finally bolted on to
the bed.
Boring the holes for the bearings is the next
operation. The positions of the centre punch dots
may be verified by placing the poppit against the
headstock, and if found to be correct, holes are bored
with drills nearly to the diameter required. When the
boring is to be finally finished, a bar is fitted into the
poppit barrel to turn freely. This bar may be about
2 feet long, and must be provided with a winch handle
at one end. The other end of the bar has a mortise
hole through it to take the cutters required for boring
. the holes in the headstock. The diameter of the bar
must be reduced at this end sufficiently to pass through
the holes that have been drilled. The size of these
holes will depend on the style of mandrel to be used;
if one having double bearings, as illustrated by Figs. 7
and 9, the holes will be about \\ to i£ inch in
diameter. If a mandrel with a front collar bearing,
and a tail-pin at the back is used, the back hole will
be only % inch. The diameter of the bar fitting the
hole will be £ inch, consequently in the case last
instanced, it must be reduced, but not if the holes are
over 1 inch in diameter. It would be unwise to reduce
the diameter of the bar any more than absolutely
necessary, because by so doing, the mortise hole
which holds the cutter would be made shorter, and
the cutter would have a greater length projecting un-
supported, and more likely to bend under a heavy cut.
The cutter itself is merely a plain piece of steel, fitted
into the mortise hole, and secured by a wedge ; the
cutting end is ground to a sharp edge, and the amount
that it projects regulates the diameter of the hole
bored. If the holes to be bored vary much in size, one
cutter will perhaps not do for both. In that case two
cutters, each specially adapted to the hole it is to bore,
should be made. The boring bar and cutter being
ready, I will proceed to describe the use of it.
Fix the poppit-head on the lathe bed near to the
right hand end, also fix the mandrel head close to the
poppit, say within a quarter of an inch. Pass the
boring bar through the hole in the poppit, till the end
projects through the front upright of the mandrel
headstock. Now place the cutter in the mortise hole,
and wedge it tight, projecting sufficient to cut the
correct diameter of the hole for the front collar. With
the winch handle on the other end of the bar proceed
to turn it round, and observe the progress of the cutter.
Of course the interior of the boring in the poppit must
be well lubricated before commencing. The work will
not proceed satisfactorily till some contrivance is
arranged to feed the cutter into its work. Rather
powerful pressure will be necessary. A good plan is
to use a bolt with a nut on it, the nut to press against
the other side of the mandrel headstock, and the point
of the bolt against the end of the boring bar, by
screwing the bolt it will be made to press on the end
of the bar. This direct pressure will have the desired
effect, and the boring may be proceeded with rapidly.
Almost any makeshift contrivance will do for feeding
the cutter into its work, and the one that is most
easily adopted will depend on the appliances which are
most easily got at. A smooth hole of the diameter
required having been bored completely through, that
end of the headstock is finished.
To bore the tail or back end of the headstock,
remove the poppit to the extreme left hand end of the
bed, and fix it there in the position usually occupied
by the fast headstock. Then slide the mandrel head
along the bed till it nearly touches the poppit, and fix
it. The boring bar which must be removed before the
poppit is shifted, is placed in the barrel hole from the
front end, and left projecting over the left hand end of
the bed. A cutter is fixed in the mortise hole as
before, the contrivance for feeding into cut is rigged
up ; the bar is revolved by means of the winch handle,
and thus the back hole is bored. It is obvious that
both the holes bored in this manner must be exactly
true with the hole bored in the poppit ; if this has to
be got perfectly true with the bed, then the line of
centres of the complete lathe will be true.
4*6
LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.
When making a lathe, bear in mind that the truth
of the whole machine depends on the truth of every
component part. Unless the bed is true, it is useless
to trouble about extreme accuracy in the headstocks.
It is of course quite easy to improve a defective lathe
by correcting the headstocks, but unless the bed on
which they slide is absolutely true, it is impossible to
get absolute truth in the entire machine. There are
many ways of testing a lathe, and I think many people
would be astonished at the result of carefully testing
the lathes at which they work. One of the few makers
of first-rate lathes, machines which cost hundreds of
pounds, considers the especial care that I have taken
to instruct amateurs how to test the accuracy of their
lathes, superfluous matter in " Lathe Work." It is no
doubt wasteful and ridiculous excess, akin to gilding
refined gold, painting the lily, smoothing ice, etc., of
which Shakespeare speaks, to attempt to apply tests to
such high-class work; but low-priced machines are
generally more or less defective, and I deem a know-
ledge of the defects of a machine at which I work most
valuable knowledge. Those who are at times puzzled
to understand the cause of some peculiarities in the
work produced by their lathes, should test the machine
itself, by some of the methods that are described in
"Lathe Work," and no doubt the result would explain
many peculiarities that had been incomprehensible.
The barrel and leading screw of the poppit-head
illustrated in this article, require some description.
The barrel itself is made from a piece of plain bar
steel sufficiently large in diameter after being turned
true to fit the hole ; the length should be the same as
the cylindrical part of the poppit casting. This bar of
steel is carefully centred and bored completely through
with a hole about Ts inch in diameter. The exact size
for this hole is the tapping size of the thread to be
used for the leading screw, this should be a J inch
square thread. The hole must be bored out the whole
distance to within about f inch of one end, large
enough to clear the thread of the screw, T% inch will
suit. The boring must be straight, and this is easily
ensured by first boring from both ends, and then
mounting the work in the cone plate, and boring with a
D bit, ys >ncn diameter, to within f inch of the inner
end. The ends of the hole are chamfered for 'turning
between centres, and the diameter of the bar is reduced
to fit the hole in the poppit. It must be turned
smooth, and when very nearly to size, a smooth file
will finally finish the surface. I am fully aware that
the use of a file on turned work should be dis-
couraged as much as possible, and that a slide-rest
tool properly applied would cut clean, and leave a
smooth surface. Despite all this, I know a smooth file
is generally used to finally finish such apiece of work,
and that it answers very well the purpose intended.
When the barrel has been made to fit, a groove
has to be cut along it to take the head of a pin, which
prevents it turning round under the influence of the
leading screw. This groove is best milled out with a
circular cutter, or slotted with a flat pointed drill, or
planed out with a parting tool. Either method is
equally good in effect, and the one adopted will be
governed by the appliance which is most easily used.
An amateur who has none of the machines required
for the methods mentioned above must adopt another.
He may file out the grooves or chisel it out, according
to the bent of his abilities, or he may combine the
two methods advantageously. The groove should be
about one-eighth of an inch broad, and nearly as deep,
and should extend from the back end to within an
inch of the front.
The front end of the barrel has to be mouthed out
conically, so that the various centre points may fit it.
The barrel is mounted in the cone plate for boring,
and the slide-rest set over about one degree. The
hole is carefully turned true and smooth, the exact
angular adjustment of the slide-rest being noted, so
that when centres are wanted they may be fitted to
the same angle without trouble. The back end of the
barrel requires tapping, to fit the thread of the leading
screw. The tap must be put in quite straight, and if
sufficiently long, the tap is best put in from the front
end ; the boring then keeps the tap perfectly straight.
In order to correct any little irregularity that there
might be in the thread, the tap should be screwed
through in the way that the screw is to go, and the
barrel will be finished.
The leading screw is made from a solid rod of
5-inch steel; or a piece fully J inch in diameter, with
a collar welded on it, may be used. The total length
of the screw is 7 inches, the collar being placed to
leave 5 inches of screwed part. The collar may be
about 5- inch thick. The screw is turned true and
parallel, and the thread, preferably a square one,
J inch in diameter, is cut. A left-handed thread is
generally preferred, but the use of left or right-handed
threads is purely a matter of habit. The top screw in
a slide-rest and the screw in the poppit-head should
always be alike, and beyond that it matters little
whether they be left or right. The tail end of the
screw is turned true, and has about i inch of thread
on the end. This takes a hexagon nut, which secures
the hand-wheel.
The cap on the right-hand end of the poppit,
which confines the lateral motion of the screw, is
made of cast iron or gun-metal, which looks rather
better. It is bored to fit the tail end of the screw, and
fits on the end of the poppit casting, to which it is
secured by three or four screws put in radially. The
leading screw is put in the hole in the casting, the
WA YS AND MEANS.
427
cap put over the tail end, leaving the collar inside,
and secured by the screws. The hand-wheel is put
on the projecting tail, and the hexagon nut screwed
on till the boss of the hand-wheel is brought against
the cap, and thus the lateral motion is confined.
For clamping the poppit barrel when in use, a
plain set screw from the top is as effective as anything.
A wedge bolt, which is tightened by a lever on the
off side, is adapted by the Britannia Company, and is
preferable for many reasons. It does not damage the
barrel itself, and the handle is out of the way ; these
two points suffice to commend the wedge bolt. The
pin which projects inside the boring, and which, by
fitting the groove in the poppit barrel, prevents this
turning round, is dropped into a hole generally bored
through the lower part of the cylindrical part of the
casting. The pin should be made like the letter T in
shape. It should first be turned like a cheese-headed
bolt, the shank i inch diameter, and the head 5 inch.
The head is then filed off on two opposite sides, to
leave a strip s inch wide ; the strip fits the groove in
the barrel.
The poppit headstock and the method of boring
the collar holes have been fully dealt with in this
chapter. I have only to recommend intending pur-
chasers to the firm I have named for any of the
articles described. The next chapter will treat of the
framework and its construction.
(To be continued?)
WAYS AND MEANS.
[The Receipts brought together under this title are gathered
from various sources. They are given here because they are each
and all apparently possessed of value, and likely to be useful to the
Amateur. It is manifestly impossible for the Editor to test them,
or to have them tested, and he therefore disclaims all responsibility
for their accuracy or otherwise. Amateurs who may try them are
requested to communicate the results arrived at.]
To Stain Wood Black. — The receipt given in
Part I. of Amateur Work, Illustrated, for a
black fluid for ebonizing, is no doubt a good one ; but
one in common use among joiners is made more
easily. Here it is : — Put iron filings, or the scales
from a smith's forge, in a bottle, so as to fill it, say a
quarter full. Fill up with strong vinegar. Shake this
up a couple of times a day for three or four days.
Now boil some ground logwood in water so as to
make a strong decoction. Put this while hot on the
wood ; and before it is quite dry put on the vinegar
and iron. When the wood is allowed to dry quite
before the iron is put on, the inner grain of the wood
remains red in places. Oil to get a good black. — A. B.
Wash for Outbuildings. — Professor Kedzie,
of the Agricultural College of Michigan, an expert
chemist, recently said that a paint or wash made of
skim-milk, thoroughly skimmed, and water brine, will
render wood uninflammable, and he proved it by
experiment. He said this paint, or whitewash, is
durable, very cheap, impervious to water, of agreeable
colour, and, as it will prevent wood from taking fire,
he urges its use, particularly on roofs, outbuildings,
barns, etc.
Distempering Ceilings. — Give the ceilings a
coat composed of soft soap, lime, putty, and size.
The quantities to be used of each ingredient entirely
depend on the finish of the ceiling ; some are much
more absorbent than others. The soft soap prevents
the dry plaster absorbing the colour too quickly, so
that a clean, even surface may be obtained with the
finishing coat. If the workman is not a practised
hand, he may be successful in laying an even coat of
distemper; and even if he should succeed, if his
ceiling is grey-finished, the sand will probably spoil
the distemper. A remedy for this would be to cover
the ceiling with lining paper and distemper on the
paper, but experience is here also required in hang-
ing the paper. Very little size is required for dis-
temper— just sufficient to cause the colour to adhere
firmly.
Black Walnut Stains. — Asphaltum thinned
with turpentine, will, it is said, stain a beautiful black
walnut colour. It must be varnished over.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
HIS month I am pleased to say that I have
a very decided novelty to bring under the
notice of the readers of this Magazine,
but this I will reserve for the latter part of
my notes, giving the precedence to a few
other matters which also demand my attention. And,
first of all, Messrs. Churchill and Co. tell me that I am
in error in supposing that the entire edition of their
new catalogue is printed on the stout toned paper,
which I mentioned as being so decidedly preferable
to the thin blue paper that I imagined they had
abandoned. The bulk of the edition is still printed on
thin paper, in order to reduce the sum payable on it as
postage to a minimum. That on stout paper, which
I described and commended, is one of a few that the
firm had printed for their own use. I can only say
that I am glad to have been permitted to get hold of
one of them, and, at the same time, enabled to explain
away what any recipient of a copy on the usual paper
might have thought to be a piece of extraordinary
colour blindness on my part. To say the least
of it, Messrs. Churchill and Co.'s catalogue is
428
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
a most desirable publication to possess, whatever may
be the colour of the paper on which it is printed.
All those who are interested in the ornamentation
of their houses by stencilling and other means of
adornment, will find a most useful manual in "Element-
ary Decoration : AGuidetothe simpler forms of Every-
day Art, as applied to the Interior and Exterior Decora-
tion of Dwelling-houses, etc.," by James William
Facey, Junr. This volume, which forms Vol. 229 of
Weale's Rudimentary Series, and is published at 2s.
by Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Co , 7, Stationers'
Hall Court, Ludgate Hill, is illustrated with sixty-
eight explanatory engravings, chiefly from designs by
the author. These, which are marked in almost every
case by good taste and originality of treatment, will be
found extremely suggestive and helpful to all who take
pleasure in this kind of work, and especially serviceable
in pointing out modes and methods of relieving the
usual monotony of the exterior of a dwelling-house, by
enriching the string courses with decorative bands,
and surrounding the windows with appropriate orna-
mentation on the outer surface of the walls, and the
architraves and reveals of the openings in which the
sash frames are set. Nor is this all, for clear and
abundant instruction is imparted on stencilling, and
hand-pencilled decoration, the preparation of decora-
tive designs, and the adornment of walls and ceilings
within and without the house, both in theory and
practice ; and the reader is told in plain and simple
language, that it is impossible to misunderstand, how
to prepare his colours and carry out the work from the
commencement to the finish.
Another book that I can heartily recommend to the
notice of amateur painters, is a little pamphlet, entitled
" The Old and New Process for Carriage-Painting,
Wood-Staining and Varnishing, etc., also adapted for
Ship Decoration," by Miles Williams, author of
" House-Painting and Decorating," " How to Asphalt,
etc.,'' is sold in cloth, at is. 6d., and in paper covers at
is., by the publisher, Mr. James A. Bywater, at the
Ince Almanac Office, Ince, Wigan. I do not suppose
that there are many amateurs who will venture to try
their hand on carriage-painting, beyond a pony-chaise,
perhaps, or a dog-cart for country use ; but to those
who do a little painting of any kind, this book will be
useful, by reason of the instructions that are given
therein for preparing, grinding and mixing colours, to
say nothing of the hints to be obtained on wood-
staining and varnishing, which is a species of work
in which amateurs take especial delight, and in the
preparation of panels for art painting. The book is
not a large one for the price asked for it. I say this
to prevent any disappointment to those who may send
for it on my recommendation, but the information
contained in it is worth a great deal.
On the principle that " good wine needs no bush,"
any book that bears Mr. Paul N. Hasluck's name on
the title page, needs no commendation from me. Mr.
Hasluck, who, I need not say, is a contributor to
Amateur Work, Illustrated, and to whose pen
are due two of the articles that appear in this part, has
just produced a new volume on turning, entitled, " The
Metal Turners' Handbook : A Practical Manual for
Workers at the Foot Lathe," illustrated with upwards
of one hundred engravings, in which are shown most
athes of modern make, suitable for the skilled artisan
and the amateur respectively, and every description
of appliances and tools for lathes that any metal
turner can require. This work, which forms a handsome
crown 8vo volume, is published by Messrs. Crosby
Lockwood and Co., whose address is given above, at
is. The chief value of this work, in common with
other books on the subject by Mr. Hasluck, consists in
the clear and lucid manner in which the lathes by
various makers are described, and the principles on
which they act explained. The best of everything
appertaining to lathes and their appliances for metal
turners is focussed, as it were, in this volume, which
is remarkable for its completeness and exhaustive-
ness. Indeed, any amateur who has a fancy for
metal turning has only to look through its pages,
in order to acquaint himself with what he ought
to buy, and where and at what price he may pur-
chase it.
Messrs. R. Melhuish and Sons, of 85 and 87,
Fetter Lane, E.C., have recently added to their large
and varied stock of tools and appliances some first-
class specimens of carpenters' benches, made in
Germany. They are, without exception, the best I
have ever seen, and they are admirably adapted in
every way to meet the requirements of both the
professional joiner and the amateur wood-worker.
The first thing that will strike any one who makes
but a mere casual examination of them, is their
strength, solidity and immobility. Push them in what
direction you will, their stability is such that they will
not yield in any direction to the pressure applied, and
they may be fairly described as being as firm as a
rock and as strong as a castle. In this they satisfy,
completely, two of the chief requisites of a good bench,
for unless a bench is so compact and rigid as to
remain immovable under very great pressure, it is
comparatively useless.
The material of which these benches are made is
well-seasoned beech, the frame, the top, the drawer,
and every part of them, except the screws, which are
cut out of hornbeam, being made of this solid close-
grained wood. They are made in different sizes, dis-
tinguished by different names, and sold at prices in
accordance with their dimensions, which with the
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
429
names and prices may be briefly put before the reader
as follows : —
Price. Length. Breadth. Height.
Carpenter's.. Sos. od. ... 68 in. ... 24 in. ... 33 in.
Trade 45s. od. ... 48 in. ... i6j in. ... 31 in.
Amateur's... 42s. od. ... 40 in. ... l6i in. ... 31 in.
Boy's 37s. 6d. ... 40 in. ... i6i in. ... 29 in.
There is another size, whose dimensions are a little
in excess of those of the Carpe?iter's Bench. This size
is known as Carpenter's Extra Large; the price is 90s.
As all are made on the same model, it will be
sufficient, having given the main proportions of four
sizes, to describe and name as far as may be requisite,
the Carpenters Bench and its dimensions, otherwise
than those already tabulated. And here it will be
necessary to say that the length of each bench is taken
along the line A B in the illustration, and the line A c,
which may be taken in even' case as the actual length
and breadth of the bench top, exclusive of the shoulder
to the left hand, in which the bench screw works, and
the movable piece to the right which is worked
backwards and forwards by means of another screw,
forming a grip vice of great power and marvellous
utility for a variety of purposes, as every one who
uses one of these benches will find.
The top is movable, and can be taken off the stand
at pleasure, which is convenient for transit. Indeed I
should say that the stand itself also takes to pieces, so
that it can be packed with the top in such a manner as
to occupy the smallest possible space. There are two
pegs in the upper rails of the stand or bench frame
which fit into holes made for their reception in the
underpart of the bench top, and by this simple arrange-
ment, combined with the weight of the top itself, the
parts of the bench are sufficiently connected, and the
whole structure rendered proof against lateral pressure.
The construction of the frame is indicated clearly
enough in the illustration, in which every part is shown
except the rails by which the legs are connected at the
top. The mortises which receive the tenons of the
lower rails, both in front and at the back and sides, go
right through the legs, and the top part of the front
and back rail at either end passes over the side rails,
so that the mortise is deeper on the inside than on the
outside ; a tapering wedge is driven into the mortise
at each end of both front and back rail, which has the
effect of driving these rails down on the ends of the
side rails, and locking the whole together. When the
bench is put in position in the workshop, the ends of
the wedges may be sawn off; if, however, the owner
contemplates moving the bench at any time, it will be
as well to let the ends of the wedges project, as they
will be found useful as supports for small pieces of
board and any odds and ends of this kind. The
massive legs to the right are securely tenoned into
thick piece of timber, which is further utilised as a
support for the piece in which the bench-screw works,
being connected with it by a cylindrical piece of wood,
as shown in the illustration.
We may now turn to the consideration of the top
of the bench, which presents many points of construc-
tion in which it differs greatly from the ordinary
carpenter's bench in common use in this country. The
central part of the top is a solid piece of beech— I am
still speaking of the Carpenter's Bench, and naming
the dimensions of this bench — 4 inches thick, 6o£
inches long, and i6f inches wide. To this portion all
the surrounding parts are added bit by bit. In the first
place, it is lengthened by two pieces ^lamped on, one
at each'end, A and B, as may be seen in the illustra-
tion. These pieces are also 4 inches thick, and 3f
inches wide, thus bringing up the length of the bench
to 68 inches. The three parts are securely bolted
together by an iron bar, at the left end of which there
is a nut by which they are screwed up as closely as
possible. The piece on the'right is i8f inches long,
and that on the left 33 inches long. They project
beyond the central piece at the back to the distance of
7g inches, and by inserting a board between the ends
A and B i£ inches in thickness, and another at the
bottom, a trough 6 inches wide and extending the
whole length of the bench is formed, which makes a
useful receptacle for all kinds of tools when not in
actual use. One end, namely that at B, is fitted with
a slanting board, so that small tools may be easily
drawn up the incline, and dust and shavings cleared
out without the chance of any portion remaining
behind. The shoulder to the left is then added to the
bench ; this is formed of a solid piece, also 4 inches
thick, and 8 inches wide at its widest part, and 2J
inches wide at the narrowest part in which the bench-
screw works, leaving an opening of 55 inches between
the edge of the front of the bench and the inner sur-
face of the narrow part of the shoulder. When it is
desired to plane the edge of any board, the screw is
turned out to a sufficient depth to admit of its inser-
tion and that of a cheek piece supplied with the bench,
and which is intended to receive the pressure of the
end of the screw, and so prevent it from doing any
injury to the piece of wood to be planed. The
advantage of this arrangement is manifest, for the
pressure of the screw acts directly on the wood to be
planed through the cheek that intervenes, bringing it
directly against the edge of the bench, and holding it
there immovably. The pressure, the reader will notice,
is thus applied equally, because directly, on every part
of the wood that is touched by the intervening cheek,
which is not the case with the ordinary bench-screw
with a loose cheek, which is drawn against the wood
placed between it and the bench by the screw which
43°
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
works in a block fitted to the front of the bench,
with a great deal of creaking and groaning, which
tells tales of an undesirable amount of friction and
inequality of pressure. To the bottom of the bench is
appended a drawer 18 inches square, which works
by means of cleats in grooved timbers of the shape
of the letter L screwed to the under surface of the
bench. When this drawer is pulled out a little way
it acts as a support for the timber whose edge is being
planed, thus doing away with the necessity of a front
board pierced with holes at various intervals to receive
pegs on which the lower edge of the board under treat-
ment may rest.
firmly by turning the screw in order to bring the bench-
stop in the movable bench-vice up to the end of the
board to the left. The bench-stops can be adjusted
to any height required, or rather likely to be required.
The movable bench-vice has a projecting fillet on its
inner face, which works in a groove of corresponding
size cut in the central part of the bench. As will be
seen from the illustration, this vice, which is 22 inches
long in its longest part and 6f inches wide in its
narrowest part, is so contrived as to present intervals
of different width between the ends of its two parts
and the end of the bench at D and E. These openings
afford the means of gripping pieces of wood in the most
FIG. 21.— GERMAN CARPENTER S BENCH IN ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.
Along the front of the central portion of the bench,
and about \\ inches from its edge, runs a row of ten
holes, rectangular in shape, and \\ inches long by i
inch in width. These holes serve as receptacles for
bench-stops, rectangular pieces of iron that fit closely
into these sockets, and are further held in place by a
slightly curved steel spring, indicated in the illustration
by the roundness on the right side of each stop. Nowi
the utility of these holes lies in this. An eleventh
hole is made in the movable piece to the right of the
illustration, and when it is desired to plane the surface
of a piece of board, all that is necessary to be done in
order to fix it is to insert the bench-stop to the left, at
a suitable distance, according to the length of the
board from the bench-stop in the movable piece, lay
the board between the two stops, and then grip it
convenient manner for cutting tenons and dovetails,
and for performing other operations in carpentry in
which it is desirable that the wood should be tightly
held.
In conclusion, it may be said that these benches
are cheap, and put the buyer in possession of good
value for his money. They are likely, I think, to be
in great demand in this country. I can recommend
them with the utmost confidence to all amateurs who
may want a bench that will do them good service.
The most suitable for general purposes after the
" Carpenter's," which is by a long way the best, is the
"Trade" bench, which although it is of the same
height and length as the " Amateur's " bench, has the
advantage over it by being 8 inches longer, at an
additional cost of only 3s.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL,
431
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
[The Editor reserves to himself the right or re-
fosreg a rep'y to any question that may be frivolous
or inappropriate, or devoid of general interest.
Correspondents are requested to bear in mind that
their queries will be answered only in the pages of
the Magazine, the information sought being sup-
plied for the benefit of its readers generally as well
as for those who have a special interest in obtaining
it. In no case can any reply be sent by post.]
Organ Building.
S. X. — Apply to any of the makers of
whom mention has been made in the
papers on building a small organ and a
harmonium. Articles on the method of
making keys for organs, etc, and for
making magic-lanterns, will appear shortly.
ORGAN Pi?e. — The second series o^
papers on " Organ Building" will be
commenced in Part XII. The cheap
pipes to be described will supersede metal
pipes, and the organ described will be on
a far larger scale. Your requests with
regard to a wardrobe and Fitzroy baro-
meter shall not be forgotten.
T. H. (Bilston). — Your queries on this
subject and on " Bookbinding " have been
already answered in replies to other
correspondents.
C. J. C. (Haverstock Hill) inquires
how such full tones are produced by the
small pipes of a street organ. The pipes
are not so small as he thinks, as the
larger ones are mitred so as to run round
the bottom of the organ, and they are
voiced very loud. But surely C. J. C. is
not satisfied with the musical (?) tones
produced? The pallets for a iostop
sound board should not be less than 10
inches long ; and they are all one length.
The channels should be 3^ inches deep,
and as wide as you have room to make
them. The space behind the pallets is
generally covered with stout cartridge
paper, but thin wood filled in between
the channels is stronger, and not so liable
to be damaged.
MUSICUS (Northampton). — The best
way for you to make the C C C pipe
would be to double it, as shown in page
287. This would be much more satis-
factory than the way you suggest, and
less room would be required. Mitreing
the pipes does not injure the tone, indeed,
some people think it improves it.
G. P. (Northampton). — The sizes of the
holes through the feet of the pipes are
given in answer to S. S., in page 191.
The stopt pipes should have the mouths
cut up a fourth of the diameter, and the
open pipes a fifth. This allows for cut-
ting a little higher when tuning them.
The windway of the cap should be made
at the top with a flat file, not a chisel.
It is about A inch for a C C stopt pipe,
and slightly smaller for each successive
one. The only way to know when it is
right, is by trying the pipe. Just bind the
cap on with a piece of tape, and blow
through the pipe. If it is all right, the
cap may be fastened on with screws or
French nails. If it does not answer, file
the windway a trifle larger, but be careful
not to overdo it, or you will have to take
a shaving off the inside face with a fine-
set plane. The lips should be thin, but
not cut to a sharp edge. Stopt pipes
should have thicker lips than open ones.
Pulsator Organorum. — The flute
pipes described are intended to be open
pipes, with a tin or zinc lid on the top for
tuning. The stop action is as follows —
The draw stop A is connected to the
arm B of the roller C. This roller has
another arm D at right angles to B. On
the end of this is another arm (called the
trace) E, which is connected with the
lever G. The upper end of the lever
works in a slot in the slide H. When the
stop-knob is pulled out the roller turns
DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATIVE OF STOP
ACTION.
on its pivots and pulls the 'lever to the
left, and consequently draws out the slide.
Pushing the stop-knob in reverses this
action and closes the slide. The rollers
for the stop action are placed one behind
the other. The arm B should always be
level with the draw-knob, the square rod
of which is made long enough to reach
to the arm. The arm and trace D and E
should be level with the lower end of the
lever. The slide should have an extra
thickness of wood glued on the end in
order to strengthen it where the lever slot
is cut. The lever is let into a notch, and
a centre pin run through, as shown in the
sketch.
H. J. D. (Osmington). — I am afiaid
enamelling your old keys would not
answer, as there is so much wear on them
that even the ivory is worn away. The
ivories should be separated from the
wood by holding them in hot water.
Rub them well with finely-powdered
pumice stone and water, and, while still
wet, place them on a board under a glass
case and expose them to the bright sun-
shine. The glass shade should be made
air tight, by means of wet clay, or putty
laid round the bottom. The sunshine
bleaches the ivory, but if exposed to it
without the shade would cause them to
crack all over. Repeat the operation, if
necessary. If this is too much trouble,
you can purchase a new set of ivories at
T. Dawkins, 17, Charterhouse Street,
London. They run from 8s. 6d. per set.
Balgenbreter. — Independent pedals
necessarily involve a separate sound
board. Make it 9 inches wide, and the
channels at least 2^ inches deep. The
C C C channel would be 1^ inches wide,
and the smallest one 1 inch wide. They
should not be cut out of a solid plank,
but formed by dividing a j inch board
into channels with partitions of the requi-
site thickness. As the pipes are wider
than the channels, it is best to put two
divisions in each, so that each pipe may-
stand over its own channel. The wind
chest should be 4$ inches deep, and the
wind will be conducted down to it by a
wind trunk.
T. E. K. (Grosvenor Road.) — Your
best plan will be to await the instructions
to be given in the next volume, as they will
contain many hints that it is impossible
to give now. The organ which will then
be described, need not necessarily be too
powerful for you, as the power of an
organ depends in a great measure on the
voicing. With regard to your questions,
by all means run the treble pipes down to
Tenor C, or you will have a very awk-
ward break in the tone. Your specifica-
tion will then be a suitable one, but a
principal will be a great improvement.
The reason a principal costs less than an
open diapason, is that all the pipes are
smaller in scale, and as it sounds the
octave above the diapason, the C C pipe
is only 4 feet long, whereas the C C of
the open diapason is 8 feet long, and all
the others in the same proportion. Make
the channels as wide as you have room
for on the sound board, as the larger they
are the better.
Information Wanted.
H. E. E. (Halesworth) wishes to know
how to tune a harmoniflute, several notes
of which have become "harsh'1 and
"buzz.'' Busson is the maker.
Harmonium Keeds for Sale.
C. J. C. (of Haverstock Hill) is re-
quested to send his full name and ad-
dress, as a letter on the above subject is
waiting for him at the office of Amateur
Work, Illustrated.
Adjunct to Music Stand.
H. M. A. (Denbigh Street) wishes to
know how he may ' ' construct an appa-
ratus for turning over the leaves of music
quickly by merely touching a spring."
432
AMATEURS IN COUNCfL.
Telephones.
F. S. (Reigate).— With neither water
nor gas-pipes in your house to attach
your "earth" wires to, your best plan is
to place them upon what is technically
termed " short circuit ;" i.e., instead of
utilising the earth as a conductor, you
connect up the two wires directly to one
another. This involves the running of a
second or "return" wire between your
two telephones, but being insulated, you
can lay it close alongside the "line"
wire, so that the same staples will fasten
both to the walls. Electric bells will also
ring quite as well, if you connect up the
wire for the zinc — or negative pole — o'
your battery, direct to the second ter-
minal of the bell, instead of attacting the
two "earth" wires separately to gas or
water-pipes.
Electrical Matters.
Telegraphist. (Lynn.) — Among the
multitude of communications received by
us, yours has been overlooked. We
hope you will excuse the apparent neg-
lect. Telegraphist wishes to know
how to platinise contact points in electri-
cal instruments, and, what kind of brush
to use in laying on lacquer. Contact
points may be platinised by soldering on
a speck of platinum foil. Scrape the
point clean, tin it with a hot soldering
iron, place the scrap on the tinned spot,
press it lightly with the hot iron, and it
will adhere to the point ; when cold, trim
and smooth with a file. Or, drill a small
hole in the point, insert the tip of a
platinum wire, cut off and rivet up the
end. Lacquer should be laid on with a
soft brush, lightly, but smartly. The
s:reakiness of which you complain is
probably due either to coldness of the
metal, uneven tip of the brush, and a
too heavy and slow application of the
lacquer. Any of the gentlemen who
advertise electric apparatus in the pages
of Amateur Work, Illustrated, will
be most happy to forward the materials
by post.
French Polishing.
R. C. (Afonkwcarmouth).See the
article that appeared on this subject in
Part VI.
Clock-Making.
W. H. B. {Nottingham).— The pro-
mised instructions for making a skeleton
clock will be given in due course. You
will find much practical information on
watches and watch-making in "The
Watchmakers' Handbook," noticed in
" Notes on Novelties " in Part VI.
Moss Baskets for Ferns.
A. R. (Huntly) is thanked for his letter
on this subject, but the method of making
moss baskets is one that is very generally
known and practised.
Copying Machine.
R. S. (Dorchester) writes :— Amateur
fret workers will find the " The Cbromo-
graph Copying Machine" very useful,
particularly where several duplicates of a
pattern are required. It will only be
necessary to take a tracing of the pattern
in the usual manner (using the prepared
ink supplied with the apparatus), laying
this face down on the prepared surface
of the machine, you have a copy in
reverse in a few seconds, from which any
number of exact copies, up to thirty, can
be taken off in a few minutes, quite clear
enough for all purposes of fret-work.
The solid parts of the pattern can be
shaded, it matters little how roughly this
shading is done, its object being simply
to show which parts of the pattern are to
be cut out, and those to be left.
Blacksmith's Work.
Vulcan. — We will endeavour to meet
your wishes with regard to this subject as
soon as possible, but there are many
pressing demands on our space just now.
Violin- Making.
A. W. G. — In answer to numerous
correspondents requesting me to give the
exact measurements of the instruments of
the best makers, I beg to subjoin three
sets of reliable measurements given by
M . Vidal in his magnificent work on the
Violin. I do not give them as having
any connection with the scientific prin.
ciples of the construction now under
consideration in Amateur Work, Il-
lustrated, or as guides to the practical
construction of the instrument when we
reach that branch of our work for the
present. I am leaving mere fixed size
out of the question ; and when I com-
mence a minute description of the manual
operations of fiddle-building, I shall give
full-sized working diagrams of the model
which I shall take as a foundation for my
manual.
-VIOLIN.'
Milli-
metres.
Length of body from base of ) 356 .
button to tail-pin j
Breadth across upper bouts. ..165 -■
,, lower 206:
,, inner „ ...109 =
Length of inner bouts, from 1
corner to corner (perpen- > 076 =
dicular) J
Length from base of button ) j™ .
to notch of //holes )
Height of sides, upper bouts 030 :
„ inner „ 030 =
lower „ 031 :
Neck, from chin of scroll to 1 13q .
base of button $
Length of finger-board 260 =
:14
ift
ii'i
ij
K S
101
Leslie Thair. — The "maps" of
fiddles which have already appeared, are
merely outlines drawn for the purposes of
the letterpress, and are not any particular
maker's form. A full-size working out-
line, including thicknesses, elevations,
and other particulars, will appear as a
supplement to Am\teur Work, Illus-
trated, with the first chapter on the
Practical Manual Operations of Fiddle-
making, which will be in about four parts
from the present one.
T. H. F. (Old Whittington). —FuK-
sized working drawings for making a
violin are in preparation and will be given
in an early Part in Vol. II.
J. G. (Lammas) will find that his ques-
tions have been fully answered in the
chapters on "Varnish" which appeared
in Parts VII. and VIII. of this magazine.
L. T. (Abergavenny). — The wood and
tools which you require you will get to
perfection from Mr. W. E. Hill, 72,
Wardour Street, London, W.
Henry Dryerre, — The gums, oils,
etc., required for varnishing violins, are
usually found in commerce, not adulte-
rated, but unpicked, i.e., to obtain an
ounce of pure gum, resin, etc., you
might want a pound of the raw drossy
material. I have, however, made arrange-
ments with Mr. G. Pestell, of 41, Great
Queen Street, Long Acre, London, that
any readers of Amateur Work, Illus-
trated, writing to him expressing their
wants, and mentioning these articles, will
receive at reasonable prices the purest
specimens of the materials they require.
E. J. V. (Guildford).— If your instru-
ment is a valuable one I should recom-
mend you to send it to a good maker as
the adjusting of the head requires certain
special considerations and processes. If
not, minute directions on the point will be
given in a future number of Amateur
Work, Illustrated.
* Measurements taken from " The
Vuillaume," or " La Meseie," Stradi-
uarius
2.— VIOLA.f
Milli-
metres, in.
410 = 10&
.. 185 = 7ft
240= 9H
.. 130= 5&
. 095 = 3J
.. 220 = 8JJ
.. 038= m
.. 038 = m
. 039= 1,-3
t Measurements taken
from Stradiuarius Viola,
date 1723, in the pos-
session of M. le Vi-
comte de Janze\
3— VIOLONCELLO, t
Milli-
metres, ft. in.
750 = 2 Sii
340= 1
440 = 1
240= ...
170 = ...
400 = 1
118= ...
118 = ...
119= ...
1ft
Hi
m
nl
X Measurements taken
from Stradiuarius
'Cello, belonging to M
Franchomme, the cele-
brated violoncellist.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
433
'
Bootmaking.
Dr. G. would have no difficulty ill find-
ing a person qualified to teach bootmaking
to amateurs provided a sufficient remune-
ration were offered. The writer of the
articles on "Boots and Shoes, How to
Make Them and Mend Them," will be
pleased to put him in communication
with such a person if Dr. G. will address
through the Editor.
J. J. Kilroy ( IVutport, Mayo) wishes
for further instructions on fitting-up lasts
for bootmaking. As a general rule the lasts
used by either bootmaker or amateur
workman should correspond with the foot
and require no fitting-up. This is not
however, always possible, and conse-
quently the last, which we will presume
to be smaller than the foot either across
the toes, at the joints, oron the instep, has
to be made up with pieces of leather bent
to its shape, and if the last be a wooden
one, pegged on — if an iron last, caused
to adhere by a solution or left loose to be
placed in position previous to lasting.
For stout boots the width measurements
of the last should be the same as those of
the foot, for light boots \ inch under the
measure will produce a fit. Bunions or
corns may be relieved from pressure by
placing on the last, at its corresponding
points, pieces of leather of similar shape.
On the wooden lasts it is best to peg on
as many thicknesses of leather as will be
necessary to represent the bunion or
callosity, afterwards paring them to the
required shape. The upper being lasted
over this, is to an extent blocked to fit the
bunion, consequently pressure is after-
wards avoided. It seems somewhat
invidious to select one last-nnker from
the number of excellent ones there are in
business ; probably our correspondent
would do as well as anywhere else by
applying to Mr. Henry Davey, of the
Steam Last Works, Cumberland Street,
Leicester, or to Mr. Alden, Ber Street,
Norwich, both of whom are clever last-
makers.
Storm Glass.
P. D. wishes to know how to m ake a
good storm glass. Can any of our
readers supply a paper on this subject ?
Our Supplements.
J. \V. B. (Bradford). — Your suggestion
with reference to the supplements shall be
carefully considered, but they involve
considerable cost in their production, and
the cost of Part and Supplement together
is only 5d. Your inquiries as to printing
and india-rubber stamp making have been
already answered in replies to other cor-
respondents.
Small Gymnasium.
B. M. J. (Enfield). — See articles now
appearing on " Gymnastic Apparatus, and
How to Make It."
Boat-Building'.
J.J. R. (Dundee). —Very possible Mr.
Kennedy will give instructions on build-
ing a yawl 20 feet in length. If any
improved method of constructing rabbit
hutches is produced or suggested by any
correspondent or contributor it shall be
given. Re Exchange Column, see reply
to J. R. (Nottingham).
S. V. P. — The length ofkeelof ai3-foot
canoe, viz., 10 feet ; and the length of stem
and stern-posts round the curve, viz. , 1 foot
10 inches to 2 feet, are given in answer to
" Would-be-Canoeist," p. 336. The
two pieces of a side-board are bevelled
off so as to overlap like a splice, and
fastened with copper nails. Of course,
they need not be bevelled off, but it is
much neater. As to the pressing of the
side-boards? Suppose you take two
pieces of paste-board, each 6 inches by
1 inch, lay one flat on the table and the
other exacdy on top of it ; sew them to-
gether at one end ; then put them on their
edge, and lay a book across the unsewn
ends, so as to press the boards flat on
the table (while the sewn ends stand up
on it) the lower edges together in the
inside, the upper edges apart outside. Is
this clear?
Soap-Making.
J. C. (Halifax). — The articles on this
subject were resumed in Part VIII. Every
endeavour shall be made to comply with
your request, and the desired information
given as soon as it is obtained.
W. C. (Alfrelon) writes : — The makers
of the " Barilla Ash Soap " referred to in
my former communication, are Messrs.
McLinton and Thomson, 53, Academy
Street, Belfast. "Barilla is a plant
growing abundantly in Sicily, Teneriffe,
and also in some parts of Spain. It is
burned over large holes in the earth, and
is then secured and purified afterwards.
There is something in the composition of
this Barilla Ash, which makes it astonish-
ingly curative, and most agreeable on the
skin. Lather made from it, instead of
drying, and so far burning the hands
and arms of those using it in clothes
washing, has the most soothing and
delightful effect." The above is a quo-
tation from a work entitled " Papers on
Health," by Professor Kirk, Edinburgh,
and from personal experience, both for
curative and general purposes, we can
endorse the statement. My wife would
use nothing else if she could obtain this
soap, made by the Belfast firm. Other
firms advertise as makers of Barilla Soap,
but it is not anything like the article
made by McLinton and Thomson.
Model Locomotives.
J. M. (Sligo). — The wish you express
for papers on this subject shall be satisfied
in due course.
Amateur Bookbinding.
W. C. (Alfreton) writes: — "I have a
large number of periodicals and other
books waiting to be bound, and have
been anticipating your papers on this
subject with much interest. But I am
afraid if the necessary tools cost £3 15s.
before an amateur can commence work,
there will be a good many like myself that
will have to put his ideas of bookbinding
on one side. Is it not possible for some
modification of the laying press, and its
accompaniments to be made, or to be
obtained at much less money than the
above? It would also be an advantage
to know where to obtain the materials
used in binding, at a reasonable price."
— A correspondent has promised an ac-
count of a cheap apparatus for book-
binding that he has contrived for his
own use. This will appear shortly. The
writer of the articles on "Amateur Book-
binding" will supply the information
you require respecting materials, in due
course.
]. N. (Hammersmith Road). — Full in-
structions on repairing, as well as binding
books, will be given in Amateur Work,
Illustrated, which is a magazine, and
not a serial work to be completed in a
given number of parts.
T. L. (Newcastle-on-Ty?ie). — Thename
and address of a firm supplying book-
binders' tools has been given in "Amateur
Bookbinding."
Giant Stride.
J. B. (Tetsworth) writes: — Some time
since I had occasion to inspect a " Giant
Stride," in the course of erection, and it
resembled in most particulars the descrip-
tion in Amateur Work, Illustrated,
but in place of the washers placed over
the spindle, we had two castings made
of the same shape as the washers, but with
grooves in their faces, in the bottom one
of which were placed four brass balls,
and then the other fitted on the top so as
to make a smooth and even action, with
no tendency to set, which I think rather
an improvement on the description given.
Filtration of Water.
W. C. (Alfre'on) is thanked for the
prospectus of Maignen's Patent " Filtre
Rapide *' that he has sent. The method
adopted appears to be an excellent one.
Amateurs wishing for information respect-
ing Maignen's Filter and Filtering
Medium, should write to Mr. John Bell,
Asbestos Works, 118, Southwark Street,
London, S.E.
Waterproofing Cloth.
R. W. G. (Rathkeale) wishes to know
how to make the solution that must be
put on clothes to give them the appearance
of the black waterproof sold in the gutta-
percha and india-rubber houses. Can any
reader supply the required information ?
434
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Comparative Value of Batteries.
G. L. Gibson (Southall) wishes to be
informed respecting the comparative value
of the Daniell and the Walker batteries,
as follows : (i) Which is the stronger, a
Daniell or Walker battery ? The strength
of the Daniell may be represented by 108,
the strength of the Walker by 50. But,
owing to the high internal resistance of
the Daniell and the low internal resistance
of the Walker, we get more work out of
the Walker than from the Daniell for the
first half hour from the time of charging
them. After the first hour the Daniell
shows itself superior in every way. (2)
Which is the most adapted for an induction
coil ? Neither are suitable for the purpose,
but if a sudden and sharp rush of current
is alone required for a few minutes the
Walker should be preferred. The plates
of this battery may be used in a saturated
solution of bichromate of potash acidu-
lated with one-fifth part sulphuric acid,
and should be thus used for an induction
coil. (3) Can a Daniell be coupled for
intensity with a Walker? A Daniell
should not be thus coupled. Nothing is
gained by mixing the cells of various
systems of batteries. The effectiveness
of a battery is governed by its weakest
cell, and the conductivity of an electric
circuit by that part which offers most
resistance.
Cabinet Hardware.
W. M. (Lynn). — For brass fittings for
your coal vases write to Messrs. R. Mel-
huish and Sons, 85 and 87, Fetter Lane,
London, E.C. , describing what you want.
If they cannot send you what you require
at once, they will doubtless procure it for
you.
Painting In Oils.
Artist. — We have no intention of
giving detailed instructions on this sub-
ject at present; but if any new process is
introduced it will be described.
Commendatory.
T. G. L. M. (Peckham) writes :— " I
take this opportunity to express my best
thanks for the effort you have made in
producing a really useful work for ' we
amateurs.' I devoured ' Every Man his
Own Mechanic ' with more than common
interest, but Amateur Wtork, Illus-
trated is to me as a bun is to Jumbo,
simply delicious. I hold my trunk further
extended every issue."
Rubber-Stamp Making.
]. H. (Middle A lion), — An article on
this subject will be given shortly.
Cabinet Making.
T. W. H. (Lower Sydenham).— 1 am
sorry that a mistake was made in your
first initial. Some easy pieces of cabinet
work for less experienced amateurs shall
be given. Articles from your pen are
always welcome.
Iron Rust.
H. N. (Somerset House). — To make this
put as many old nails or small pieces of
iron as the hand can conveniently hold in
half-a-pint of vinegar.
Boiler for Model Steamer.
H. W. (Cupar). — Your engines appear
to be just the size for the boat. Complete
instructions for building a model steam-
boat will be given as soon as possible.
For bronzing try the "American Magic
Bronze," sold by Messrs. B. F. Brown &
Co., 18 and 19, Norman's Buildings, St.
Luke's, London.
Taxidermy.
R. H. M. (Nenagh). — Anything new
on this subject will find a place in our
pages, and if it be practicable and gene-
rally desired, detailed instructions will be
given for the benefit of those who wish to
practise the art.
Fan for Fire-Grate.
T. B. (Carrick-on-Suir). — To thread
the fan screen, take a narrow tape or
ribbon, pass it through the three slits
shown in design in regular order, fixing
METHOD OF THREADING LEAVES OF
FAN SCREEN FOR FIRE-GRATE.
either of the two portions between the
slits with a touch of glue. The order
should be, lay the fan open with the top-
most spoke on the left, pass the tape from
above, down through the left slit, up
through the middle, and down again
through the right, turn over ends as first
and last leaf, and secure with gum.
Reeds in Wood- work.
C. E. L. (Taunton) andW. M. (Lynn).
— The reeds on beading on the edges of
the shelves of the Skeleton Hanging Wall
Cabinets and pieces of furniture similarly
adorned, are made by an instrument
called a " reed plane." These planes are
constructed to cut from one to five reeds,
and are sold at from 3s. ^d. to 6s. 6d.,
according to the number of reeds. Dove-
tailed boxed planes of this description are
made, but is. extra is charged on the
plane for each dovetail.
Couch with Spring Seat, etc.
R. B. (Bo/ton). — Kindly explain what
you mean by a ''stalked tea-table?"
Working drawings of an admirable chair,
that any amateur may make, will be given
in an early part.
Walking Sticks.
K. R. (Ipswich) wishes for information
on the best methods of straightening,
varnishing, andotherwise preparing sticks,
with or without bark, to serve as walking
sticks. Will any of our readers send
short article on this subject?
Mounts for Pictures.
Amateur Picture-Framer. — Articles
on cutting mounts and on picture-framing
generally, are in preparation.
Soldering and Brazing.
R. W. G. (Rathkeale).— Articles on
these subjects will be commenced shortly.
Artificial Limbs.
W. R. (Kendal). — It would be useless
to treat on the manufacture of artificial
limbs, because there is not one amateur
in ten thousand who would take up the
work in the first place, or could carry it
out successfully in the second. For any
information you may require, apply to Mr.
J. Gillingham, Surgeon Mechanist, Pros-
pect House, Chard, a man of the highest
ability who has wrought wonders in this
way, and who commenced work as an
amateur in the field in which he has
attained such eminent success. He is aj
thoroughly practical man, who follows
the teachings and suggestions of nature,
and is literally one in a million.
Second Hand Tools, etc.
W. Beauchamp wishes (i.) for facili-
ties to be given for the advertisement of
second-hand tools, etc., in this magazine.
It shall be considered, as it might usefully
take the place of the contemplated Ex-
change and Sale Column, (ii.) Designs
for chairs and furniture to be made in the
lathe will be given as opportunity offers,
(iii.) A lathe with a bed about 4 feet in
length would be required, (iv.) Articles
on painting and glazing pottery will b^ .
commenced in Part XII.
Exchange and Sale Column.
J. R. (Nottingham). — You are too late
in the field with regard to the article men-
tioned in your letter. Owing to the ex-*
treme fewness of the articles that have been
proposed for sale or exchange, it has been
thought better to defer the appearance of
an ' ' Exchange and Sale Column " till Part
XII., for November, 1882. Letters re-
specting articles to be mentioned in this*
special column must not reach us later-i'
than October 1, forinsertion in Part XII.,' j
which will be published in advance of its
date. See also answer to W. Beau-
champ re Second-hand Tools.
Miscellaneous.
CAPT. K. (Kirby Lonsdale).— Your I
letter has been sent to the firm named
therein. The non-receipt of their cata-
logue is owing, perhaps, to its having
miscarried in transit through the post.
Without doubt, a satisfactory explSia-
tion of the delay will be giveni
r
Fig. 7 -Half-panel F F
PANEL D
1
PANEL E
D PANEL D
Framework of
Looking-glass, ail Eabbetted
like a Picture Frame.
GLASS
F PANEL F
XJ
TT
K PLAN K
XE
xxxxxx
Fig. 8-Railing 1 1
GLASS
PANEL E
V
Fig. 9— Buttress L L.
Fig. 4^ Half -Panel E.
Fig. 2 -Plan and Framework of Overmantel. Pig. 1— Sketch, of Glaas lin. to 1ft.
THE "LILY" MIRROR, A DESIGN FOR AN OVERMANTEL IN FRETWORK, WITH LOOKING-GLASS PANELS,
hoube bhubbuhy 8QUABE londom ec Comprising Plan, Skfitoh, and Fall-Sized Detatle.
" BfJ. W. GLEE&OH-WHITE.
-
il
•fcV^'°
^
h
m
I
VELOCIPEDES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE.
435
VELOCIPEDES :
THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE.
By A. STEPHENSON.
II.— Machines and Novelties of Present Season.
TRICYCLE (as the term is now under-
stood and accepted among us) is a light
carriage or machine, having, as the term
implies, three wheels furnished with tyres
to run upon the ground, for whatever
number or combination of wheels there may be in the |
seme of the leading machines of the present season
(1882) as well as some of the novelties that have
\z tely made their appearance.
In a tricycle the essential qualities wanted are
speed, ease of propulsion, comfort, and safety ; and
we find the makers, almost without exception, putting
their own particular make of machine forth as
possessing all of these qualities, but it is left to the
user to find out very soon that his machine possesses
few, if any of them, notwithstanding the assurances
given him by the maker or dealer.
Now our present task is to find out which machine
FIG. 3.— CRANKED PEDAL-
ROD OR SHAFT.
FIG. 5.
DIAGRAM niUSTBATIVE
OF PEOPEB METHOD
OF PEDALLING.
=CE^
FIG. I. — DIAGRAM [)
ILLUSTRATIVE OF
ROTARY MOTION.
FIG- 2-— DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATIVE OF LEVER MOTION.
ing or
FIG. 4. — DIAGRAM
SHOWING ROTARY
ACTION ON DEAD
CENTRE.
drivin^'or other mechanism of the machine, only the
carrying wheels are reckoned in its designation.
There are now very many different types or makes
of tricycles, for the three wheeler, as compared with
the Mfcycle, admits of quite a variety of methods of
distribfction of the wheels, as also a great variety of
methods of applying propelling mechanism ; some of
the new introductions being of a very ingenious
description, and having very marked advantages over
the ordinary crank motion.
Befcre entering upon a detailed description of the
construction of any particular machine, it will be pro-
fitable, in the way of information, to notice shortly
is the speediest, easiest to drive, most comfortable,
and most safe ; and to confer the like knowledge on
all those who choose to read and study these papers
with a view to the building of their own tricycle. If
the amateur mechanically inclined is content to copy,
let him copy the best by all means ; but if he has
brains to give to the world something original, let it
be better, and if having tried hard to give out some-
thing better, and having failed, has to fall back upon
copying, let him copy the best.
The essential parts of a tricycle may be reckoned
as at six ; namely, wheels, frame, driving apparatus,
steering apparatus, brake, and seat ; now it is upon
T
'
436
VELOCIPEDES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE.
the true mechanical construction, arrangement, and
proportion of these parts that the excellence of a
tricycle depends, and the mechanic must possess an
extensive knowledge of mechanical powers and move-
ments, in order to apply them to the best advantage
in the construction of a tricycle.
Doubtless many of those interested in velocipede
matters, are aware that there is a book called the
Tricyclist's Indispensable Annua/, published by Iliffe
and Son, Coventry. In this book is a short descrip-
tion of about two hundred tricycles, as well as a
description of the various parts common to all tri-
cycles. It is altogether a very useful handbook on
the subject, showing as it does the peculiarities of the
various makes of machines, with illustrations of many
of them, and pointing out their excellences or defects,
as the case may be.
Now as to the distribution of the carrying wheels
of a tricycle. The most common form has two equal
wheels, facing each other (that is, one on either side
of the machine, either attached to a through axle, or
on short pins, or axle ends projecting from the sides
of the frame and placed in line) and one small wheel
placed either in front, or in the rear opposite the
centre of the frame. When this small wheel is placed
behind, the machine is called a rear steerer and open
front ; of this class may be mentioned the Cheyles-
more, Rapid, Caroche, Centaur, Coventry Favourite,
Zephyr, Express, Meteor, and many others.
The Caroche, double driver, Challenge No. 6,
Coventry Phcenix, Meteor No. 2, Premier, Royal
Salvo, Special Centaur, and a number of others, have
the steering-wheel in front. All the above machines
are three-track. A few are converted into two-track,
by having the small wheel placed either before
or behind one of the large wheels, and in line
with it, such as the National Special, Queen, Swing
Lever, etc.
Then we have machines with one large wheel as a
central driver, and two small equal wheels as steerers.
The Challenge No. 1, Dublin Lever, and Bi-tricycle are
of this type. In the two former the small wheels run
first, and are both steered. In the bi-tricycle the
small wheels run behind, the large wheel steering.
Indeed, the machine is in all respects a bicycle, ex-
cepting that there are two small wheels mounted on
one cross axle behind, instead of one as in the ordinary
bicycle.
Another class of machine has one large wheel and
two small, the large wheel occupying one side and
acting as the driver, the two small wheels occupying
the other side and acting as rudders or steerers. The
" Coventry Rotary" is a machine of this class, and in
some respects it is superior to many of the ordinary
make of tricycles. The rider sits immediately over
the axle of large wheel, which is on his left, then he
has on the right side a small wheel about a yard
behind the centre, and the other small wheel a like
distance in front, and both acted upon by a steering
rod. It will be seen from this that the machine cannot
readily upset, either backwards or forwards, and stand-
ing upon the pedals for power does not alter the
equilibrium. The two small wheels carry equally
between them half the full load ; consequently, they
have always a good grip of the ground for steering,
and the machine steers steadily, and turns with the
greatest facility.
Another type of machine has all three wheels of
unequal size, the steering-wheel may be either behind
or before, in the centre track or in line with the next
larger wheel. They are made thus for lightness, but
this, it must be said, is about the only advantage they
possess.
One machine deserves special mention, both from
its novel construction and its performances as a
racing tricycle. This machine is called the "Humber,"
it has two equal driving-wheels and a small wheel
behind, but, unlike other tricycles, the small wheel is
not the rudder but simply the follower, as in a bicycle.
The " Humber" has the large wheels mounted on a
through axle, with the driving gear consisting of
wheel and chain, on the centre of that axle. From
this point a backbone with a pivoted head like a
bicycle runs backwards to the trailing wheel. On the
backbone is a saddle, and in front a handle bar
with which the machine is steered exactly bicycle
fashion.
Tricycles are distinguished as single and double
drivers. In a single driver one of the large side wheels
only has the driving power applied to it. It may be
the right hand wheel or the left, it makes no difference
which. The opposite wheel runs loose on its axle,
while the small wheel either behind or in front as the
case may be, acts as rudder.
Now a single driving tricycle is faulty in theory,
inasmuch as the driving wheel has to take along with
it the opposite wheel which is as large as itself, and
that in an awkward sidelong fashion, as well'as the
rudder-wheel, which is in the centre track ; but in
practice it has been found to answer remarkably well
upon good smooth roads, and the facility with which
it can be steered and turned in any direction by
reason of its loose wheel, as well as the simplicity of
its construction and consequent cheapness, have made
it a favourite type of machine during the last few years.
It is true that many machines are now being made
double drivers, as the advantages of double driving
cannot be disputed, but the single driver has. still a
good hold upon the market and is likely to keep
it for some time. The two classes, single and double
VELOCIPEDES : THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE.
437
drivers, are at present about equally divided as to
numbers.
A word now as to the source of driving power, as
applied to a tricycle. One machine, the " Baronet,''
has steam power as an auxiliary to the foot power.
Electricity has been tried, and may yet do great things,
but in the "meantime the prevailing sources of power
are the rider's own legs and arms, the legs rotating a
cranked shaft or moving a pair of levers, and the arms
aiding the legs by clutching a pair of fixed purchase
handles, or working, as in the case of some half-dozen
different machines, a pair of hand levers.
The pedal motion, hence the term velocipede or
velocipedal machine, assisted by the purchase handles
b^ing that most commonly in use, we will look at it in
its two systems of application, rotary and lever,
although the term lever may be applied to all tricycles,
as all are driven by leverage, without exception,
■whether by feet, hands, steam, or by any other means
of force.
So the rotary motion is simply a lever having a
rotary or circular motion, the two pedals being
actuated by the feet, and describing a circle of about
12 inches in diameter (see diagram, Fig. i), whereas
the lever motion, as distinguished from the rotary, has
a sort of vertical, or up and down motion, the pedals
only travel for about 12 inches in the arc of a very
much larger circle (see Fig. 2.)
The mechanism of the rotary action consists of a
cranked pedal rod or shaft, Fig. 3, which turns in
bearings at a a. The two ends are in line, and from
the centre of a a to the centre of the pedals, which move
freely on the parts B B, the distance is 6 inches ; con-
sequently, it is a 6 inch lever with the fulcrum at A a.
On one end a, or on each end a a, if for two chains,
a wheel is keyed, having cogs or teeth to fit a chain
made especially for this purpose. A similar wheel is
keyed on to the main driving shaft, or if the machine
is an open front single driver, this wheel is fixed to
the hub on the driving side, the whole turning freely
on a stud or axle end, fixed to the side of the frame.
The chain is made of a length to encircle the upper
and lower cog-wheels, and united, thus forming an
endless chain. The pedals, Fig. 1, put in motion by
the feet, drive the machine in the same direction.
Now, if the two cog-wheels are the same size, the
machine is said to be geared level, that is to say, a
complete turn of the pedals is a complete turn of
the large driving wheel, and if that wheel be 48
inches, then a complete revolution will be a fraction
over 12 feet.
To gear down a machine of this size, would be to
reduce the speed, and increase the power, thereby
making the machine a better hill climber, this would
be effected by increasing the size of the upper cog-
wheel, or reducing the size of that on the pedal rod,
and the difference in the power of the machine would
be in proportion to the difference made in these cog-
wheels. Supposing you had on two cog-wheels of 6
inch diameter, the machine would be running level,
but substitute an 8 inch wheel on the main shaft, and
a 4 inch on the pedal rod, the machine is now geared
down from a 48 inch to a 24 inch. You have now
double power, with only half the former speed.
Unfortunately, this change of speed to power, and vice
versa, cannot be effected at the will of the rider on
the road, unless he carries a small mechanic's shop
along with him. Consequently, a variety of very
clever methods of accomplishing this desirable change
have been devised, which will be noticed in due
course. Those readers who possess the Tricycle
Annual, or Handbook, may meantime take a look at
the "Arrow," "Rapid," "Dual," and " Omnicycle," hill
climbing gear. For the three former, the chain is
dispensed with, its place being taken by a series of
cog or bevel wheels, made to gear for speed or power at
the will of the rider. A number of machines are driven
by three cog-wheels geared into each other, or rather
two cog-wheels gearing into a third, having small
revolving rollers similar to these in the chain. One
machine the " Sterling," has but two wheels — one on
the main shaft, and one on pedal rod — gearing into
each other. To drive this machine, you have to pedal
backwards, this at first sight looks rather ridiculous,
but it is only in look; and this method has some
advantages over the ordinary forward pedalling which
could be readily shown, one being that in ascending a
hill the back instead of the front pedal receives the full
power of the thrust, and that at a point 12 inches
nearer the rear steering-wheel, so there is less danger
of lifting that wheel off the ground.
The rotary motion is preferred by many on account
of its being analogous to that of the bicycle, and some
makers have thrown aside both chains and gear-
wheels of all kinds, and have applied cranks and
connecting rods to the rotary pedal shaft. The cranks
on the ends of the pedal rod are set at right angles to
each other, and similar cranks set in the same way are
on the main shaft, the connecting rods join the two,
and the objectionable dead centre is in a sense over-
come, and the rotary action of the feet is still retained.
Of this class of machine, may be mentioned the
" Magnet" and " Special Zephyr."
Lever motion is recognized as that in which hori-
zontal or other levers having pedals fitted to one end
for the feet, are made to turn cranks or other appli-
ances on the main driving shaft. The ordinary crank
shaft has two cranks in the same plane, but set in
opposite directions. The lever is a rod or bar, some
two feet or so in length ; one end is hinged to some
4j8
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
part of the frams, forming the fulcrum, the other
carries the pedal, and at a suitable part of the lever
between these two points, the connecting rods are
attache!, as at c c, Fig. 2, in the centre. The throw
of the crank would determine the place to attach rods
to levers.
To my mind the lever motion has a slight advan-
tage over the rotary, inasmuch as the power is applied
in a direct downward thrust, and the feet have not to
travel backwards and forwards as in the rotary. It
will be seen that both motions are crank motions, and
both have the serious drawback of getting on the
dead centres, and thus bringing the rider to a stand
still in ascending steep hills. To a lider this does
not require to be explained, he knows it well enough ;
but to those uninitiated the following diagrams will be
of use.
In Fig. 4 is shown the rotary action on the dead
centre. Suppose the power to be applied in the
direction of the line A A, the pedals being at B B, it
is evident that no force that could be applied would
move the machine, and in order to start you would have
to move the wheels by hand till the pedals got over
the centre towards c, when the foot being applied, the
maximum of power is attained till the pedal reaches
D, from which point it begins to get less, till it is lost
altogether at E, nor is there any power whatever got
from that pedal till it has come round to c again, so
that it will be seen the maximum of power is only
obtainable for something like one-fourth of a revolution
for each pedal, and that no power is obtainable what-
ever for more than half the revolution. An expe-
rienced rider can, in a great measure, overcome this
difficulty, however, by his method of pedalling, wherein
a novice would utterly fail. This he accomplishes by
bending the front of the foot on the lower pedal
downwards, thereby drawing that pedal back or to-
wards him, and at the same time elevating the front
of the other foot, and by the two actions bring the
second pedal over the centre. This will be readily
seen from the diagram, Fig. 5, assuming the thrust to
be on the vertical line A a.
On level ground the momentum of the machine
will take it over these dead points, and they are not
much felt ; but upon ascending a stiff hill the difficulty
becomes a still more serious one, especially if the
machine is not fitted with means of increasing the
power.
The dead point difficulty has been overcome by
several makers in a very ingenious fashion, as in the
" Omnicycle," " Overman," " Dutton," and others ; but
as this paper is sufficiently long, a description of
these must be reserved for the third of this series of
articles.
{To be continued .)
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD HERON-ALLEN.
IX.— The Strings.
AVING finally adjusted all the fittings of
the violin, and got together the miscellanea
of the fiddler's art, there remains but one
particular to be attended to before pro-
ceeding from the consideration of the
Bow to the actual manual operations necessary for
the carrying out of the scientific principles which have
been the subject of the preceding chapters. This
matter, which, though left till the last, is almost as
important as the existence of the fiddle itself, is the
consideration, selection, and manufacture of the strings.
It is not an uncommon thing to see an amateur enter
a violin-dealer's shop and say " Give me two firsts, and
a second, please," and walk off with the first three
given him by the individual in charge, without even
examining them. The chances are a hundred to one
that the result of that amateur's expenditure of capital
will be a source of considerable ghastliness, of thought
to himself, and sound to his sorrowing family or
neighbours. It cannot be too strongly borne in mind
that not only must the size, quality, and substance of
the strings be perfect, but that the individual strings
chosen must suit the instrument to which they are to
be applied, for a string that would produce a mellow
and full tone on one fiddle might very probably be
harsh and "criard" on another. This care in choosing
particularly applies to the first string, or chanterelle,
and proportionately to the others.
The appliance known as a string-gauge is well
known, and has before been referred to ; but each
violinist ought to have one to his own fiddle, i.e., he
should get one quite plain, and as he gets good, sweet,
and true strings on to his fiddle, which suit the instru-
ment, he should mark it for himself, by them, and as
nearly as possible always choose strings the same size
by its aid.
As to the strings themselves, besides being suited
to the fiddle to which they are fixed, they must also
possess certain qualities which are absolutely indis-
pensable to tone, and which are technically summed
up in four words : They must be true. True, not only
individually, but true to one another ; and this truth is
only to be obtained, in the first case, by being properly
constructed and chosen, and in the second case by
being accurately proportioned, or gauged to each other.
It is absolutely necessary that a string be of even
thickness throughout, i.e., one end must not be thinner
than another or else the production of perfect fifths
and harmonic octaves will be rendered impossible.
,
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
439
As the sounding of these two combinations is the best,
and absolutely certain test for falseness in a string, it
may be advisable here to consider the conditions
necessary for their perfect production. When a string
is divided into two equal halves by a light pressure of
the little finger, in the fourth position, the well-known
sound of the harmonic octave is produced by the two
halves of the string vibrating simultaneously and
consonantly, as in Fig. 58. If re-divided at a quarter of
its length from the nut by the first finger, in the third
position, a second octave (higher) is produced by the
four quarters of the string vibrating simultaneously
and consonantly, as in Fig. 59, and it is immaterial
whether the little finger be removed or not (though in
many instances it is advisable that it be kept in position
as in the figure) ; now if the thickness of the string be
not uniform, and the string be divided by a firm
pressure, as in Fig. 60, and the two halves thus isolated
obvious, for if one string is finer at one end than at the
other, the two equal halves will have a different intona-
tion, and the fifth produced by vibrating such a string
simultaneously with another true one will not be per-
fect, but harsh and disonant. Therefore, if a string
will render two perfect harmonic octaves, and if another
vibrated simultaneously with it gives perfect fifths when
stopped at an identical point, those two strings are true,
in themselves, and to one another. It has been sug-
gested that when strings are thus falsified by want of
similarity throughout their breadth, the defect may be
to a certain extent remedied by passing a moist finger
along the finer portion of the string, and by thus
swelling it an approach to equality of thickness pro-
duces somewhat the desired result, but it will always
be found best to take another string at once, rather
than try to remedy a false one. It will be said that
this is a lengthy mode of judging of a false string, and
a.
—~£U
SB
FIG. 60.
Figs. 58, 59, 60.— Diagrams illustrating Tests of Strings.— References to Letters : A, Bridge ; B, Nut ; C, Little Finger
(fourth position) ; D, First Finger (third position). In Fig. 58 the string is shown divided into two halves, a,b, by light
pressure at C. In Fig. 59 the string is divided into four quarters at c, d. e,f, by light pressure at D— pressure at C optional.
In Fig. 60 the string is divided into two halves, a', 6', by firm pressure at C.
be struck with the bow, the thinner end of the string
will give a higher note than the thicker, and, conse-
quently, if to such a string a light pressure be applied,
as in Fig. 58, the two halves vibrating simultaneously
but not consonantly, a false, squeaky note will be pro-
duced in place of the clear flute tone of a true
harmonic octave. The higher harmonic octave, as in
Fig- 59, constitutes in similar manner a yet finer test
for the truth of an individual string.
The next test for the truth of a string, both
individually and to its neighbour, is the production of
perfect fifths. By this is meant that if two strings are
stopped by the finger both together at any given point,
a fifth will be produced the same as it was when the
two open strings gave a perfect fifth when sounded
together. If the harmonic octaves of both open strings
are sounded together by one light pressure, as in Fig.
58, they will (if the two strings are true) produce a per-
fect harmonic fifth, an octave above the perfect fifth
produced by the open strings. The reason for this is
that a string once mounted and removed, is useless
alike to the buyer and seller, the only chance therefore
is to be guided by the eye in choosing strings in the
shop, and a very short acquaintance with the exterior
signs of a good string will effectually guard the fiddler
from ever investing in a false one. A string, as seen in
the coil or bundle at a shop, ought to be transparent,
and without spots or blotches throughout its entire
length. It should be pliant and elastic, returning to
its former shape without breaking when pressed or
pulled out ; it should not be too white, for this betokens
improper materials or excessive bleaching, both of
which render a string brittle and false. A good string
must not lose its transparency, and become cloudy and
yellow when bent. Seconds and thirds may be with-
out harm much whiter than firsts, but otherwise the
same rules apply. It is often laid down that the truth
of a string may be determined by vibrating it between
the fingers, and that if it present only two even lines
it is true, and if more, false. It is certain that if it
440
VIOLIN MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
produce an irregular or multiplied figure it is false, but
it does not follow that if the lines be clear and distinct
it is true ; and again, a string which may seem true at
a slight tension, may quite possibly be false at the
higher tension to which it is subjected when applied to
a fiddle, though as a rule a string may be false at a low
ension whilst it is true at a higher. The reader will
appreciate this if he has ever been forced as a. pis allct
to mount an E string as an A. It remains, therefore
that the only way to ensure choosing good strings is to
go as far as possible by the appearances before
mentioned, and, above all, to deal only with the best
goods of the best dealers. It is a mistake, to my mind,
for amateurs to think they can save money by buying
a bundle of fifteen or thirty coils at once ; they are
almost sure to go wrong before they are all used,
unless the greatest care is taken of them. Some
people wrap their spare strings in bladder or flannel
moistened with oil, a process which, even if the oil
does not go rancid, as it generally does, can only be
characterized as horrid. The mess involved in putting
on a new greasy string is enough, if you are not of a
seraphic disposition (I am not) to make you touchy for
the rest of the performance. I never buy more than
two strings at a time, and always keep just one set
handy. I use Mr. Hill's gut strings and Mr. Hart's
covered ones, and never have had a bad one since I
started this arrangement.
The different strings now in the market are de-
scribed by Mr. Hart in his work "The Violin: its Makers
and Imitators," as follows : " Musical strings are
manufactured in Italy, Germany, France, and England.
The Italians rank first in this manufacture, their pro-
ficiency being evident in the three chief requisites for
strings, viz., high finish, great durability, purity of
sound. There are manufactories at Rome, Naples,
Padua, and Verona, the separate characteristics of
which are definitely marked in their produce. Those
strings which are manufactured at Rome are exceed-
ingly hard and brilliant, and exhibit a slight roughness
of finish. The Neapolitan samples are smooth and
softer than the Roman, and also whiter in appearance.
Those of Padua are highly polished and durable, but
frequently false. The German strings now rank next
to the Italian, Saxony being the seat of manufacture.
They may be described as very white and smooth, the
better kinds being very durable. Their chief fault
arises from their being over bleached, and hence
faulty in sound. The French take the third place in
the manufacture. Their strings are carefully made,
and those of the larger sizes answer well, but the
smaller strings are wanting in durability. The English
manufacture all qualities, but chiefly the cheaper kinds,
they are durable, but unevenly made, and have a dark
appearance."
The cause of variation in quality of the several
kinds arises simply from the difference of climate.
In Italy an important part of the process of manu-
facture is carried on in the open air, and the beautiful
climate is made to effect that which has to be done
artificially in other countries. Hence the Italian
superiority. Southern Germany adopts, to some ex-
tent, similar means in making strings ; France to a
less degree ; while England is obliged to rely solely
on artificial processes. It therefore amounts to this
result, the further from Italy the more inferior the
string.
It is a matter of everyday occurrence to hear
people talk of fiddle strings as " catgut ; " indeed, one
great writer has alluded to a violinist as a man who
stretches the bowels of a cat over a wooden box and
rubs them with the tail of a horse. However this may
be, it is one of those carefully-persisted-in errors made
on the Incus a non lucendo principle. Setting aside
for future consideration the silk, metal, and acribelle
strings, we will turn our attention to the manufacture
of the ordinary strings, which are all similarly com-
posed, the only difference being that the fourth (or G)
string is covered with a layer of fine wire, whose com-
position and object will be hereafter noticed. Strings
for the violin, and nearly all other string instruments,
are composed of the small intestines of sheep, the
best are those of Iambs which have lived on dry
mountainous pastures ; and it is said that the best lambs
are those from the province of Berry, and other parts
of Germany, and they are at their best for the purpose
of string-making in the month of September, which is
consequently the string-making month in each year.
The intestine used is that one which is composed
of the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ilion ; it is
composed of three membranes, the external, or peri-
toneal, and the mucous membranes, which are removed
as useless, but which enclose between them a third,
the muscular or fibrous membrane, which is used in
the manufacture of fiddle strings. The intestines are
fetched direct from the butchers, whilst the carcases
are still warm, and from which they are detached by
workmen who are specially employed for the purpose,
by whom they are at once stretched upon an inclined
plane and scraped with a knife blade, to clean and
empty them of all foreign substances, grease, etc.
This must be done quickly and whilst the intestines
are yet warm, or the cooling matters would hopelessly
colour the intestines ; after this operation the intes-
tines are tied up in bundles and placed in vessels to
carry them to the manufactory, where they are tied in
bundles of ten, and placed in cold water from twelve
to fifteen hours ; this may be done in a running stream
or in a vat of spring water, slightly corrected with
carbonate of soda. After this they are immersed four
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
441
or five hours in tepid running water. These soakings
produce a slight fermentation, which aids the separa-
tion of the fibrous from the mucous and peritoneal
membranes, which is done by women scraping the
intestines with a split cane on a slightly inclined slab,
down which a current of water constantly runs ; the
internal membranes run off into a trough and are used
as manure, the external are used for raquets, whips,
and other rougher articles composed of gut. The
fibrous membranes separated in bundles of about
ten, are now placed in stone jars to soak for three or
four hours in potassa lye (or ammoniacal solution,
which is preferable), whose strength must be most
carefully apportioned to the work to be done. At the
end of this time they are carefully rubbed through the
first finger, protected by a gutta percha glove, and the
thumb armed with a copper thimble, of the left hand ;
by this means are removed any of the fragments of
the two superfluous membranes which may have
escaped the first scraping. This operation is gene-
rally repeated at two hours' interval three times during
the day, after each of which they are put into a similar
stone jar of solution of permanganate of potassa.
The fourth time this is repeated they are not replaced
into solution, but are merely dipped into a weak
solution of sulphuric acid. These operations are re-
peated for two or three days, morning and evening,
always similarly increasing the strength of the solution.
The guts are now sufficiently cleaned to be sorted,
and, if necessary, split. They are sorted by expe-
rienced workmen into qualities, lengths, thicknesses,
and strengths, so that each may be devoted to its
proper uses and tones. As the guts, in their natural
state, are not sufficiently uniform in diameter to obtain
that cylindricity and parallelness that is the great aim
of the string-maker, they often require to be split into
long threads by means of a knife specially prepared
for the purpose, which threads are then placed in a
jar with their thick and thin ends set alternately. The
next operation is the spinning, which is performed on
a frame about three times as long as a fiddle. It is
done as follows : two, three, or more fibres (accord-
ing to the string required to be made) are taken and
set alternately ; that is, the thick end of one opposite
the thin end of another. The usual number appor-
tioned to the four strings of a violin are as follows :
for the first, or E string, 3-4 fine threads ; for the
second, or A, 3-4 strong ones ; for the third, or D, 6-7
strong ones. Beyond this double bass strings reach
as many as 85 fibres, but this is a branch of the
manufacture which does not concern us at present.
At one end of the frame is a little wheel which
bears two hooks, at the other end are little fixed pegs.
The guts selected are fixed to a peg which is set in one
hook of the wheel, and carried to the other end of the
frame, twisted round a fixed peg, brought back to
the other end and fixed to the other hook of the wheel
by another peg; this wheel is rapidly revolved by a
multiplying fly-wheel, and the guts are twisted up into
a fiddle-string, the fingers being passed along it mean-
while to prevent the formation of inequalities in its
length. The pegs are then removed from the hooks
and set into holes opposite the fixed pegs at the other
end of the frame (in the same way as tuning pegs are
set into the scroll of a fiddle), and the work proceeds in
the same way with a new bundle of guts from another
fixed peg and the hooked wheel, until the frame is full.
The strings are then sulphured to whiten them in a sul-
phuring chamber, into which the frames are placed, and
flowers of sulphur ignited in the centre. The chamber
is then hermetically sealed and left for the night, during
which time the strings become bleached by the action of
the sulphurous acid gas evolved by the combustion of
the sulphur. They are next morning exposed to air (but
not rain) till nearly dry, when they are again moistened,
twisted on the frame, and replaced in the sulphur bath,
this operation lasts from two to eight days according
to the size of the string being made. The strings are
then thoroughly polished and rubbed to get rid of all
inequalities, grease, or other foreign particles ; this is
done whilst they are still on the frame by means of a
set of hair cushions, which enveloping the strings, by a
lateral movement submits them to a rapid and forcible
friction, they being from time to time during the ope-
ration moistened with a sponge soaked in an alkaline
solution of potassa. The strings are then wiped to get
rid of all impurities, moistened with pure water, and
replaced for the night in the sulphur bath, after which
they are again twisted and dried. When dry they are
polished, an operation which first, orE strings are fre-
quently allowed to go without, but which for the others
takes place as follows : — The frames are laid flat upon
trestles or other supports, and the strings are polished
by hand or machinery by means of little gutta percha
cushions, olive oil and pounce, or whitening, being
used for the purpose. These polishers are run from
end to end of the strings till the requisite polish has
been obtained. The strings are then carefully wiped
and lightly moistened with olive oil, after which they
are thoroughly dried, which is when on loosening the
pegs they do not contract. The strings are now cut
from the frames close to the pegs, and rolled into
circles as we see them in commerce, after which they
are made up into bundles of fifteen or thirty.
It remains to us now before noticing patent strings
to turn to the consideration of covered strings. On the
violin only one such is used, the fourth, or G string ; but
going a step farther to the tenor, or viola, we get another
covered string, the C, which balances the absence of the
E. For violins it is generally gut which is covered with
442
HOW TO BUILD A PERAMBULATOR.
copper (plated or pure) or silver. Silk is also used, but
it is difficult to tune accurately, and will not remain
in tune when once screwed up ; undoubtedly the best
are the copper plated gut ones. I always obtain my
covered strings for viola from Mr. G. Hart, who
covers them with alternate spirals of gun-metal and
plated copper. The best (recommended by Herr
Strauss) are wrapped over close to the knot with red
silk. The gut of which these strings are formed is
not sulphured, nor is it oiled. The string is fixed at
one end to a hook set on a wheel, and at the other to
a turning swivel which holds the string stretched by
means of a weight. The turning of the wheel turns
the strings and the swivel, and the workman carefully
wraps the wire on to the string as it revolves, taking
the greatest care to preserve its regularity and close
winding. The gut used must be perfectly uniform in
diameter throughout its length, and incapable of fur-
ther stretching. Consequently it is strongly stretched
before the wire is wound on, or else by subsequent
stretching the core would recede from the helix, and the
effect can only be described by those who have suf-
fered it. All violin players are familiar with the now-
common acribelle, or silk, strings, which are composed
of an infinity of filaments of silk so twisted together
and polished as to exceed in uniformity and transpa-
rency the finest gut strings. For players troubled
with oerspiring hands, and for hot or damp climates,
they are without doubt invaluable, for they are but
little affected by damp, and they make up in conve-
nience in these respects what they certainly lack in
tone. They are apt also to fray and get ragged, and
though it has been recommended when this is the
case to draw the string quickly through the flame of
a spirit lamp, to remove the frayed fibres, an acribelle
once gone wrong acquires an accession of infinite
ghastliness more easily imagined than described.
(To be continued.')
:>- 1- — =-
HOW TO BUILD A PERAMBULATOR.
By J. B. WOOLFITT.
MONG inferior or lesser means of locomo-
tion in these days, the domestic peram-
bulator plays a part, the importance of
which cannot be over-estimated ; then
distinct from utility, were beauty the sole
quality desired, nothing, apparently, may be added to
the elegance of its form. Had the poet, ere he con-
ceived Queen Mab's conveyance, seen the perfection
baby's coach now displays, we may opine that
11 Wagon spokes maie of long spinner's legs,
And cover of the wings of grasshoppers,"
would have given place to parts fashioned of grosser
material ; but, beyond all frivolous laudation, it
is a healthy and comfortable means whereby the
younger members of the household may take the air,
and this fact must commend its adoption to Pater-
familias.
The acquisition of such a desideratum will dis-
cover many advantages wherein infantile locomotion
is concerned ; of these an immunity from fatigue will
not be the least that the nurse will experience; further-
more, by bringing improved wheels into application,
an easy and noiseless progression is attained, con-
ducive to an enjoyment of quiet slumber by the occu-
pant, andat the same time such facility is afforded for
propulsion and direction that must lessen the liability
to obstruction that hitherto branded as a nuisance this
small vehicle when driven upon the footway. It is,
therefore, a matter for congratulation that time has
abated this bad quality, and saved the expression of
many anathemas by crusty pedestrians.
Notwithstanding the fact that so useful an article
may be bought at a comparatively low price, there are
those who have a wish, and in the light of a little
instruction may be induced, to try their hands upon
its manufacture. An inspection of the body will
prove its construction to be a very simple work, and a
task the amateur may attempt with little fear as to
ultimate success — that is, if he is possessed of ordi-
nary capabilities, and is desirous to save the outlay
attendant upon professional labour. The other por-
tions, however, do not admit of like arguments being
advanced in favour of their manufacture at home, for
there is much in them to call for skill, in a degree,
greater than wherewith the inexperienced are usually
endowed. The requisite implements must also be
taken into consideration, as, for instance, the spindle
of the front wheel, the handle, and the boxes of the
side wheels — all of these must be turned. Then a
forge will be necessary for the springs and other iron-
work; or if it be decided to employ metal wheels, the
compulsory element of truth they will demand will not
be obtained without the use of an engineer's lathe.
Possibly there are amateurs who have access to the
usual adjuncts of a forge and the necessary lathes, but
for the assistance of less fortunate ones, it may be men-
tioned that there are many makers who will gladly
supply the set of fittings, together with wheels of either
kind. Some will, no doubt, avail themselves of this
latter information, which having imparted, we will
postpone the complexity of iron-work, wheels, etc.,
and proceed to the straightforward cutting out and
fitting together of the body, which requires a material
less intractable in the hands of the amateur.
There are various designs extant for the sides,
many of which display good proportion and tasteful
outline ; and the amateur's own judgment may be em-
HOW TO BUILD A PERAMBULATOR.
443
ployed to select from these, or he may invent a shape
that will best suit his requirements, bearing always in
mind that elaboration must not be so obtrusive that
the quality of strength is put aside and lost sight of.
Either of the shapes shown in Figs. I, 2, and 3 might
would be irreparable, or to be remedied only by taking
apart and putting on an entire new side.
Having decided upon the design, and set it out for
right and left upon % inch pine boards, planed one side
and free from knots, cut upon the pencil marks with
FIG. 9. — THE HANDLE AND ITS ENDS.
Scale, 2 inches to the foot.
-NAVE OF WOODEN WHEEL. — BLACK LINE
AT A SHOWS METHOD OF BOXING.
FIG. 3. — ALTERNATIVE DESIGN FOR SIDE, WITH HOOD.
be chosen, although it were wise, in some degree, to
ey.cept Fig. 2, or at least, before adopting it, to ponder
well upon the kind of treatment the perambulator is
likely to receive in use. A scroll is not always calcu-
lated to withstand rough usage, and nothing looks
more ridiculous than mutilation of ornament that is
not extraneous, and when, as in this case, damage
FIG. I.— THE PERAMBULATOR WHEN FINISHED.
the bow-saw, carefully preserving the flowing freedom
of the various curves. When you have done this
properly, and cleaned away with a fine file all evidence
of the saw, the two sides will be ready to join to the
other parts. Of course, it has been determined whether
to make a double or a single perambulator, for this
regulates the sizes that the back, the seat, the foot, and
T 2
444
HOW TO BUILD A PERAMBULATOR.
bottom-boards are to be. The sketches are drawn
to a scale of I inch to the foot, and the dimensions
may be obtained therefrom ; but before going further,
it may be pointed out that in this case there should
be no difficulty in the way of making full-size working
drawings. The amateur will then see his work clearly
before him, and he is strongly advised to avail himself
of this plan, to his advantage. As will be seen, a
single perambulator of the Fig. I style is described,
the extreme width of which is I foot 2 inches ; in a
double one there would be a slight narrowing from the
back to the foot-board, and the widest part would be
I foot 8 inches ; the side-pieces also would be propor-
tionately extended.
The back-piece, the seat, and the bottom-boards,
indicated by dotted lines in Figs. 2 and 3, are of J inch
deal ; the sides are fastened to these by 2-inch nails,
not too many, but just sufficiently numerous to hold
the parts firmly together. In order that the plane, in
dressing up, may not suffer damage, do not omit to
imbed thoroughly the heads of all nails. The piece
for the seat having been cut wide enough to project
about ii inches, its front corners must be neatly rounded
off. Fig. 4 shows the shape of the back-piece, and
how it is joined to the sides; the back is covered from
a point that will include and hide this joining, thence
down to the seat with £ inch board of sufficient width,
bent to follow the curve, and fastened on with } inch
French brads. Then to strengthen this thin board,
and to preserve its convexity, glue on the inside thereof
three or four slips of the same thin wood, to lie length-
wise the grain. It will also be well to glue two similar
slips on to the inside of the back piece across the
grain. The space from the seat to the bottom-board
is filled by a piece of J inch board.
The foregoing instructions, though describing Fig.
I, may also be applied to the making of Fig. 2. In
Fig. 3, the thin boarding is continued the full distance
down to the bottom-board, with which it lies flush, and
the side-pieces are cut down to effect this. To ensure
the rigidity of this thin board, it is bradded to a slip of
wood \ inch square that is fixed from side to side
next the bottom-board, thin slips in sufficient number
being also glued on the inside, to preserve its con-
vexity without strain.
If it be desired to make a rounded back, curved
stays of hard wood must be screwed on to the side-
pieces from the inside. Some of the aforesaid thin
stuff is then bent round the outside, bradded on, and
strengthened in the manner as already directed. This
must lie flush with the sides, in a rebate provided for
its reception.
All that has been done must now be dressed up
with the plane, and finished with glass paper. Then
nail on curved arm-pieces of hard wood, and the body
will be ready to pass to the next stage — that of
painting.
A dark chocolate ground with lines of yellow, or a
very dark green ground with a line of vermilion be-
tween two lines of blue, are suggested as pleasing
combinations. The colours should be ground in turps,
with a small quantity of varnish, and rapidly worked,
as they will soon dry, but without the lustre that will
be produced hereafter. Having first stopped all nail-
holes and imperfections with putty, apply two coats of
paint, allow the first to dry thoroughly before putting
on the second, and rub down after each application
with fine glass paper. Only a practised hand can do the
striping with freedom, although with care the amateur
will get along fairly well ; but he should obtain a brush
called a " striper," this is a pencil with very long hair,
and the proper tool for the work; his disability will be
further lessened if he transfer lines for his guidance by
means of stencil plates made of stout paper. All having
been done as directed, apply a coat of oil copal varnish
and put aside where no particles of dust or insect may
sully the even gloss required. The progress of drying
should not be tested by touching with the finger ;
simply breathe upon the surface, and if ready to
handle a film will settle there for a second or two, if
still wet it will remain bright.
Before beginning the trimming, arrange square-
necked rivet-headed bolts with the heads inside, two
through the back for the irons that are to hold the
handle, and four for the springs that will in this way
be fastened to the bottom.
The stuffing is done by a layer of wool waste, with
a layer of cotton waste at top to bind the looser stuff
together. For the trimming, obtain some dark serge
cloth, the colour of which harmonises or agrees with
the painting. The back being quilted, renders neces-
sary an arrangement and completion of the padding
and covering for that part before putting on, then the
seat, the sides, and the arms should all be well padded, so
that no hard corners make their presence evident, and
plenty of small tacks must be used to fasten on the cloth
covering. A piece of cloth hemmed, and then bound
with gimp, is tacked on to the front of the seat in
gathers, to hang as a curtain; gimp is also tacked
upon all edges, to give a neat finish. Cover the foot
and bottom-boards with a piece of oil-cloth beating an
unobtrusive pattern.
It has been inferred that iron-work and wheels can
scarcely be considered under the head of amateur
work, nor will the compass of this article permit of
more than a brief description. First are two bent
pieces of \ inch round iron, each 46 inches long, that
will be attached when the body is mounted upon the
wheels ; their shape is seen in Fig. 1. They are each
provided with a stay, welded on, turned up, and
HOW TO BUILD A PERAMBULATOR.
445
pierced, that they may be fixed to the back by the
bolts provided there for them. The upper ends of
these irons are dressed out to I inch flat, and are bent
in a curl to hold the ends of the handle. The lower
ends are also dressed out flat, and, by means of holes
punched in them, screw on to the bottom-board be-
tween the springs. The springs are of I inch spring
steel, and may be made with shackles, as Fig. 5, or in
an entire piece, as Fig. 6. As a guide in bending
them, a piece of hoop iron is shaped to the required
curves, and is then called a " template." Each spring
is bent in a curl for the spindle of the front wheel to
turn in, and holes are punched for the bolts that pro-
trude from the bottom-board, and in fixing the spring
to the axle a square hole will be necessary for the
neck of the bolt. The axle for wooden wheels need
simply be wrought, and afterwards filed smooth at the
parts the wheels will revolve upon. It must be
furnished with holes for bolting to the springs, and
at the extreme ends for lynch-pins.
A wooden wheel should be made from sound, well-
seasoned ash. The outer rim, or "felly," is divided into
segments which are cut from the solid, and tongued
together by slips of wood to keep them in position.
These segments may be in number half as many as
there are to be spokes ; this follows that in the com-
plete wheel each segment will have two spokes to
support it. The spokes are shaped with the spoke-
shave, and shouldered, to insert into the nave and
felly respectively. The nave, Fig. 7, is turned and
bored. The wheel must first be exactly arranged
upon a surface, where the spokes and felly may lie
flatly ; then, whilst the heat of the iron is shown by a
good blood-red, the tyre should be put on, this being
quickly cooled by running through water, contracts,
and drives all the parts tightly into position. Before
the wheel is fit for use it must be " boxed," which con-
sists of a piece of iron bent to form a cylinder fixed
and adjusted in the nave to ensure the wheel running
truly upon the axle, this boxing completely lines the
bore, and to secure it therein, a piece is bent outward
at one end to knock into the nave (see Fig. 7) ; thus
the friction is provided for that otherwise would
quickly wear away the wood A wooden wheel revolves
upon the axle between two washers ; the lynch-pin
then being inserted to hold all secure, neat brass caps
are nailed on the nave to guard any rough projection
of the axle or lynch-pin.
A metal wheel consists of the nave or "hub"
(Fig. 8), the spokes, the rim, and a hexagonal cap,
which screws on the outer side of the hub, and serves
for lubricating purposes. The hub is cast in gun-
metal, and turned up in the lathe ; there are two rims
upon it, in both of which holes are drilled and tapped
to receive the two series of spokes, and at an angle to
suit their convergence to the outer rim. The spokes
being made with a thread at one end and a head at
the other, are passed through the grooved rim, which
is drilled with a sufficient number of holes to accom-
modate them ; they are then screwed into the hub,
and adjusted by a hand-vice or pliers. Rubber tyres
should be bought smaller than the circumference of
the wheels they are intended for ; they are procurable
in various qualities, and sold by weight. To fix them
on, the groove is smeared with a tenacious composi-
tion supplied by the rubber dealer ; this sets imme-
diately, but that is of no consequence, for when the
tyre is stretched upon the wheel, hot irons are applied
to the rim betwixt the spokes. In this way the cement
is remelted, and the necessary firm settlement of the
tyre within the groove achieved. The axle for metal
wheels must be turned. The medium for painting
iron-work should be chiefly varnish, to dry quickly.
Little now remains to be done than to construct
the hood, shown in Fig. 3. The frame of this is in
three parts. These may be of £ inch round iron, or
very stout wire, and will each be 3 feet 8 inches long,
with a curl at both ends, and bent to the proper height
and width, then fastened to the body by thumb-screws
passing through the curls into the arm-piece. The
detachment of the hood thus becomes an easy matter.
The covering of this frame, and making of the
apron, are matters for the display of womanly taste.
They may be of holland trimmed with bright-coloured
braid, or if for rough weather, of American cloth lined
with holland. Buttonholes must be worked in them,
whereby they may be attached to the body, and to the
same end, the body must be furnished with small
brass knobs. A strap from the foot-board to the front
rib of the frame-work will keep the hood in position.
A knob on either side of the body, and a strap from
the one to the other, must be provided, to keep the
child from tumbling out.
The handle, of hard wood, should be turned and
varnished, and the iron supports for it may now be
attached to the body. The curled portions of these sup-
ports are held by turned knobs, that are glued into
the ends of the handle (see Fig. 9).
There are other kinds of perambulators employed,
notably the " double up " and the '' bassinette " forms ;
but the simplest kind and the one in more general use
has been chosen as the subject of this paper, as pre-
senting fewer difficulties of construction to the amateur.
In conclusion, it is hoped the amateur may not be
deterred, by a faithful presentment of technical points,
from exercising his capabilities to the utmost, for it
requires but little thought to demonstrate that jobs
contingent to home requirements will more profitably
engage the leisure too often abandoned to trifling or
ennui.
446
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
FILTERS:
THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
By ALFRED W. SOWABD.
IV.— The Collection, Storing', and Filtration of
Rain-Water.
| ANY of my readers must have looked with
regret upon the enormous waste of water
which occurs in our large cities, thanks
to the custom which prevails of permitting
rain-water to escape to the sewers. Many,
when paying their quarterly water-rate, must have
thought longingly of that water which, coming to them
gratuitously, they were nevertheless forced, through
lack of means to collect and store it, to allow to go as
it came. It is the object of the present article to
show these regretful ones, and others too, whose
attention may be drawn to the subject for the first
time, how they may utilise the rain-water which falls
upon their houses, and thus render themselves partly
(in some cases entirely) independent of the exactions
of the Water Companies, and at the same time ensure
for themselves a constant supply of almost pure
water.
But, for the benefit of those of my readers who have
not previously thought upon the subject, it is desirable
that I should first devote a few lines to a brief state-
ment of the respective advantages and disadvantages
of rain and river-water, for household use.
In considering the question of the relative purity
of the two kinds of water, it will be well to trace the
water in its course from the ocean, through its various
journeyings back to the ocean again, noticing the
impurities which it picks up and deposits on its way.
Starting then with the ocean as the great
reservoir from which our rain and river-water is
drawn, we find huge masses of water vapour sucked
up by the sun's heat, and wafted inland by the wind.
Passing presently into a colder region, the capacity of
the air to hold water vapour in suspension is lowered
and some of the vapour becomes condensed into
"water dust" or cloud; these minute particles of
water agglomerate into drops, which fall to the earth
in the form of rain, washing and purifying the
air in their passage, and becoming by the very act
themselves impure. If this rain falls through the pure
air of the open country, it will be almost absolutely
pure. If it falls through the air of an ordinary town
it will be laden with soot from the chimneys, with
carbonic acid gas produced in the processes of
breathing and of burning, with sulphuric acid derived
from the combustion of coal gas, and with various
putrescent matters discharged from the lungs of the
inhabitants, and rising from the sewers, and from the
dust-bins and muck-heaps which abound, even under
the most vigilant sanitary supervision. If the rain
falls through the air of a manufacturing district, it will
be charged, in addition, with the volatile products of
the manufacturing operations carried on in that dis-
trict. On reaching the earth, the water is absorbed,
and gradually soaks its way, in a direction determined
by the geological formation of the surface at that
particular place, until it rises again as a spring, or is
drawn up from a well. During its progress, if the
strata through which it passes are unpoisoned, it
undergoes a process of natural filtration and purifi-
cation, becoming at the same time charged with
mineral ingredients derived from the soil. (In this
way the peculiar medicinal properties of many natural
waters are accounted for.) The little brooklet formed
by the spring, unites with other brooklets into a stream,
this with other streams until a river is formed, which
flows on to the sea, becoming by the addition of
sewage and other deleterious matters, more and more
contaminated as it goes.
It is plain, then, to see that the purest natural
water is that obtained in the form of rain in a country
district ; that next in order of excellence comes spring,
or (deep) well-water ; next rain-water collected in
towns ; and last and worst of all river-water.
As to hardness, rain-water being obtained by
distillation is, like all water so obtained, soft ; whilst
water which has soaked through the earth is, by virtue
of the solid matter it has dissolved, more or less hard.
Remembering that for household purposes soft water
is (as every housewife knows) to be preferred to hard,
it is obvious that rain-water, purified by filtration, is
to be preferred to river- water. It only remains then
to point out how the water falling upon a house may
be collected and purified, and to consider whether the
amount so caught, is sufficient for the use of the
inmates of that house.
To consider the latter question first. The effective
roof-area of an ordinary dwelling-house may be taken
at about 500 square feet. The average rainfall in
London is about 24 inches. That is, if all rain lay
where it fell, the surface of London would be 2 feet
under water at the expiration of a twelvemonth. The
average amount of water falling upon the roof of an
ordinary house in London is, therefore, 1,000 cubic feet
per year. A cubic foot of water contains friyz im-
perial gallons ; or a thousand cubic feet contains 6,232
imperial gallons. The daily allowance would, there-
fore, be about 17 gallons In Lincoln, where the rain-
fall is only 20 inches per year, the daily supply would
be about 14 gallons ; in a place called the Stye, where
the rain-fall is 165 inches, the supply would be about
120 gallons. The former amount, although not an ex-
cessive supply, is certainly enough for t le cooking and
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
447
washing of an ordinary small
household, whilst the latter
amount is more than sufficient
for all its wants.
To turn now to the collec-
tion, storing, and filtration of
rain-water. For the roofing
of our house, where that roof
is used as a water-shed, slates
Buck's patent percolator is to
be placed, the object of which
instrument is to collect in a
separate tank, for rough pur-
poses, the first washings of
the roof, the latter being gene-
rally, and more especially in
dry weather, covered with
dust, and objectionable matters
FIG. 21. —
DIAGRAM SHOWING METHOD OF
JOINING STACK-PIPE TO PER.
COLATOR, AND PERCOLATOR
RAIN-WATER TANKS.
FIG. 22. — LUCK S PATENT
PERCOLATOR IN SECTION.
are to be preferred to
tiles, they being less
porous, 2nd more easily
cleansed. The gutters
should have a continuous
fall, without any depres-
sions where water might
lodge and stagnate ; and
the stack-pipes should, if
possible, be brought to-
gether, as shown in Fig.
21. At the junction a
A, Tank for Rough Water
B, Tank for Pure Water.
C, Percolator.
D, D, D, Stack Pipes.
References to Letters in Pig. 23. — A, Strainer with Perforated
Plate ; B, Outlet for Water ; C, Percolator on Pivot ; D, Compart-
nunt into which Water first falls; E, Hole with Washer propor-
tioned to size of roof; F, Larger hole to prevent too rapid filling
of D ; G, Overflow Pipe for storm ; H, Hole at back of Q-, through
which Water passes from D to I ; I, Large Compartment ; Jf Spout
of Percolator; K, Pure Water Storage Pipe; K', Rough Water
Storage Pipe ; L, Small hole at bottom of compartment I ; M, Auxi-
liary Pipe for catching last drop of rain ; N, Cover for
Pure Water Pipe ; 0, Iron] Frame by which Apparatus
fastened to Wall.
FIG. 24. — ARRANGEMENT OF TANKS FOR COLLECTING AND STORING
RAIN-WATER. RECOMMENDED BY MR. SHIRLEY HIBBERD.
A, Tank into which Water first passes ; B, Pipe with Ball-cock ; C, Rough
Water Tank ; D, E, Pure Water Tanks.
FIG. 23. — BUCK S PATENT
PERCOLATOR IN ELEVATION
of many kinds. The
percolator (represented
in section in Fig. 22
and in elevation in Fig.
23) is a kind of double-
chambered box, sus-
pended on a pivot below
the stack-pipe. It is so
arranged that a slight
fall of rain does not
affect it, the water run-
ning through it from the
448
FILTERS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
roof into the rough water-tank. But if the fall is of
some duration, the apparatus is brought into play. The
first fall of water passes through, as before ; but after
about a quarter of an hour the larger of the two com-
partments into which the box is divided becomes filled
with water, the weight of which causes the whole
apparatus to turn on its pivot, and the outflow then
takes a new direction into a pipe which conveys the
water to the pure-water tank. This water, collected
from a clean roof and a pure atmosphere, requires
merely to be passed through an ordinary charcoal
filter (such as one of those already described), to be
perfectly fit for domestic use.
To render the action of the percolator more clear,
I give a detailed description. The swinging body of
the instrument is divided into two compartments (D
and I, Fig. 22). The first, into which the water falls,
has a small hole E, at the bottom, proportioned in size
to the area of the roof, through which the water passes
into the discharge pipe, and thence into the rough
water tank. When the rain-fall exceeds the discharge
through this hole, the water rises in this compartment
till it reaches a small hole H (at back of G), through
which it flows into the second compartment I. This
compartment fills very slowly, because the water
escapes therefrom almost as fast through a hole L,
at the bottom. When the second compartment has
filled to a certain level, the percolator is overbalanced,
so that the discharge is directed by the pipe K to the
pure-water tank.
Should the rain increase to a storm, which would
scour the roof, and bring down impurities not moved
by a gentle rain, the first compartment D is rapidly
filled up, and the percolator returns to its original
position, the water passing for a time to the rough-
water tank. When the second compartment I has
filled to a corresponding level, the percolator is again
overbalanced, and the water once more directed to the
pure-water tank.
If the rain commences with a storm, the first com-
partment is filled to the top, and the second fills
rapidly, so that the percolator acts sooner in a heavy
downpour than in a moderate rain. When the rain is
leaving off, the second compartment is kept full by
an auxiliary pipe M, so that the percolator remains
canted after the water has ceased to pass from the
first into the second compartment ; by this means the
last drop of rain is saved. When the compartment I
is empty, the percolator returns to its normal position.
The box A is divided obliquely by a perforated plate,
the object of which is to prevent rubbish passing into the
percolator ; above this is fixed a second non-perforated
plate, to break the fall of the water.
The percolator is manufactured by Messrs. Saxby
and Farmer of Kilburn, London, N.W., and the price
of one of the smallest size (suitable for a roof of not
more than 1,000 feet area) is £2 10s.
A second method of collecting and storing rain-
water is represented in Fig, 24. I am indebted for it
to a little pamphlet* by Mr. Shirley Hibberd, which
pamphlet I would take this opportunity of recom-
mending for perusal by all who take an interest in the
question of the utilisation of rain-water.
A is a tank into which the rainfall is first con-
ducted. It is provided with a screen (of slate or any
suitable material) obliquely placed ; the object of
which is to prevent the stirring up of any sediment
which may collect at the bottom of the tank. Below this
tank, and connected with it by means of the pipe b
furnished with a ball-cock, is the tank C. Connected
with tank A by means of a syphon in the deep tank D,
and connected with this, by another syphon, is the
second deep tank E. The first and dirtiest portion of
the water passes through A into C, where it accumu-
lates, and whence it may be drawn for garden or other
rough purposes. When the tank c is full, the ball-
cock shuts off communication with the tank A, in
which the water consequently rises, and presently
syphons over into D, and ultimately into E. From
this last tank (or from tank D, should E be empty)
the water may be drawn and passed through a filter
for ordinary domestic use. Each tank is provided
with a tap as shown.
The tanks D and E (as indeed all tanks for the
storage of water) should be deep and narrow, rather
than broad and shallow ; for, if the materials of the
tanks are good, impurities can only find entrance to
the water at its surface, which should therefore be as
small as possible. Dust must of course be excluded,
as also light and heat, for if these latter are admitted
the water will soon swarm with life. If a dark cool
place cannot be found for the tanks, they, together
with their covers, should be thickly whitewashed.
Currents of fresh air help to preserve the water
sweet, and means of ventilation should therefore
be provided. It is almost needless to say that from
time to time all water tanks should be thoroughly
cleansed.
As to materials for building the tanks with, slate,
or brick and cement, may be used, or, if preferred,
galvanized iron tanks may be bought ready-made. I
do not enter here into the mechanical details of the
building of the tanks, because I assume that each one
of my readers has a copy of " Every Man His Own
Mechanic " upon his shelves, and has diligently studied
the directions for bricklaying, cement-mixing, etc.,
therein given.
* "Water for Nothing. Every House its own Water
Supply." By Shirley Hibberd. London: Effingham Wison,
1879, PP- 26- Price One Shilling.
ELECTRIC BELLS.
449
With respect to the size of tanks no particular
directions can be given. Every one must make the
calculation for himself. By multiplying the effective
roof-area (that is to say, the area the roof would have if
the house were built with a flat roof, after the oriental
style, not the actual superficial area of the ridge
and furrow roof), by the annual average rainfall for
the district, the number of cubic feet of water fall-
ing upon the house in an average year is readily ascer-
tained. If the tanks are constructed to have a total
capacity of about one-third of this amount, they will,
in general, be sufficiently large. Where the rainfall is
so great that only a portion of the water need be
collected, allowance must necessarily be made in
determining the size of the tanks.
If any one has any difficulty- in discovering the
rainfall of his district, I shall be happy, if he will
write to me, care of the Editor, to fumish him with the
required information, through the medium of the
pages for " Amateurs in Council."
In my next article I shall treat of two of the best
of the many patent filters, and, if space will permit,
shall conclude this series by a description of the method
of preparing pure water, and with directions for test-
ing water as to its purity.
[To be continued.)
ELECTRIC BELLS.
B<j GEOBGE EDWINSON.
IV.- The Line Wires.
F all the devices invented by ancient
magicians and cunning priests to inspire
feelings of awe and reverence in the
minds of the common people, and foster
superstition to enshroud with its dark
mantle the ignorant minds of their devotees ; of all
the inventions of modern conjurors to pleasantly
mystify their gullible audiences, none will compare
with the effects produced by electricity, and not the
least mysterious part of it lies in the now known fact
that it may be conveyed for hundreds — ay, thousands
—of miles through a small wire. Persons can under-
stand the conveyance of force in the form of moving
air, steam, and water, for if they cut the pipes through
which these are being conveyed, some evidence of
their existence in the pipes becomes apparent to one
or other of the senses of observation ; but if we cut the
wires of an electrical circuit, we cannot perceive any
rush of the enormous force being conveyed through
the wires ; no fluid exudes, no gas issues from the cut
ends — nose, eyes, and ears are alike at a loss to detect
anything. True, if we are foolhardy enough to try the
experiment with the leading wires of those enormous
generators which supply the electric arc lights, we
should then perceive a spark, and probably receive a
dangerous shock ; but I do not speak of those high
tension currents here, except to warn my readers not
to meddle with the wires and connections of the appa-
ratus.
The current from the battery of an electric bell or
from that of a telegraphic battery can be neither felt,
seen, nor heard, but, strange to say, it may be tasted.
Place the two freshly-cut ends of the wires on your
tongue, and cause them to lightly touch each other on
the tongue ; if a current is passing, you will be
sensible of a slight acid taste, which will vary in
strength with the strength of the battery and the ten-
sion of the current : a strong and intense current will
fairly sting the tongue as it passes. Persons working
without the aid of the instrument known as a current
detector (an instrument which I will describe further
on) often resort to the tasting test to detect the current
of a battery.
I have already given some good hints for the
guidance of the amateur in the selection of his line
wires, and have shown that long, thin line wires offer
a resistance to the passage of the electrical current,
and that the inefficient resistance thus offered must be
overcome by additional pushing power of the battery.
This power is known as the electro-motive force of the
battery, and is shown by the abbreviation E.M.F., its
measurement being expressed by the term " Volts."
I will now go more fully into the subject, and show
that faults in the construction of the line will add to
the resistance, and may exist to such an extent as to
ruin the battery and stop the bell from working.
First, as to size and quality of wire. If the line is
made up of scraps of naked copper wire, merely
twisted together and secured by tin tacks to the walls
or wainscoting, we introduce a state of things which
invite failure. Each twisted joint adds to the resistance
of the wire, each scrap of wire probably differs from
the rest in conductivity, whilst the naked wires in con-
tact with bare walls and painted wood form innumer-
able short circuits for the passage of the current,
causing' leakage. For indoor work, the line wires
should be of No. 20 or No. 22 copper wire, well insu-
, lated by a covering of cotton, gutta-percha, or india-
rubber. Excellent wires are now sold by dealers for
, this purpose at lid. and 2d. per yard, or from 16s. to
i 25s. per two hundred yards. These are first tinned,
; then covered with a thin layer of rubber, and then
further protected by a coat of cotton wound over the
rubber ; this coat can be had of any colour desired, to
match the paint-work or wall-papers of the rooms. It
will be seen from the list of bad conductors on page
45°
ELECTRIC BELLS.
324, that gutta-percha is superior as an insulator to
india-rubber, but gutta-percha is more liable to crack
than rubber when placed in a dry situation ; on the
other hand, gutta-percha is the more suitable for use
out-of-doors and in damp cellars. Cotton by itself is
liable to contract dust and moisture, but it protects
rubber from accidental injury when used as an outer
coating. If we wish to convey the wires underground,
it will be advisable to have a copper wire of No. 16
size, covered with gutta-percha, and then further pro-
ne. 33.
-ENDS OF LINE WIRES BARED
AND SCARFED.
distances, because of the extra expense entailed in
insulation and in additional battery power. But if
any of my readers wish to put up a line of iron wire, I
shall be pleased to advise them in "Amateurs in
Council."
When we wish to connect one building with
another across a garden, road, or street, it is not
necessary to use two wires, although consideration
of battery power will advise the employment of a
double line. The current may be conveyed by one
FIG. 34. — SCARFED ENDS OF WIRES BOUND
TOGETHER FOR SOLDERING.
FIG. 35. — TWISTED JOINT FOR BRANCH
WIRES.
References to Letters in Fig. 32 :
A, Push-Button.
B, Battery on Shelf in Cellar.
C, Double Underground Line.
D, Bell over Stable Door.
E, E, Earth Plates sunk beneath
floors of Cellar and Stable.
*#* Arrows show direction of
current.
FIG. 32. — SKETCH SHOWING METHOD OF CONNECTING ELECTRIC BELL IN STABLE WITH PUSH-BUTTON AND BATTERY IN
HOUSE BY DOUBLE UNDERGROUND LINE, OR SINGLE LINE AND EARTH PLATES.
tected by a coat of tape soaked in tar. If the line
must cross roads, paths, or through cultivated ground,
it must be further protected by laying the wires in gas-
pipes or wood troughs well-tarred. The tarred and
taped insulated wires are sold at 4d. per yard, or about
21 guineas per mile. Iron wires, as used by telegraph
companies, can only be used for outdoor work on
poles, supported on insulators, with special precautions
to prevent accidental contact and leakage. Although
the first cost of iron wire itself is much less than that
of copper wire, being less than id. per yard, it does
not pay to use iron wire for electric bells on short
wire to the distant building, and made to return
through the earth to the battery. This is done by
soldering the wire from one stud of the bell to the gas
or water-pipe at one end of the line, and similarly
attaching the wire from one of the battery terminals
to the gas or water-pipe at the other end of the line
Where there are no gas nor water-pipes available, we
must carry the short lines to earth below the cellar
floor, or in the garden, and there solder them to a
copper plate, buried about two feet in moist earth, or
to an iron rod driven into a bed of cl.iy, three or four
feet deep. The earth around the plate must be kept
ELECTRIC BELLS.
45 1
moist to ensure contact, and the wire must be soldered
to the earth plate. To ensure a perfect understanding
of this method, I have sketched a plan (Fig. 32),
showing the arrangement. The dotted lines show the
connection with earth plate in the absence of gas or
water-pipes. Magnets of bells for this purpose should
be wound with finer wire than those
for indoor work.
But, to return to the house and the
interior arrangement of wires. The
battery may be placed in a box near
the bell, or in the bottom of a cup-
board, or on a shelf, or in a cellar — it
matters but very little where the battery
is placed, with two exceptions : it
should not be exposed to the weather,
nor to the heat from a fire or stove.
The wires may be led from the
battery to
-©I
PUSH
the bell, any-
where, and
in any direc-
tion which
fancy or con-
veni e n ce
may suggest.
The current
will pass
equally well
by a zig-
zag course
around cor-
ners as in a
straight line,
and will tra-
vel quite as
readily under
the floor, or
behind the
wainscoting,
as over the
room near
the ceiling.
Economical
considera-
tions alone
will deter-
mine that the circuit shall be as short as it can
be made. This being understood, I will now state
the restrictions, the limits in which a workman may
labour, and the rules to guide him. The first of
PAR LOUR
PUSH
FIG. 40.
FIG. 36. — BLOCK OF WOOD TO
HOLD PUSH ENDS OF WIRES.
FIG. 37. — PRESS BUTTON OR
PUSH, EXTERNAL VIEW.
FIG. 38. — INTERIOR OF
PRESS BUTTON.,
FIG. 39. — SECTIONAL VIEW
OF PRESS BUTTON.
clean metal must touch clean metal in all parts of the
line and apparatus, when we press the contact button to
ring the bell, and only at that time. Well-insulated wires
may be run along side by side, but it is not necessary
to thus place them ; one of the wires may return to the
battery by a totally different route. They should be
secured by tinned wire staples placed
at distances of about four feet apart,
but the staples must not be driven
into the insulating coating, nor driven
in so far as to cut through the coating,
nor may two wires be fixed by one
staple. In passing the wire from one
room to another over-head, the wires
may be carried through the ceiling by
a hole made with a bradawl, or through
the woodwork, or behind the door
posts. A careful workman will so
arrange his
line as to
cause no dis-
figurement of
the decora-
tions ; whilst
he places it
out of danger
of injury by
servants and
children, he
will therefore
lay it and
hide it in any
convenient
cranny, using
paper and
paint to hide
the wires
only when
necessitated
to do so. He
must bear in
mind that all
joints of wire
must be sol-
dered, and
this can be
done as fol-
40 AND 41. — ARRANGEMENT OF PUSHES AND BELLS FOR FOUR ROOMS OF A HOUSE.
lows : — Strip off the cotton and rubber covering from
the ends of the wires, slightly flatten the two ends, and
file them as shown in Fig. 33, bind them together with
a bit of fine wire, as in Fig. 34, flux the joint with
a little powdered resin, and either apply a drop of
solder from the point of a soldering iron, or put a frag-
ment of solder on the joint, and direct the flame from a
blow-pipe on the wire until the solder melts. Then
these is the law of the circuit, that is, there must be a
perfect circuit of conductors from the negative plate
of the battery, through the bell, and back to the
positive plate of the battery. To ensure this, perfectly
452
ELECTRIC BELLS.
wrap a few bits of gutta-percha tissue around the joint
whilst it is still warm, and bind it around with cotton, to
form a neat joint. If the joint is not warm enough to
melt the tissue, heat must be applied from a spirit lamp,
and the warm plastic gutta-percha neatly moulded
with wet fingers. If the joint is in an underground line,
it must be soldered and covered with extra care, for
failure may result from a little corrosion between the
metallic surfaces, or a pin-hole left in the insulating
material. The same caution is necessary in laying
wires against damp walls, for the damp will act as a
conductor of electricity, and ruin the battery by per-
petual leakage. In planning a system of electric bell
wires for a new house, it will be advisable to have the
main lines laid in zinc tubes, and these placed in
position before the plastering is done, blocks of wocd
should be bedded in the walls at those spots where
pushes are likely to be placed, or where the bells are
likely to be hung ; the zinc tubes should terminate in
those blocks, in cavities scooped out of the block as
shown in Fig. 36. In Fig. 35 is shown the twisted
joints used for the connection of branch wires.
Well insulated and perfectly jointed wires may be
run two in one tube, or the two tubes may meet in
one block ; when two wires are thus run side by side,
it is convenient to have them covered in two different
colours for the purpose of identification. When wires
are thus run through tubes, they should be looped in
the blocks to allow of a little slack for convenience of
jointing ; or when the wires terminate in the block, a
few inches of the ends should be left coiled up in the
cavity : this must then be stopped with a close fitting
plug of wood, and a large-headed nail driven in the
centre, to mark the spot after the walls have been
plastered. When this has been done— and it is not
advisable to put up the bell-fittings until all such dirty
work has been done — we have only to take out the
wood plugs, fit the pushes over the cavities, and make
the connections securely. One word of caution : do
not lay your zinc tubes nor bell wires side by side with
plumber's or gasfitter's work, nor cross these or hot-
water pipes, except where necessary, and then through
a wood casing. In replacing the old system by the
new in houres where the wires have been run through
pipes, we have merely to draw out the old wires, and
run the new insulated wires through the same tubes.
This can be done by tying the new wires to the ends
of the old ones, and draw those in, whilst these are
being drawn out ; or, when the tubes are empty,
running some stout straightened wire through the
tubes to act as a needle, and draw the insulated wires
into them, taking care not to damage the insulating
material whilst drawing the wires through the tubes
and holes. All the old cranks and levers should be
removed and the holes neatly repaired.
In connecting wires to the water or gas systems, it
must be distinctly understood that two such pipes
cannot be used instead of the two wires of one circuit,
although such pipes are placed in two distant parts of
the same building ; but two such pipes may be used
as the return wires of two separate circuits, unless the
wires themselves cross the pipes. Wires must be
soldered to pipes ; this can be done with little diffi-
culty to brass, compo, or lead pipes, but the task is
not so easy when they have to be soldered to iron
pipes, unless the workman is possessed of the follow-
ing little wrinkle : File and scrape the iron pipe
bright and smooth, get a crystal of blue vitriol, blue-
stone, or sulphate of copper, dip it in water, rub it well
on the spot where the wire is to be soldered, rub the
wet spot with the steel scraper, and it will be instantly
covered with a film of copper ; wrap the clean copper
wire around this spot, then apply the solder and a
pinch of powdered resin as a flux, and the soldering
to iron can be easily done. To connect a wire to a
gas bracket, the gas must be first turned off at the
meter, the bracket removed, and branch wire soldered
to the back of the flange, which must then be re-
placed, and the branch wire carried to the main line,
to which it must be also soldered, and then covered
with gutta-percha.
I have known timid and nervous old ladies and
gentlemen object to have electric wires connected to
the gas-pipes, because they imagine that the electricity
might cause an explosion of gas in the pipes. Al-
though their fears concerning this are groundless,
when weak currents only are passed through the wires,
I feel bound to respect their wishes, for I prefer having
electric lines independent of gas-pipes.
In laying the line wires leading from the bell and
the battery, we keep them entirely apart, and they are
destined to be thus kept apart until made to com-
municate by the person who wishes to ring the bell.
The part of the system which is made to hold the lines
apart, so to speak, is called a push, a touch, a com-
municator, a pressel, a press-button, a key, or a switch.
The two last alone indicate a special instrument, all
the others being synonymous. The most simple form
of press-button or push is that shown in Fig. 37.
Fig. 38 shows the plan of interior arrangement, and
this, together with the sectional sketch of the same,
Fig. 39, will enable my readers to understand how to
connect the wires to this part of the apparatus. In
my next. I propose giving full instructions and illus-
trations showing how to make those press-buttons, so
will merely say here that they consist of a kind of box
made out of some hard wood, and fitted with a cover
made to screw into the top of the box. In this cover
is drilled a hole, in which a stud of bone or ivory is
made to fit loosely. When the lid is screwed down
THE "LILY" OVERMANTEL MIRROR.
4'3
in its place, this stud is kept up in its proper position
by a spiral spring in the box, and this spring is kept
in position by a spring of hard brass fastened to the
interior of the box. Beneath this spring, and fastened
to the opposite side of the box, is another strip of
brass. To this strip of brass we fasten one of the
branch wires, whilst the other wire is fastened to the
brass spring before mentioned. Referring to the plan,
Fig. 32, having secured one end of the branch to the
main line, we take the other end to the push, bare and
clean half an inch of the end, pass it through the hole B
from the back, loosen the screws which hold down the
brass plate, press the clean end of wire under the
plate, and screw down tight. Now bring the other
end of the branch to the push, strip and clean the
wire, pass it through hole A, loosen the screws which
hold the brass spring, place the clean end of wire
under it, and screw down tight. Then fasten the push
in its place by screws passed through the two remain-
ing holes, put in the spiral spring, then put the stud in
its place, and screw on the cover or lid. If we now
press the stud, it will in turn press down the brass
spring upon the plate beneath, and thus place the two
lines of the circuit in contact to ring the bell ; but
when we remove our fingers from the stud, the spring
rises and breaks contact, stopping the ringing of the
bell. If we keep the stud pressed down, the bell will
continue to ring, but it ceases the moment we release
the stud ; we can, therefore, signal long strokes by
long-ccntinued pressure, or short strokes by jerky
touches with the stud. Common pushes for this pur-
pose can be bought for is., is. 6d., and 2s., or more
elaborate pushes up to 10s. 6d. each.
Figs. 40 and 41 represent the arrangement of pushes
and bells for four rooms of ahouse. In Fig. 40 we have
an electric bell and battery in the kitchen, and three
pushes in three different rooms of the house. By this
arrangement we are able to signal messages to the
kitchen by pressing any one of the pushes, but the
servant will not be able to reply except in person, and
cannot distinguish the room from whence the bell was
rung unless some preconcerted signal for each room
has been agreed upon, or an indicator attached to the
bell. I shall have something to say about indicators
further on.
In Fig. 41 a useful arrangement is shown for
signalling to the kitchen and receiving a reply
therefrom. For this purpose we require a third line
wire, or a branch soldered to the gas-pipe from each
bell, and a bell in each room. Provision must also be
made for throwing the bells out of circuit when they
are not required, and this can be done by a switch. If
this is not done, the three bells will answer to the
signals from the kitchen, if they are properly adjusted
and the battery is strong enough, or the nearest bell
will ring, whilst all the others are useless. When all
are required to ring at once, the magnet of the nearest
must be wound with finer and longer wire than the last
in the circuit.
{To be continued?)
THE " LILY " OVERMANTEL MIRROR.
HOW TO MAKE AND DECORATE IT.
By J. W. GLEESON -WHITE.
(For Illustrations, see the Supplement to this Part?)
N a recent part of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, appeared a design for a
Five o'Clock Tea Table, being the first
of a series of designs for larger articles
to be cut in fret-work, the result of an
attempt to utilise the art for larger and more enduring
pieces of furniture than the published patterns have
yet supplied The drawings for making the mirror,
given as the Supplement to this Part, form the second
set of the series, and while the work exhibits even less
of joinery, and more of fret-cutting, pure and simple,
the actual labour to cut it will be but little, if any, in
excess of the first design, as the flat shape of the pre-
sent piece shows off every part at once, while the very
simple woodwork necessary to support the cut-out
portions and give strength to the whole, is so easily
made, that it need not deter the least skilful of
amateurs from attempting and succeeding with it.
Before describing the working out of the design in
the exact manner shown in the various drawings, it
might be as well to explain that, although the design
was specially made to be fret-cut for its ornamental
portions, yet, on the other hand, it might be con-
structed with entire absence of saw work, and still
prove as effective a piece of furniture, while possibly
more in accordance with the taste of some, and the
talent for art work of others.
If fret-cutting is undesirable, the design as given
may be painted on the panels and brackets. A
simple way to secure a good effect would be to
trace (with carbonic paper below the drawings) the
necessary parts on to wood of a light colour, or wood
already painted a stone or light colour, and rubbed
down with sand-paper, so as to get a good flat surface.
The outline might then be filled up with oil colours,
similar to the filling in'ofan outline for illuminating,
while the background would be best painted yellow,
and then gilded with Bessemer gold paint, or gold
leaf. If this method seems somewhat too ornate, and
not a sufficiently neat decoration for so prominent an
article, another plan, and one I should personally
prefer, would be to trace the outline on to plain ligh
454
THE "Z/ZY" OVERMANTEZ MZRROR.
coloured wood, oak or light walnut, and fill in with
oak stain all the parts that in fret-work would be cut
away, the whole giving the appearance of inlaid wood-
work. This, when varnished, would have a fairly good
effect. If either of these methods be adopted, the
bracket, G, should be used instead of the cut-out one,
and decorated in keeping with the panels ; the rail-
ings in fret-work being replaced by the well-known
little balustrade of turned wood, so familiar in nearly
all the so-called "Early English" and "Queen
Anne " furniture of the shops. A combination of the
above modes, but not imitative of inlay, would be
effected by using satin wood of a rich colour, and
gilding the background, and then to let the design
stand out in the natural wood.
The Papyrotile, that most useful and cheap deco-
rative panel, or plaques of terra cotta, or painted
china, or low relief carving, might take the place of
the panels of fret-work, but as these are all in fixed
sizes, the design would have to be altered to suit
each one, as from the unyielding nature of all these,
the framework must fit the panels, and not the more
usual order of construction.
Having suggested the alternative treatment in
several ways, we will follow out the working of the
printed designs. First trace the fret patterns, if for
hand work, sufficient for the whole number of pieces
wanted ; but if for machine cutting, the four panels
of thin wood might be screwed together and cut at
one operation, so that it would be needless to make
more than two tracings of each of the panels, E and F.
The railing is only shown of sufficient length for the
ends of the shelves, and must be repeated to the
length required for the top rails. It saves much need-
less labour in tracing fret patterns if carbonic paper,
black on both sides, is placed between layers of thin
paper : first a layer of white thin paper, then a sheet
of carbonic, then two layers of white paper and
another sheet of carbonic paper, with a layer of white
paper, and the'printed design last. If these are fixed
and laid on a hard firm surface, such as a sheet of
glass or tin, and traced with a fine style, or very hard
pencil, four clear copies can be traced at one working.
The structural framework of the glass should be
made of wood, i£ in. wide and I to ii in. thick,
and mortised together in the ordinary way, the lower
rail being 2i to 3 in. deep. When this is fitted as
shown, a piece of wood, K, K, should be cut, about 4
inches wide, and screwed underneath the whole. The
buttress pieces, L, L, give solidity to the uprights, by
being fixed to this piece K, K ; and to the standards :
these buttresses would be best cut in solid wood, 1 i
in. wide, or else formed with two thicknesses fixed
about half inch apart.
The whole of the framework must be rabbeted to
admit the panels, as an ordinary picture frame ; the
panels themselves being backed with their work and
fixed like a picture.
The fret-work patterns should be pasted on panels
previously fitted into the frame before cutting, and
great care taken that the patterns are pasted on exactly
parallel with the lines of the framework.
At the top of the framework a groove should be
left, either worked in the frame or formed by nailing
on two heads of wood, to admit of the fret railing being
securely fixed. If grooves were cut in the uprights
to let the pieces slide down to their places, no fixing,
save glue, would be necessary.
The bracket pieces should be fitted or mortised
in their places before cutting ; in fact, for every part
it is best tto do all the fitting first, the decoration then
gets less handled, and is not nearly so liable to injury
as it would be if it had to be fitted to its place after it
was ornamented.
J For the shelves, take wood of £ to \ in. thick, with
either moulded or bevelled edges : these should be
simply square, or slightly rounded, at the outside
angles. If gilding is used on the mirror anywhere, a
hollow along the edges of the shelves should be worked
and gilded. This reduces the heavy look of the
shelves, and yet keeps the horizontal lines marked
sufficiently distinct.
The fret-work would be best lined at the back with
coloured silk, gilded wood, or some distinct colour to
throw up the pattern.
With regard to the glass, it would look best with
bevelled edges, but that would be very much more
costly, as it entails a thicker glass, as well as the
expense of bevelling. It would be better for showing
off Venetian glass, or china, in some lights, if the
side panels were filled with stamped plush, in place of
glass ; in that case the middle panel might be fitted
with a glass some 5 inches smaller each way than the
full opening, the margin being filled with the plush, as
in the sides. The glass, if used in this way, must, of
course, have bevelled edges, and might have rounded
or clipped corners.
When complete, the whole mirror would look better
if a wooden simple mantelpiece replaced the ordinary
one; but if that is not practicable, a mantel-board, with
cloth of the colour used for backing the fret-work, will
sufficiently break the sudden change from stone to
wood ; and, if filled with a few pieces of cheap quasi-
Venetian glass, or good Japanese china, bits of Gris
de Flandre potter}', or the well-known Doulton, Lin-
thorpe, Vallery, and other self-coloured wares, the
whole would have a good effect, while the cost of the
whole work, and the bits of bright china to put on it,
would be about one-fourth of the cost of a gilt-framed
looking-glass of similar size.
STRONG AND SIMPLE HOME-MADE FURNITURE.
455
STRONG
AND SIMPLE HOME-MADE
FURNITURE.
B3 iHEK MALLETT.
|jHE group of designs for home-made fur-
niture which I am about to offer are, I
am free to confess, in
most respects far in-
ferior to many which
have already appeared in these
pages. I have, however, reasons
for thinking that they will prove
of use and value.
Most of the designs already
/
1
<-'. J>
°l,
a gimlet, and a bradawl or two, a chisel, and a
screw-driver, are all that are indispensable ; nor is a
carpenter's bench essential. I need hardly say, how-
ever, that a bench, and a few additional tools, more
especially a smoothing-plane, a frame-saw, and a
f-inch gouge would be found useful.
The materials required will be little beyond deal
boards, which may be got at the
timber yard ready planed for a
trifling additional cost. If the
workman has neither bench nor
bench planes, it will be necessary
for him to have them so prepared.
From these, fastened together
with screws only, and without
FIG. I.— OCCASIONAL TABLE.
FIG. 14. — PLAN- SHOWING CONSTRUC-
TION OF LOWER DOOR OF
BOOKSHELF.
given demand very considerable
skill on the part of the amateur,
and the aid of elaborate tools and
appliances. This will not be the
case with mine. Many of those
who look for guidance to Ama-
teur Work, Illustrated, will
be glad of something that is
simple, and that can be carried out with simple means.
I venture to saythat the system of construction which I
have to lay before them, will be found the soul of
simplicity. I can also assure them that the articles so
constructed will be strong ; nor is there any reason
why things thus made should not, in the hands of an
amateur carpenter of good taste, become artistic.1
A few only of the most common tools will be
necessary for making these things : a saw, a hammer,
s "s
v..
1
1
1 1
i 1
1 1
1 !
1 ;
l !
1 l
1 !
1 1
1 !
I
1 !
1
1
1 1
1
1 V v' 1
! ! M
FIG. 17.
— PLAN OF UPPER DOOR
OF BOOKSHELF.
TOP OF TABLE SEEN FROM BELOW.
nails, glue, or anything which
can properly be called a mortise
and tenon joint, useful and even
decorative furniture may be put
together. My methods of con-
struction I shall best explain in
connection with my examples.
Fig. - 1 is a small occasional
table, of convenient height and size to stand beside
an easy -chair, and to hold a lady's work-box, a book,
a coffee-cup, or any light matter. It is 2 feet high,
and the greatest width of its hexagonal top from angle
to angle is 18 inches.
For its construction, we shall require three strips
of f-inch board, 2 feet long and 3 inches broad, to
form the legs. The curvature shown in the cut, which
makes them more pleasin to the eye, may be given
456
STRONG AND SIMPLE HOME-MADE FURNITURE.
in a few minutes with a chisel, or even better with a
good sharp pocket knife, and the edges can then be
smoothed, and rubbed down with glass-paper. A good
supply of glass-paper of medium coarseness, will, I may
observe, be found invaluable in this kind of carpentry.
The hexagonal top will require to be cut from a
J-inch board, 15 inches wide — that being its width
from side to side — for we have not the appliances
which will enable us to join two or more narrower
pieces with sufficient neatness. The edges must be
trimmed and neatly rounded off with sand-paper. In
Fig. 2 we have this top, as seen from below, and this
diagram also explains generally the manner in which
the table is fixed together. It shows the method in
which the cross-pieces (also of £-inch stuff) are
bevelled at the ends and screwed to the legs. It also
shows the under portion of the top, marked A — a
square piece of jj-inch board. This board strengthens
the real top, and prevents it from warping ; and serves
as a means by which to fasten top and frame-work
together. Six screws are driven through it from above,
as at B B, into the cross-pieces. These must be flat-
headed screws, and holes must be counter-sunk, so as
to let them in flush with the upper surface of the
board The board A, being thus secured to the frame
of the table, it has itself to be fixed to the hexagonal
top, which is done by driving six screws from below,
as shown in the diagram. These must be flat-headed,
1 -inch screws, which will go far enough into the top to
hold it safely, without penetrating to its upper surface,
which would be unsightly.
The screws which fasten the cross-pieces to the
legs, some of which are indicated at C C, Fig. 2, are
round-headed screws, like that shown in Fig. 3.
These screws are to be bought laquered black, and are
in this style of furniture, to be used whenever they
appear in sight. The projecting studs formed by their
heads, far from being unsightly, will be seen to form a
distinctly decorative feature in the work.
With little alteration, the plan of Fig. I might be
adapted to a round table of larger dimensions, or a
stool might be made after the same design. In this
latter case, instead of the two thicknesses of board
forming the top, one round piece of inch stuff should
be substituted. Through this the screws may be
driven into the frame-work without any regard to
appearances, as they will afterwards be completely
hidden. Stuffing can then be added, and a covering
put on, and secured round the edge with ornamental
brass studs.
In Fig. 4 we have a second table, but of larger
dimensions. This is supposed to measure 4 feet 6
inches long, 2 feet 6 inches broad, and 2 feet 4 inches
high. The legs and the whole of the frame-work are
of inch board, 4 inches wide ; thus a board a foot wide
cut into three strips by the steam saw at the timber
yard, will serve for every part of it. The leg pieces
are each 3 feet long. Where t'.iey cross, half the
thickness of each is cut away, but the cross piece
above which supports the end of the table, is merely
screwed upon the legs, as shown in Fig. 5. The piece
A, in this diagram, which runs from end to end, is let
through the intersection of the legs by a mortise, and
secured by a peg, as shown at B. A second lengthwise
bar, c, is let through and screwed to the cross-bars,
as shown at D.
The top of this table is framed of A-inch match-
boarding — that is to say, boarding which is to be
bought ready prepared for matching together, a groove
being struck on one of its edges, and a tongue on the
other. This will have to be screwed down to the cross-
pieces at the ends, and also to the ledger E, which, to
give additional strength, is introduced at the centre,
and let through the longitudinal bar. Of course, the
screws used for fixing on the top of the table must be
flat-headed, and the holes counter-sunk, so as to let
them in flush with the surface.
The top being fixed on, a piece of American
leather-cloth of suitable size should be stretched
tightly over it, and tacked neatly down on the under
side. For such a table this material makes the best,
firmest, cleanest, and most enduring covering ; it is
cheap, and may be had in many colours: but if oil-cloth
is objected to, baize, or some other material, can be
employed.
To secure the covering, and give a finish to the
work, strips of ^-inch wood, an inch wide, should
lastly be screwed along the edges, as shown in section
at F. We suppose the corners of the top to have been
sawn off, as shown in Fig. 4, so that four long and
four short strips will be required. The long strips
should be screwed on first, and the short ones being
then fixed across the corners, each with two screws, the
longer pieces will be firmly held in place. Whenever
the covering becomes worn or torn, the strips can
easily be unscrewed and new cloth substituted for the
old. It is advisable to keep these strips of wood
slightly — say the twentieth part of an inch — above the
level of the table top, and they will then prevent small
round articles, such as pencils, from rolling off.
The effect of such a table as the above, when
neatly made, is decidedly ornamental, which is perhaps
more than can be said for the Spanish washstand,
Fig. 6. This latter article has, however, simplicity,
quaintness, and strength to recommend it. It stands
firmly ; it occupies the minimum of space, and may
be made in the length of a single winter evening, at an
infinitesimally small cost in material.
Strips of 1 inch, or \ inch stuff, 2 feet 6 inches by
4 inches, form the legs (I have shown the thickness as
STRONG AND SIMPLE HOME-MADE FURNITURE.
457
an inch, this would give extra strength, but J would
generally suffice for the purposes to which such an
article could be applied). The three cross-piece s
round the top would each take a strip of \ board 1 2
inches by 3. These cross-pieces are screwed on in
the same manner as those in the table, Fig. 1. In
Figs. 7 and 8 I give the legs enlarged in front view
and profile. To do away with the air of absolute
baldness, a little notched decoration has been given
to them ; and something of this same very simple
ornament has been shown on the lower edge of the
shelf intended to hold the soap-dish or tooth glass. This
portion of the washstand, with its lower side upwards,
is shown on a larger scale in Fig. 9. In this last
diagram- the manner in which the shelf is fitted to the
legs and screwed in place is clearly shown. For this
part a foot square of j-inch board will be needed.
On the principle of the Spanish washstand it will
probably occur to the amateur of taste that a far more^
decorative article might be modelled. I have mysel
made several of these things of more or less elaborate
design. In one I gave the heads of three heraldic
monsters as supports for the basin, their bodies formed
the central portion of the stand, and their claws its
feet. But as this involved an amount of fret-cutting
and carving, an illustration of it would scarcely be to
our present purpose.
Scarcely more complicated than the washstand is
the chair, Fig 10, but its construction will involve the
cost of more labour and more material. The four
chief pieces of which it is framed, in consequence of
their eccentric shapes, must be cut from board 9 inches
wide. The piece forming front legs and back is 3 feet
long, that forming hind legs and seat, 2 feet long; they
should be made of J-inch stuff. The construction of
this chair is clearly shown in the illustration, except
perhaps as regards the cross-piece at back of the seat
of which only the end, let by a mortise through the
intersection of the side-pieces, and there secured by a
peg, is visible. This piece, as it has to bear most of
the weight, and to bind the whole chair together, is of
inch board 3 inches wide, and it is placed diagonally,
as shown in section in Fig. 1 1. This position brings its
upper edge level with the cross-bar at front of the seat,
and a piece of carpet to form the seat is stretched over
the two and tacked beneath. As great strength is
required at the intersection, four stout screws are used
there in addition to the mortise. The cross spars at
back of the chair may be of J-inch stuff. The seat of
this chair, which is 14 inches from the ground, is 16
inches square. The effect may be improved by
nailing woollen fringe, with brass studs, round its sides
and front. Chairs on this model, being strong, com-
fortable, and costing little, may well be made by the
amateur for garden purposes.
Our next undertaking will be a more ambitious one.
Fig. 12 is a bookcase, of which the lids of the upper
portion are glazed. The lower part is not made with
glass, and if not wanted for books, may be used for
the ordinary purposes of a cupboard. Total height
6 feet 6 inches, width of upper part 3 feet, lower
part 3 feet 3 inches ; projection of upper part, 9
inches, of lower part 12 inches. The two parts are, for
convenience of moving, made separately.
Three-quarter inch board is employed for this
article, in the sides, shelves, tops, and bottoms, strips
round base, and in the ornamental crest-boards which
surmount it. The back and doors are half inch.
In the section, Fig. 13, the main features and most
of the details of construction are indicated. The
boards, which form the top and bottom of the upper
portion are, it will be seen, dovetailed into the sides.
The side-pieces are 8 inches wide, the top and bottom
7\ only, as though all four come flush in front, the two
latter must be kept in i an inch behind, to leave space
for screwing in the £-inch boards, which will form
the back. The shelves are to be supported, as shown,
on ledges screwed within, by small screws. The
crest-boards, A A, round top are simply screwed on
outside, after the rest of the work has been put
together.
In the lower portion, instead of the top being
dovetailed into the sides, two cross bars, B B, are let
in, as the top, which projects at front and ends, will
have to be screwed on afterwards. These bars serve
respectively for the doors to close against, and for the
boards of the back to be screwed to. The strips round
the bottom C, are screwed on after the frame is made,
in the same manner as the crest-board.
Match-boarding should be used for the backs of
both compartments, as its groove and tongue joints
will effectually exclude dust.
Little difficulty will be found in understanding or
in putting together the main parts of this piece of
furniture ; it is by the panelled lids that the little-
skilled amateur is most likely to be puzzled and
alarmed.
To make a panelled door by the ordinary method
of mortise and tenon joints requires special tools
and considerable skill. We credit our amateur with
neither of these, and must show him how to do with-
out them. Our method of getting over the difficulty
is by using two thicknesses of board, and clamping
them together with screws. How this is done is
shown in the diagrams, Figs. 14 to 19. In Fig. 14 we
have a plan of the lower door. The inner thickness,
made of three lengths of match-boarding, is shown by
ruled lines ; whilst dotted lines indicate the outer
or front thickness. The cross-pieces of the latter,
when secured with screws, will be seen completely
458
STRONG AND SIMPLE HOME-MADE FURNITURE.
....,
FIG. 8.— PROFILE FIG. J.
OF LEG OF FRONT VIEW
WASHSTAND. OF LEG OF
WASHSTAND.
FIG. 6.— SPANISH WASHSTAND.
FIG. 3.- ROUND- FIG. II. — END OF CROSS-PIECE
HEADED SCREW. AT BACK OF SEAT, SECURED
BY PEG.
f^tJ-P
FIG. S- — ELEVATION OF LARGER
OCCASIONAL TABLE.
FIG. IO. — HOME-MADE CHAIR.
STRONG AND SIMPLE HOME-MADE PURNlTURE'.
459
-^- -
-^
'■:^- •.-■•. - ;■ r
- -t ; ;- r -
B—Z
s* A
h bI
' ;-- S
- ! : ■ ; ■ ^1
|C
FIG. 13. — SECTION OF
BOOKCASE.
FIG. 15. — TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LOWER DOOR THROUGH CENTRE.
¥ ■ S
IZZZZ^
FIG. 18.— TRANSVERSE SECTION OF UPPER GLAZED DOOR
THROUGH CENTRE.
1 RACKS ^E
FOR SHELVES.
p
3\
FIG. 16.-
VER TICAL c
SECTION
OF LOWER
DOOR
THROUGH
CENTRE.
FIG. 19.—
VERTICAL SEC-
TION OF UPPER
DOOR.
FIG. 12. — HOME-MADE BOOKCASE.
FIG. 21. — END OF
SHELF CUT TO
FIT INTO RACK.
U
460
STRONG AND SIMPLE HOME-MADE FURNITURE.
to bind and hold the former together, and the grain of
the wood running in the opposite direction to that of
the inner layer, warping will be prevented. The side
strips of the outer layer in this door, serve no con-
structive purpose, and are for appearance only. The
door represented is that to the left hand, and the inner
layer is therefore made to project half an inch beyond
the outer, at the meeting line of the two doors, that
the right hand door may fold against it, with a cor-
responding rebate formed in the same simple manner-
In the example before us, it is supposed that a
piece of French wall-paper, in imitation of embossed
leather, with a raised gold pattern on a dark ground
has been stretched over the inner layer of wood, before
the outer one was fixed in its place. A highly deco-
rative panel has thus been formed.
And here I may observe that other materials may
be used for this purpose with good effect, as pieces of
embroidery, brocaded silks, or even pieces of our now
really artistic cretonnes ; or a satisfactory use may
be found for those large coloured prints, occasionally
issued with the illustrated newspapers. These have
often too much merit to be destroyed, yet are not of
sufficient value to be framed as pictures. Applied,
however, as panels in lids or screens of our simple
home-made furniture, and varnished over, they look
exceedingly well ; especially if a little brown pigment
be added to the varnish, to tone down their too
frequent garishness of colour.
The construction of this door is further explained
by the transverse (Fig. 15), and the longitudinal
(Fig. 16) sections through its centre, which are given
at double scale.
As the upper door, shown in plan at Fig. 17, is to
be glazed, a somewhat different arrangement of wood
work will be necessary. Comparatively speaking, this
will be a mere skeleton, yet by disposing our strips of
wood as shown in the cut, we shall gain sufficient
strength. In this it will be seen that the strips of the
outer layer overlap those of the inner, towards the
centre, byi of an inch. This is to provide a rebate in
which to place the glass, which can be secured in its
place by eight or ten small brads, and puttied in.
: Sections through the centre of this door are given in
J Figs. 18 and 19.
In fitting this book-case I have introduced fixed
shelves, as being simplest, and as giving greatest
strength. But should the workman think, as many
do, that shelves which admit of being raised or
1 nvered are essential, the arrangement shown in Fig.
20 will be that best adapted for his purpose, of any
with which I am acquainted. The racks are cut from
\ inch stuff, and fixed at each end of the case.
The slip A, by which the shelf is carried, can be moved
from notch to notch at pleasure. The end of the
shelf must of course be cut to the form shown in
Fig. zi. It should be borne in mind that such thin
deal, when thus cut into notches, is not safe against
splitting off, and that therefore slips of oak, or some
other tough wood, are better for the purpose.
The examples given will show that this simple
style of furniture-making may be applied to a great
variety of articles. Other uses than those which I
have adduced will suggest themselves to the mind of
the ingenious reader. I have myself used it for many
other things. For instance, that now fashionable
article of comfort and decoration — a folding screen —
is particularly suited to be carried out by this
method, the panels being filled in one of the ways
hinted above.
It is advised that in selecting his wood, the amateur
should rather choose pine than common deal. The
cost will perhaps be slightly higher, but it will be
found to work much more easily and smoothly ; and if
the wood is not to be left its natural colour, will be
found to take a stain far better. For the top of the
small table, Fig. 1, the extra expense of a piece of
oak, mahogany, or walnut panel, may also perhaps be
well incurred. In so thin a board they will stand and
look better, and a 15 inch width of pine is not always
to hand. In every case it is desirable, if possible, to
buy wood some time before it is required for use, that
there may be no question as to the fact of its being
thoroughly dried and seasoned.
As these designs have been specially prepared for
the benefit of those who have only limited skill and
few tools at their command, every effort has been
made to keep them extremely simple. Wherever
curves occur, though time would of course be saved
by running them round with a frame saw, there is
nothing that cannot be quickly and easily cut with a
chisel or knife, aided occasionally by a hand saw. In
shaping a piece of thin deal board — and especially
pine board — wonders may soon be done with a good
sharp pocket-knife, and our amateur will find such an
instrument one of the most valuable in his meagre
list of tools. The ornament — if it can deserve that
name — which has at places been introduced to break
the monotony of lines, is merely a succession of
notches, such as can readily be carried out by knife or
chisel —though the results of such primitive means of
decoration are not always to be despised, as witness,
the nail-head and zig-zag mouldings of our Norman
builders.
It will be observed, that in these designs no attempt
whatever is made to conceal construction, but that the
aim has rather been to emphasize it, and to make it a
conspicuous feature. This adds to the ease with which
| the designs may be carried out. True and closely-
' fitting joints, which are. so difficult of attainment by
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT.
461
the amateur with indifferent tools, are with us matters
of little importance. We rather choose to show our
joints, than to render them imperceptible ; and the
workman who is not straining after resultsbeyond his
reach, may have a reasonable hope of being satisfied
with his productions.
If the amateur cabinet-maker is contented with a
pale colour for his furniture, he will merely polish or
varnish it, and for these operations he will find ample
directions on other pages of Amateur Work, ILLUS-
TRATED. If he likes to deepen the natural colour slightly
in tone, he can do so by varnishing, and grinding a little
brown (say burnt umber) in his varnish. If he wishes to
make his work imitate dark wood, all colourmen sell
prepared stains of various tints, which he can buy,
and with them directions for use ; polish or varnish
being added afterwards. But nothing is more hand-
some, or at the present day more in fashion, than
black ; and pine is the proper wood to be ebonized.
The process of ebonizing is simple enough, but it
will be done most effectually before the different parts
are screwed together.
The pieces having been well rubbed down with
glass-paper — first of medium size, and then fine — they
should be brushed over with a hot decoction of log-
wood— this may be made by boiling logwood chips
in an earthen pipkin till the liquor is of a deep
maroon colour when applied to the wood. It is well
to go over the work twice, with a slight interval between
for drying. Then, when the surface has become
moderately dry, brush over with a warm solution of
iron. Scraps of iron, left in vinegar for a few days
give a sufficient solution. This, when applied, acts on
the colouring matter from the logwood, and converts
the surface to a deep inky black, which assumes the
appearance of ebony when polished.
The ordinary polish for ebonized wood, consists of
beeswax and turpentine melted together at the fire.
It should be applied somewhat sparingly, with a
moderately hard brush, and well rubbed till the lustre
appears. Plenty of hard rubbing is the secret of
getting a good polish. The operation should be
finished with a linen rag.
Any tendency to warp under the wettings involved
in this process, must be obviated by placing the pieces
to dry under heavy weights.
It is apparent from the instructions that have been
given above, that it is within the power of any bachelor
who is possessed of a little ingenuity and assurance,
to make the greater part of the furniture that is abso-
lutely necessary for his rooms, and thus save any
unnecessary outlay in this direction. And what can
be done by the unmarried man may be done by any
one who has given, or is about to give, as Bacon
terms it, " hostages to fortune.'
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT.
By GEORGE SDWINSON.
II. — The Low-power Swan Lamp.
|r-g^-_r--j| N my last article on this subject, in a pre-
%Vf(\K» fatory note to the description of an
l^§K Electric Lamp sold by the Scientific
I Jmv Novelty Company, I mentioned that the
Swan lamp required a force from thirty
Bunsen cells to work it. It must be distinctly under-
stood, however, that I therein referred to the large
lamp manufactured by the Swan Electric Light
Company; this lamp will give a light of from 16
to 20-candle-power when worked by a sufficiently
strong current, and it demands such a strong cur-
rent to produce and maintain the light. But this
company manufactures lamps of a lower candle-power,
requiring a correspondingly weaker current of elec-
tricity to produce the light. Through the kindness of
Messrs. Patrick and Son, of Chelsea, I am now
enabled to lay before my readers some interesting
particulars concerning those low-power Swan la. ops ;
but before I do so it will be well to briefly glance at
the history of the Swan lamp.
Whilst Mr. Edison was conducting his experiments
on the use of platinum in electric lamps, Mr. Swan, of
Newcastle-on-Tyne, was turning his attention to the
maintenance of carbon in an incandescent condition
under the influence of the electric current. Twenty-
two years ago he sought to produce the electric light
by heating a thin strip of carbon under a glass shade,
exhausted of air ; although he failed in that experi-
ment through a breakdown of the apparatus employed
by him, he obtained an insight into the principles of
incandescent electric lights, and, about five years ago,
renewed his experiments. An interval of seventeen
years had given him some new appliances, the most
important of which, the Sprengel air-pump, enabled him
to obtain a much higher vacuum for his exosriments
than could be produced by the common air-pump.
Thishigh and complete vacuum in theglassglobe which
contains the carbon, is absolutely necessary to the
production and maintenance of the electric light there-
in. Let the smallest quantity of air into the globe,
and the glowing filament of carbon will flash up
brilliantly, then crumble into dust. In the imperfect
vacuum thus obtained by the common air-pump, Mr.
Swan and others observed that the stout carbon
threads then employed, wore away rapidly, obscured
the glass with a kind of thick smoke or soot, and then
broke. Mr. Swan concluded that this disinteg-
ration was due to two or three causes — first, thj air
was not entirely exhausted from the containing globe;
second, the globe was not hermetically sealed ; third,
462
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT.
the carbon thread itself held air or a gas which caused
its destruction when heated. Accordingly, in October,
1877, he had some carbon threads carefully enclosed
in glass globes, the air perfectly exhausted, the threads
raised to a white heat, and then the globes hermeti-
cally sealed by a glass-blower. This experiment was
rewarded with success, but there was another matter
or two requiring attention before the lamp could be
considered perfect. The thick carbon available at
that time required a very strong current of electricity
to make it white hot, and it lacked an equal quality
in all its parts. After a series of experiments with
various vegetable fibres, Mr. Swan produced a carbon
filament as fine as hair, from crochet cotton specially
prepared and then carbonised. In 1879, whilst I was
experimenting with a semi-incandescent lamp, Mr.
Swan wrote that he was confident of success with
incandescent lamps, and in 1880 he wrote the follow-
ing concerning his new carbon : " The carbon is
extremely thin — a mere hair— but wonderfully strong
and elastic. This carbon is quite homogeneous, and
almost flinty in hardness, and it becomes harder by
use in the lamp ; the longer and the hotter it is heated,
the harder it becomes. What degree of hardness it
will ultimately arrive at is an interesting question.
The carbon I use is not one-twentieth the thickness
of the thinnest of the carbons formerly employed, and
therefore one-twentieth of the current, costing one-
twentieth the price will produce in my thin carbons
the same degree of luminosity as twenty times more
current will produce in such carbons as were used in
those ancient lamps."
It will thus be seen that he successfully overcame
the two last objections, and brought the incandescent
electric light out of the secluded chamber of scientific
interest into the larger arena of practical success.
Those of us who were able to visit the late Electric
Light Exhibition at the Crystal Palace could not but
appreciate and admire the beautiful clusters of Swan
lamps, whether seen in the splendid electrolier hung in
the French Furniture Court, or under the pretty tinted
glass bells on the stand of Messrs. Strode and Co. ;
in the Picture Gallery, or in the Refreshment Rooms.
Much of the peculiar brilliancy of this incandescent
lamp appeared to be due to the intense centre of
sparkling white light given out by the carbon loop,
which is a distinguishing feature of Mr. Swan's large
lamps (a sketch of one is given in Fig. 7), but Messrs.
Siemens' agent at the Palace considers it due to the
superior quality of the carbon, which enables it to
bear a fraction more current than that in other lamps.
It will be seen on reference to Fig. 8, representing
one of the low-power Swan lamps, that the loop form
is departed from in those lamp;, and that the carbon
filament is merely bent to form an arch between the
two platinum conductors. This departure is necessary
in those low-power lamps, for the long thin filaments
employed in the larger lamps would offer too much
resistance/and consequently demand too much battery-
power to raise them to a glowing or incandescent con-
dition. The arch is therefore shortened, with the
result of a lower candle-power, requiring a lower
current. It will be seen, however, from the following
table, that the candle-power of a lamp has a close
relation to the battery-power required to work it : —
Swan's Incandescent Electric Lamps.
f<n Candle-
ao- Power.
Battery-Power Kequired.
"Working Life of
Lamp.
1
B
i
\
I
4
5
10
20
Two or three Bunsen cells.
Five Bunsen cells.
Ten Bunsen cells.
Twenty to twenty-five, or
even more cells in series.
If properly treated,
the lamps will last
from 500 to 800 hours
in constant use, and
have been known to
work for iooo hours.
In using a number of lamps, we require, of course,
a larger battery of cells, but it is not necessary to
increase the number of cells in multiples of the
number required to work one lamp ; for instance,
although it may take three Bunsen cells in series to
light up the 25-candle-power lamp, we shall be able to
light up two of such lamps with five cells, whilst six
cells in series will give enough current to light
up three lamps, giving a total light of 7^ to 8 candles.
A similar result will be obtained from the lamps of
higher resistance, when they are arranged in parallel
circuit — explained in my last — with the battery-cells
coupled in series. If it is intended to work several
lamps from one battery, the cells of that battery
should be of larger dimensions than those employed
to light up one or two lamps, and when several of the
high resistance lamps are to be used for a period of
from two to four hours, the battery-cells should not be
less than half-gallon capacity.
Mr. Mayfield, of 41, Queen Victoria Street, informs
me that the ordinary bichromate battery may be used
with the small lamps, and give good results for
two or three hours. Messrs. Patrick and Son recom-
mend the Bunsen cell, and they make up a special
cheap form of this cell with roughly cut carbon, for
use with the Swan lamps. The full current of a large
bichromate, or of a Bunsen battery, should not be
sent at once through a lamp, but the carbon should be
tempered by raising it to redness with a small number
of cells, adding more cells in series until the required
brilliancy of light has been obtained.
Regarding the price of the lamps, these are offered
by the makers at 5s. each lamp, but the price charged
by vendors for all sizes, when one or two alone is
purchased, is from 6s. to 6s. 6d. Messrs. Patrick and
THE DOMESTIC ELECTRIC LIGHT.
463
pnnvi RATTf "V
464
HOW TO MAKE AN ORGAN KEYBOARD.
Son offer them at £2 Per dozen, in quantities of one
dozen and upwards.
Vendors of the Swan lamps also sell a holder made
of hard brass wire coiled into a spiral spring (see Fig.
9) ; this grips the neck of the lamp, and can easily be
made to grip the top of a lamp-stand, or the end of a
bracket. The price of this holder is is. or is. 6d.
Connection is made with the line wires from the
battery through the tiny loops of platinum wire left
outside the neck of the lamp, and this connection
must be made by hooking the loops on the crooked
ends of the wires, or twisting the ends of the wires
tightly around the loops, both methods likely to make
bad contact. I have therefore devised a holder, shown
at Figs. 10 and 1 1, which can be made to tightly grip the
platinum wires, making a perfect contact therewith,
and assisting in holding the lamp steady. Fig. 1 1 shows
this holder in section. The part marked E shows the
section (full size) of the end of a rod of ebonite bored
with two h Jes to receive the two brass pins B,B ; these
should be turned out of tough fff brass wire A, Fig. 10,
into the form B, screwed at one end to receive the two
nuts C and D, and a gently tapering head made at the
other end, slit one-third the length of the pin with a
hacksaw or a slitting tile. The use of this holder is
shown at Fig. 12, where the slit heads of b,b, are shown
gripping the platinum wires of the lamp, the two nuts
C,C, are then tightened until good contact is made.
The bared ends of the line wires are then wound once
around each pin, and the nuts D,D, secure good contact
here; the wire holder entwines the whole, keeping all
steady. I may mention here that the above design
has been submitted to the Swan Electric Light
Company, and that they claim it as being covered by
their patents for lamp-holders.
The lamps may be suppjrted on any kind of stand
— a candlestick or a lamp-stand — or suspended from
or attached to a bracket. The holder shown above
will effectually insulate the two pins, and insulated
wires must be used to lead up to the pins ; care must be
taken in using metal stands and brackets, that no part
of the bare conducting wires or pins touch the metal
of the stands. To meet the wants of those readers
who may wish to mike their own lamp-stands for a
table lamp, I herewith give a design of one that may
be turned out of wood. Fig. 13 shows the Swan lamp
and holder (Fig. 12) mounted on the stand; and Fig. 14
is a sectional sketch of the stand and holder, showing
a channel for the line wires through the neck of the
stand. These may be separate wires or in the form of
flexible silk cord, or braid, containing the two wires,
this is sold in any colour, at from 6d. to 9d. per yard.
Although the wires are shown as passing down
through the base of the stand, and from thence
branching off to the battery, it must be "understood
that this arrangement is only suitable for a fixed lamp,
when the wires would be passed through a hole in the
table or desk, for a portable lamp it will be best to
make a hole through the upper part of the base, just
large enough to pass the flexible cord through, as
shown by dotted lines in sketch.
Under the usual arrangements for conducting the
current from battery to lamp, there is no provision
made for regulating the intensity of the light. We
cannot turn on a feeble amount of current and get a
small light, or a full current and produce a full light, as
we turn gas on and off with a tap near the burner.
Arrangements can be made for doing this if desired,
by interposing an inferior conductor in the circuit or a
set of such conductors, technically termed resistances,
but the usual method adopted by amateurs is to add a
cell to the battery when the light is dull, or take off a
cell when the light is too bright, or increase or diminish
the strength of the battery solution to meet the re-
quirements. Some makers of electric lamps provide
a tap beneath the neck of each lamp, similar in form
to those with which we are familar as applied to gas
burners. This tap is merely the pivot of a switch
which serves to make contact between two parts of the
line, and may be introduced in the lamp-stand if
desired, or fixed to any other part of the circuit. A
form of switch suitable for this purpose is shown at
Fig 15, a and b. The actual contact surfaces of such
switches should be guarded with strips of platinum
foil soldered on.
I have received from Messrs Patrick & Son, 15A,
White Lion Street, Chelsea, S.W., a list of articles
sold by them for the production of Domestic Electric
Lights. Any of the Swan lamps and the batteries to
work the lamps may be obtained from this firm, and
they also make a dynamo-electric machine for
amateurs, which they supply complete for ,£10, or
the castings, wires, all necessary parts, and instructions
for making it, at the low price of £1 10s. the set. This
machine will light up six of the Swan 10-candle lamps,
and may be driven from the fly wheel of a foot lathe.
I hope to give further particulars and illustrations of
this machine in my next article.
{To be continued.)
HOW TO MAKE AN ORGAN KEYBOARD.
By M. W.
HE delicately-poised and accurately-con-
structed keys in a modern instrument
present a great contrast to those in
organs built in the Middle Ages, the keys
of which were several inches wide, and
so heavy that they required beating with the fist in;
HOW TO MAKE AN ORGAN KEYBOARD.
465
order to move them, from which circumstance a per-
former on the instrument was termed an organ-beater.
The physical exertions required to play on such a key-
board must almost have equalled those of Gulliver
when entertaining the court of Brobdignag with a
musical performance, and of which he remarks that
"it was the most violent exercise I ever underwent.'
The description of an ancient keyboard may have
furnished Dean Swift with his idea in this case.
In the keyboard at present in use, the natural
notes of the chromatic scale are generally shown by
white keys, while the sharps and flats are indicated by
raised black ones. Even this is a reversal of the
ancient practice, for the natural notes were black, and
the sharps and flats were white. In some instruments
of the present day, especially in those of Gothic de-
sign, the old order of the colours has been revived. I
may mention that in the fine old organ at Exeter the
old keyboard is still preserved.
Many amateurs who are engaged in building the
small organ described in these pages have expressed
a wish to be supplied with instructions for making the
keyboard, so that the instrument may be truly de-
scribed as being " all their own work." To enable
them to gratify this laudable ambition, I will now
endeavour to explain how the keyboard can be satis-
factorily made ; but I must here impress upon all who
intend to attempt this task, that every part of the
work must be most accurately and carefully executed,
or the keys will be a source of annoyance instead of
pleasure.
Before starting on the keys themselves, it is neces-
sary to construct the frame, of which a general idea
will at once be gained on an inspection of the plan in
Fig. 1. It consists of two sides, called the cheeks, and
three rails, termed the front, middle, and back rails
respectively, and a cross rail in the centre, to add
strength. All the wood to be either oak or mahogany.
First prepare the cheeks, which are 1 foot 6iinches
long, 3J inches high, and ii inch thick. The front and
back rails are 2 feet clinches long, 3 \ inches wide, and
I inch thick. The middle rail is the same length and
width, but is ii inch finished thickness, worked to
the shape shown in the section, Fig. 5, and the top of
it stands i inch higher than the top of the front or back
rails. The cross rail is J inch thick, and supports the
other three. All the rails are dovetailed together and
secured with screws, this plan being better suited for
the purpose than mortises and tenons. The cheeks
are 2 feet 7 inches apart in the clear.
The front and back rails should now be covered on
the top with thick green baize, to secure silent action.
The appearance of the keyboard will be much im-
proved if the front portion of the cheeks is cut out, as
shown in Fig. 2, and the front edge should project
\ inch beyond the front rail to receive the bead, which
runs along the front of the keys, to hide the gap be-
tween them and the key-rail. This bead should be
ii inch high, and \ inch thick. Having now com-
pleted the key frame, the keys themselves should be
commenced. They may be made of good mahogany
or lime. Good yellow pine may be used, provided the
mortises hereafter to be described are cut in hard
wood, and let into the keys at the proper places. Joint
up a board of £ inch stuff — mahogany, lime, or pine,
whichever you intend to use — with the grain running
across it, plane both sides very truly, and square all
the edges. The finished size of it is to be 2 feet
7 inches long, and 1 foot 6 inches wide. With a com-
pass, pencil, and T-square, set out the keys, as shown
in Fig. 3. First draw the lines A, B, C, D, E, and F,
at the following distances from the front edge of the
board : — A, % inch ; B, rf inch ; C, 2jinch ; D, 55 inch ;
E, 9 inches ; and F, 9! inches. The lines A and c
show the position of the front pins in the white and
black keys. E and F the mid pins, and B and D the front
and back edges of the combs or raised black keys. After
drawing these lines, set out the white key lines, each
of which is exactly -flinch apart. The compass cf
this keyboard is to be from CC to G in the alto, but if a
smaller or larger compass is required, the board must
be proportionately reduced or extended in length.
There are thirty-three white keys, and the size above
given allows ^0 inch to spare. Then mark out the
black keys, taking notice that they do not come in the
centre of the white ones, but to the left or right of the
centre as required, the object being to get as much
room as possible on the white keys between each
black one. The blacks are arranged in alternate
groups of two and three. Fig. 6 shows more plainly
how the groups of three black keys are arranged with
regard to the white ones. It will be as well to score
across the black keys with a lead pencil, to distin-
guish them, or you may make a mistake in boring the
pin mortises. When you have marked this all out,
glue a slip of the same wood as the board all along
the front edge. This slip need only be i inch thick,
and it should be secured to the end of each key, as
marked out, with two little pins or brads as well as
with glue. Over this slip glue another of chestnut
i inch thick, and if you intend to have the fronts of
the keys moulded, run the moulding on this slip (see
Fig. 4). This moulding, though not much used at the
present time, is an easy way of finishing the key
fronts, is cheaper than ivory, and looks better than
plain flat wood.
The board now being prepared, fasten it down
on the key-frame, with its front edge level with
the edge of the front rail, and with a centre-bit the
exact size of the key-pins, bore the holes for the:
466
HO IV TO MAKE AN ORGAN KEYBOARD.
FIG. I. — PLAN OF FRAME
OF ORGAN KEYBOARD,
SH O W I N G CHEEKS,
FRONT, MIDDLE, AND
BAClv RAILS, AND CROSS
RAIL, ON SCALE OF
2 INCHES TO A FOOT.
FIG. 2. — SECTION OF KEY-
FRAME AND KEYS, ON
SCALE OF 2 INCHES TO A
FOOT.
VC
I^>
in
r- "I1 I ■■■■■- I I 1 1
""' " '>'■'' «> «
FIG. 3.— DIAGRAM SHOW-
ING METHOD OF SET-
TING OUT KEYBOARD,
ON SCALE OF 2 INCHES
TO A FOOT.
U
0
III
HO IV TO MAKE AN ORGAN KE YBOARD.
467
key-pins right through each key into the rails
of the frame. You will thus have no difficulty
in getting the pins exactly in their right places.
Take the board off again, and cut the mortises
which should be done with a proper tool, viz.,
a chisel punch. If you cannot get this, use a
small mortise chisel, the same width as the
key-pins. The underside of the holes for the
mid pins should be left untouched, but the top
part is formed into a mortise, or slot, about ■=■
inch long, and the width of the key-pin, the pin
being in the centre. The mortises must then
be cleared with the clearing tool if you can pos-
sibly get one, or if not, you must do the best
you can with the mortise chisel. The clearing
FIG. 4. — FULL-SIZE SECTION OF FKONT
END OF KEYS.
in
ill
FIG. 6. — FULL-SIZE PLAN OF KEYS.
tool — a small centre-bit, the centre of which
is as thick as the key-pin — is inserted
through the top mortise, and, on turning it,
the wood is cleared away all except about J-
inch at the top and bottom. The shape of
the hole, when finished, is shown in Fig. 5.
The object of this internal enlargement is
to prevent unnecessary friction of the key
on the pin, and the liability of sticking.
The holes for the front pins have the slot
or mortise at the bottom, and the top is
bored out with a centre-bit, about y% dia-
meter. In the white keys this hole is
covered with a slip of thin wood which
runs right across the key, and is let into it,
as shown at a in Fig. 4. The black ke\s
will not require this slip as the holes are
covered by the thick ebony. Having
completed the mortises, go over the tops
of the keys (where the ivory platings are
to come) with a fine toothing plane, and
then give them a coat of size and flake
white, to prevent the wood showing dark
through the ivory. Lay out your ivory
platings, match the fronts and tails, and
number them, keeping the whitest ones for
the treble keys, and then shoot the edges
for the joints with a finely-set steel plane.
Glue the fronts in their places with white
Russian glue, and when they are all on,
clamp a strip of heated hard wood over
them, and leave them to dry. The tail-
pieces are what is termed sprung on,
which is done as follows : — drive a small
French nail into the key, just a little
within the distance to which the back ot
the ivory would reach, and you will have to
slightly bend the ivory plating to get it
into its place when glueing it on. Be
careful not to let any glue get into the joint
FIG. 5. — FULL-SIZE SECTION OF MID-KAIL, SHOWING THE
SHAPE OF THE MORTISC.
U2
468
BOOKBINDING JFOR AMATEURS.
between the two ivories, or it will show as a dark line,
but if the joint is properly made, it should be scarcely
visible. Rub the ivory well down, and clamp a strip
of w.iod on it the same as with the front pieces.
When you draw out the nails, fill in the holes with
some stopping coloured to match the wood. If you
intend. to face the nosings of the keys with ivory
veneer, that should now be done, but if you have cir-
cular nosings, as shown in Fig. 6, they must be formed
after the keys are cut apart
When the glue is thoroughly dry and hard, you
may scrape the key platings with a steel scraper, taking
care to keep the scraper in a diagonal position across
the keys to prevent the joints working up. Rub them
down with fine worn glass-paper, and then polish them
well with a damp linen pad, and finely-powdered
pumice stone. Take great pnins with this part of the
work, or the kevs will not look nice. The keys may
now be separated by sawing down the lines with a thin
fine toothed saw, and the black keys may be cut from
the white with a stout fret saw, or a thin mortise chisel.
The white keys must be sloped back where they butt
on the end of the black unes, as shown in Fig. 4, and
the black keys are hollowed out on the underside
where they cross the mid-rail. The keys may then be
gone over with a fine set plane to take just the
roughness of the saw marks oft", finishing off with the
scraper, and fine glass-paper, but be careful to take off
no more than absolutely necessary. Now drive your
key-pins into the holes already bored for them in the
rails of the key-frame, and be careful to have them
upright ; the sections will show how high they project
above the rails. The mid-pins should have a small
disc of soft leather, or felt, fitted on to them for the
keys to rest on, in order that wood may not rattle
against wood. Place the keys in position, and fit on
the ebonies so as to leave the least possible gap
between them and the white keys. The ebonies are
generally sloped at the sides and front edge, but the
latest improvement is to make them quite square at
the sides, and circular on plan at the front. The extra
width at the top is a great acquisition, and there is
less liability to catch the finger-tip against the end of
the black key when playing rapid passages of music.
Should the keys require any loading to balance
them properly, a hole should be bored through the
side of the key with a centre-bit, and the lead forced
into it, as shown by the round dots near the tail end
of key in Fig. 2. Lead for the purpose may be pur-
chased in small round sticks.
Immediately behind the combs or ebonies, there
is placed a bar of hard heavy wood, about ~ inch
thick, lined at the bottom with a piece of thick red
baize. This bar, which is called the thumper, rests on
the keys, and runs loosely in a vertical groove in the
key cheeks at each end. Its use is to prevent the keys
rebounding, and so causing a sphering of the notes
when playing rapid chords.
The section Fig. 2, shows the connection with the
key action where the keyboard is made to slide in.
This is a convenient arrangement, as the keyboard
can be shut up like a drawer when not in use, thus
keeping it out of harm's way, as well as giving more
room in the apartment. A disc of thick cloth is glued
on the end of the key-tail, and over this is glued a
piece of soft leather, thus forming a circular lump,
highest in the centre. On this, the lower end of
the sticker rests, the sticker being prevented from
shifting laterally by being cut oblong in shape, and
passed through a hole in a rail termed a register.
The rail, or register, need not be more than \ inch thick,
and I J inch wide, and the sticker is prevented from
dropping any lower when the keyboard is pushed in, by
a piece of wood glued on it. The top of the register
should be covered with soft leather to prevent noise.
Ivory, pins, baize, etc., can be purchased in London
of Mr. T. Dawkins, 17, Charterhouse Street, E.C.
I have endeavoured to make these instructions
clear, but an inspection of a keyboard would be a
great assistance to the amateur.
=£■=
BOOKBINDING FOR AMATEURS.
By 1/it; Author of " Art of Boolcbindivg."
II.— Rolling, Beating, Pressing, Sawing in
and Sewing.
T is not to be expected that the amateur
can always get his books rolled. If he
be fortunate, he may possibly get a local
binder to roll his books at a very small
cost, indeed so small that it will repay
him to get it done rather than beat for any length of
time. A very good substitute for a rolling-machine is
the mangle of a washing-machine ; I do not mean to
say that rolling books in such a machine will improve
it, but I do not think it can do much harm ; another
substitute is the photographer's rolling, or I think it is
called glazing-machine, an old one may be picked up
cheap, and it will not matter if the rollers be rusty, a
little sand-paper will make these bright again.
The object of rolling, beating, or pressing, is to
make the book as solid as possible. Presuming that
my reader has a rolling-machine, or rather the mangle
make-shift, the book must be divided into sections, say
of six or eight sheets, knocked up straight at head and
back, placed between tins and passed through the
rollers, using good pressure, more for old than for new
books. My reader will find the word tins mentioned
BOOKBINDING FOR AMATEURS.
469
several times during these papers ; these are pieces of
tin cut to particular size, the Svo tins for instance are
cut a little larger than an Svo book, the same with
other sizes ; the sheet tin is sold according to weight,
and the tin warehouse will cut it to any size. The
amateur must determine how many pairs of tins he
may require, but should say that 12 pairs of 8vo and
6 pairs of 4to are quite enough. I do not mention
any particular house, as any tin shop will cut the tin
. to size. The cost should be about 3d. per pair 8vo,
for good tin, more for the larger size. When the
whole of the book has been rolled, the book should be
collated again to ensure that the sheets have not been
misplaced, and the volume may, if the amateur wishes,
be pressed ; but this is not necessary, although
pressing always tends to improve the book. Should
the pressure of the rolling-machine be too heavy or
the printing be too new, there will be great liability
of set o.f, that is, a transfer of the printing ink upon
the opposite page.
Beating is most advisable for the amateur; by
beating his books, he becomes independent of the
local binder. All books were beaten by the binder
until about the year 1830, when the rolling-machine
was introduced, the first machine used in our trade ;
and it is worth while to mention here, that the work-
people called a meeting together to express their
disapproval of the introduction, believing that it would
tend to throw a number of hands out of employment.
The two essentials necessary for beating are a stone or
iron slab used as a bed, and a very heavy hammer
(Fig. 15). The stone or iron should be perfectly
smooth, and bedded with great solidity. The most
useful are those of iron fitted into a strong wooden box
filled with sand, the iron slab resting on the sand, with
a wooden cover to the iron when not in use. The
hammer should be somewhat bell shaped, the weight
most convenient is about 7lbs., with a short handle
made to fit the hand. Messrs. Meager and Company,
of Endle Street, Bloomsbury, are prepared to supply
such a beating-stone and hammer for £2 10s. I need
hardly remark that the beating-stone should stand on
some firm spot, such as the basement of a house. It is
not absolutely necessary that the amateur should go to
the above expense ; the stump of an old tree, with a very
large stone or thick piece of marble resting on the top,
the whole made rigid, will answer just as well as the
iron one. Where the writer served his apprenticeship,
all books had to be beaten, there being no machine
in the town, and the beating-stone was nothing more
than a piece of stone placed on a log of wood.
Having then our beating-stone and hammer, divide
the book to be beaten into sections of about fifteen
to twenty sheets, according to the thickness of the
paper. A section is now to be held between the
fingers and thumb of the left hand, resting the section
on the stone ; then the hammer, grasped firmly in the
right hand, is raised, and brought down with rather
more than its own weight on the sheets, which must
be continually moved round, turned over, and changed
about, in order that they may be equally beaten all
over. At every blow from the hammer the sheets are
moved, so that a fresh surface is exposed for the next
blow ; the sheets must be kept as straight as possible,
at both head and back. If by the concussion the sheets
shift or slide, stop beating, and knock them up afresh
at both head and back.
When the sections have been beaten separately,
the whole of them, if not more, than three or four may
be beaten together, the object being, as above stated,
to make the whole as solid as possible. This want of
solidity is in a great measure the fault of all amateur
binding ; no book has that pleasurable look and feel
about it that has not been properly rolled, beaten, or
pressed.
P?-essing.- — As I have said above, it is not necessary
to press books after beating or rolling, but it will be
most advisable, if, after rolling or beating, that the
book or books are put into a press of some sort. In
the regular workshops standing presses are used ; these
are either the strong upright ccrew, hydraulic, or some
of the patent presses now in the market, but these are
not necessary to the amateur : he will find a good screw
copying-press as good as anything— in fact, the stand-
ing press is, if I may use the term, a copying-press on
a large scale, but if no copying-press can be had, the
laying-press will answer every purpose.
For pressing, a few pressing boards cut to the
various sizes are necessary ; these are made of hard
wood, or plates of iron covered with millboard (the
object of covering the iron being to protect the paper
or boards from iron rust), but the best tne amateur can
have are those he may make himself. Take some old
covers, strip them of the cloth or leather, cut them
roughly to the size, and paste three or four of them to-
gether, put them in the press to dry, when dry, square
them all round in the laying-press. As I shall speak
about cutting in a future paper, it will be hardly neces-
sary to repeat here. The amateur will find that these
home-made pressing-boards are very strong, and do
not break like those of wood, of course the iron-plates
are the best, but these are only used in large shops where
a great deal of work is done, and, although the cost is
great at first, are comparatively indestructible beyond
a new thin millboard each side when the old ones ate
damaged. ;
Knock the whole of the book up straight at the
head and tail if thin, and place it on a pressing-board ;
if thick, divide into two or three sections, placing a
board between each, then put the whole exactly under
47>
BOOKBINDING FOR AMATEURS.
the screw of the press ; the book must be perfectly in
the centre of the press, so that the screw is exactly
over the centre of the book or books, or if much
pressure is used, some damage, more or less, will be
done to the press. This must be observed in all cases
of pressing, and when using the laying-press that the
screws are exerting an equal pressure ; this is easily
known, if one end of the press is open wider than the
other, the one screw has more pressure, and must be
relieved, both ends should be alike. It is to be under-
stood that the book must be in the centre of the press.
The best way for the amateur to use his laying-press
is to turn it over on its right side, that is, with the
screws up, it will stand alone, then open it rather more
than is wanted, both hands are now at liberty for hold-
ing the books and boards; when quite straight, and in
the centre
of the press,
screw, with
the hands,
the press
down as
tight as
possible,
then turn
the press
back to its
proper po-
sition, and
screw up
tightly,
using the
press pin.
Leave the
books in
the press
as long as
possible, never less than three or four hours.
Sawing in. — Knock the book up perfectly straight
at both head and tail, place the book between boards,
either old millboards or cutting-boards, with the back
projecting about half an inch, then lower the whole in
the laying-press, leaving it projecting to enable a free
use of the saw, but sufficiently elevated to prevent the
saw damaging the cheeks of the press. In placing the
book in the press, hold the book and boards tightly
with the left hand, and regulate the screws with the
right, screwing up sufficiently to prevent the book
slipping. Now mark or divide the back into six
equal divisions or portions, leaving the bottom one
somewhat larger than the rest, saw in the five marks
across the back, cutting deep enough to receive the cord
upon which the sheets are sewn (Fig. 16). This cord
varies according to the size and thickness of the books,
and is known by the same term as the books, i.e., thick
FIG. 18. — SEWING. — SEWER AT WORK
FIG. IS. — THE BEATING HAMMER,
AND METHOD OF USING IT.
or thin l2mo, Svo, or 4to — bought at any bookbinders
material dealers. Care must be taken not to saw too
deeply — nothing looks worse than a book with great
holes in the back ; if, on the other hand, the saw cuts
are not deep enough, the cord will stand out from <the
back, and be seen
distinctly when the
book is covered.- An
extra slight cut must
be made head and
tail, at A and B, for
the thread to lodge
in : this thread being
called the chain-
stitch or kettle-stitch
— a corruption, I am
inclined to think,
of catch up stitch.
Sewing. — The whole strength of a book is in the
sewing. If the amateur wishes his books to be bound
strongly, his books must be sewn properly. The
requisites are a sewing-press, cord, some needles and
good thread. On the board supplied with the press
by Messrs. Meager will be found two holes, into these
holes are screwed two long wooden screws, and upon the
screws a cross-bar is placed ; here, then, is our sewing-
press complete, Fig. 17. Fasten upon the cross-bar
five loops called lay cords : to these lay cords attach
by slip-knots five pieces of cord cut from the ball, about
five or six times longer than the thickness of the book,
the other ends being fastened to small pieces of metal
called keys,0 by twisting the ends round twice, and then
a half hitch bringing the cord up between the forks; the
keys are then passed through the slot in the bed of the
press, and
turned at
right an-
gles with
the slot ;
the cross-
bar must
now be
screwed
up rather
tightly,
but loose
enough to
allow the
lay cords
Havin
FIG. 17.— SEWING PRESS, WITH BOOK SEWN.
to move freely backwards or forwards,
the book on the bed of the press within easy
reach, and the back towards the sewer, a sheet is
* The cord twisted round a nail would answer the purpose
quite as Wrll, using the nail as a key. and a box, with the top
and bottom knocked out, might be made to serve as a sewing-
press, using only the tour sides, and driving some large tacks at
the edge to hold the cord tightly while the book is being sewn.
BOOKBINDING FOR AMATEURS.
47i
laid against the cords, which are arranged exactly to
the saw marks made on the back. When quite true,
that is to say, every cord fitting into the saw cuts, the
five cords should be made tight by screwing the beam
up. It will be better if the cords are a little to the
right of the press, so that the sewer may get his left
arm to rest better on the press (Fig. 18). The first
and last sections are first to be overcast or over-sewn with
cotton, this is for strength. The first sheet is now to
be laid against the bands, and the needle introduced
through the kettle-stitch hole on the right of the book,
which is the head. The left hand being within the
centre of the sheet (Fig. 19), the needle is taken
with it, and thrust out of the first hole to the right of
the cord, the needle being taken with the right hand,
must be joined thereto, so that one length of thread is,
as it were, used for a book ; the knots must be made
very neatly, and the ends cut off or they will be visible
in the sheets by their bulk, and as each sheet is sewn
the thread must be drawn tightly.
However simple it may appear, in description, to
sew a book, it requires great judgment to keep down
the swelling of the book to the proper amount neces-
sary to form a good backing groove, and no more. In
order to do this, if the back is swelling too much, the
sheets must from time to time be gently tapped down
with a piece of wood or heavy fclding-stick ; great care
must be observed to avoid drawing the fastening of
the kettle-stitch too tight, or the head and tail of the
book will be thinner than the middle. If the sections
FIG. 16. — DIAGRAM
SHOWING SAW CUTS
IN BACK OF BOOK
TO RECEIVE CORDS.
i, 2, 3. 4. 5, Deep cuts
for cords.
A, B, Slighter cuts for
chain stitch or kettle
stitch.
.EACH OF BOOK
FIG. 19.— SEWING PRESS ON LARGER SCALE, SHOWING MOPE OF SEWING.
(Three bands are omitted in order to show the other two more plainly.)
BACK OF BOOK
IAGRAM SHOWING COURSE OF THREAD IN SEWING SHEET TO BANDS.
is again introduced on the left of the same band ; this
is repeated with each band in succession,_and_the
needle brought out of the kettle-stitch hole on the left
or tail of the sheet. A new sheet is now placed on
the top and treated in a similar way, by introducing
the needle at the left end, or tail, and when taken out
at the right end, or head, the thread must be fastened
by a knot to the end hanging from the first sheet,
which is left long enough for the purpose ; the surplus
being cut away when the knot is made. A third sheet
having been sewn in like manner, the needle brought
out at the kettle-stitch must be thrust between the two
sheets first sewn, drawn round the thread and through
the loop formed, thus fastening or tying each sheet to
its neighbour by a kind of chain-stitch ; this is repeated
to each sheet, catching up each section as sewn in
succession. As each thread is terminated, another
are very thin, or in half-sheets, they may, if the book
is very thick, be sewn " two sheets on." To do this the
needle is passed from the kettle-stitch to the first band
of the front sheet, and out, then another sheet is
placed on the top, the needle inserted at the first
band, and brought out at band No. 2, the needle is
again inserted in the first sheet, at the second band,
and out at No. 3, thus treating the two sections as
one ; in this way it is obvious that only half as much
thread will be in the back. With regard to books
that have had the heads cut, it will be necessary to
open each sheet carefully up the back, to ensure
having the centre of the sheet, before it is placed on
the press, otherwise the centre may not be caught ; if
not caught, the result will be that two or more leaves
will fall out after the book is bound. With regard to
books that are composed of single leaves, after
472
BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
the back has been sawn in and glued up with thin
glue, it is allowed to dry, then divided into sections of
four, six, or eight leaves, according to the thickness
of the paper ; each section is overcasted from head to
tail, and the section is then treated as an ordinary
sheet. When a book is sewn, it is taken from the
sewing-press by slackening the screws which tighten
the beam, so that the cord may easily be detached
from the keys and lay cords. The cords or slips, as
they are called, may be reduced to about three inches.
The thread may be bought at the bookbinders' ma-
terial dealers ; use only the best, not only because it is
stronger, but because it is more even. It will be
found advantageous to get two or three thicknesses
of thread, to be used according to the thickness of
the sheets: the fine for thin sheets, and thick for
heavy or large sheets. If too thick a thread is used,
the swelling will be too much ; if too thin, the swell-
ing will not be enough. If the sections are thick or
few, a thick thread must be used ; if the book has
many sections, and the sections are thin, then thin
thread must be used. As before stated, this requires
judgment. The cost of thread is 2s. and 2S. 6d. per
lb. ; the cord 2s. per lb.
Should the amateur not understand the word over-
casting or oversewing, any lady will show him what
is meant much better than can possibly be explained
on paper.
(To be continued.)
BOOTS AND SHOES:
HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.
By ABEL EARNSHAW.
VII.— Slipper-making.
E now arrive at a part of the shoemaker's
trade in which the system of construc-
tion is radically different from all those
before explained. It has already been
made sufficiently plain and clear that the
inner sole is the base upon which the boot or shoe,
intended for outdoor wear, is constructed. In order,
then, that the difference in the system of construction
about to be explained should be seen at once, it must
be understood that the slipper has no inner sole at all.
In slipper-making, two objects are kept in view —
namely, cheapness and lightness. Were it necessary
that the somewhat elaborate processes which the
amateur has been made acquainted with, should be
gone through, the cost of slippers would certainly be
much heavier than it now is ; and, indeed, they would
be less comfortable to wear.
The kind of slipper-making, or, to speak techni-
cally, sew-round making, which I now purpose de-
scribing, is a very simple process. The common
carpet and other slippers which find so extensive a
sale are often — I had almost said usually — made by
persons having much less knowledge of the trade
than the amateur who has read these papers is in
possession of Should therefore anyone not have had
the resolution to attempt to put previous instructions
into practice, for fear of failure, he may safely, in this
instance, lay aside that fear. He will need to incur
little expense either for leather or tools, nor can he,
unless he is possessed of perverse ingenuity, spoil his
work.
The requisites in slipper-making are, first, a pair
of wooden lasts, and next, a pair of slipper-tops, which
almost any woman, expert with her needle, can pre-
pare after examination of an old sli.iper. A pair of
light soles, cut from " shoulder," and a pair of very
light stiffenings, the whole costing only a few pence,
comprise the bottom-leather necessary : the tools are a
knife, hammer, sewing-awl, and shoulder-stick. The
three first-named must be purchased, the last can be
made from a small piece of wood in five minutes — I
will say how when I come to its use.
The soles are first to be thoroughly saturated with
water, and then cut to the shape the bottom of the
slipper is to have. This shape may be obtained from
the bottom of the last, a small extra allowance of, say,
& inch all the way round, increasing to T\ at the back
of the heel, being left on. When the soles have been
rounded, the edges are slightly bevelled on the flesh, or
rough, side, a very small shaving being evenly taken
off, beginning ,\ inch from the edge.
A quarter of an inch further in a line is , drawn,
by compasses if the worker happens to have a pair,
or, and more commonly, by the worker's thumb nail.
Here a small incision is made by the knife, and the
leather on the side of it nearer the centre bevelled
away, very little being taken off. This leaves a small
groove or depression, into which a line of stitches
subsequently falls. The worker now makes holes for
stitches in the back of the sole, much in the same
way as has been described in a previous chapter,
where instructions for the preparation of inner-soles
for another kind of hand work were given. The awl
is thrust through from the groove towards the edge,
its point coming out f inch from the edge. The curved
shape of the awl blade thus enables a considerable
portion of the solid leather to be taken hold of, though
in no case does the awl penetrate deeply enough to
show on the opposite or grain side. Three stitch
holes to the inch will be found sufficient. The sole
having been placed in position, the leather showing a
little beyond the last at the toe, is now tacked down
to the last, by a couple of square-headed tacks, with
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
473
the grain or smooth side to the wood, the upper is
turned inside out. Thus the position of both sole and
upper are reversed from those in which they are
manipulated, either m course of manufacture under
other systems, or in wear. The stiffening having been
properly " skived " is put in, and the upper drawn over
at the toe and temporarily secured by a small tack.
The upper is next brought into position at the sides of
the toe and at the joints, and in the waist ; but there is
no lasting in the ordinary sense to be done, the stitches
as they are put in drawing the upper sufficiently
tight. Beginning at the right-hand corner of the heel
joint the awl is passed through one of the noles pre-
viously made in the back of the sole, and from thence
through the upper, one end of the waxed thread being
next passed through until an even length shows on both
sides. The next operation is to sew the slipper all the
way round exactly as though a welt was being sewn in ;
though as there is no welt near the heads of the stitches
show in an even line the edge of the upper. The
worker having stitched the slipper round and with-
drawn all tacks, now cuts away the superfluous portion
of the upper beyond the stitches, leaving a little more
than an eighth of an inch for them to hold in. This
remaining portion is beaten down by light blows of
the hammer. The slipper is now ready for turning.
For this purpose the slipper must be taken off the last,
and while the sole is still very moist turned so that
both upper and sole take their proper position. The
worker first turns the heel portion, beginning by placing
both thumbs at the base of the stiffening, holding at
the same time the top of the slipper with the fingers.
If the sole is sufficiently pliable, a vigorous push
with both thumbs will cause the heel part of the sole
to rise far enough to allow the top of the upper to
reverse its position entirely. The turning of the toe
part is rather more difficult, but with a little patience
it will be successfully accomplished. The end of the
sole, at the toe, is pushed inwards by the thumbs as
far as it can be made to go, and when this has been
done, a piece of wood with blunt ends, for instance a
small ruler, is brought into requisition, and the sole
pressed further inwards, the fingers being used to
" coax " the sole through at the same time. When it
has been turned some distance, the remainder may
come through with a jerk, or the toe part may need to
be finally drawn through by the fingers and thumb of
the right hand. A considerable amount of care needs
to be exercised in this operation, so that the stitches
are not in any way disturbed or broken.
The slipper, after being turned, has, of course, a
very limp and crumpled-up appearance. It now needs
to be straightened as much as possible. A piece of
cardboard, or very thin leather, cut the shape of the
cavity caused by the edge of the upper is now to be
inserted, a little paste being put on the side which
touches the leather. The slipper has now to be
" second lasted," that is, put on the last again in its
new condition of right side out. The toe of the last
is thrust in as far as it will go, and the heel part of the
upper brought over the heel of the last by means of a
shoe-horn, or by a piece of leather substituted for that
instrument. When the slipper is properly filled out
by the last, the sole is lightly hammered all over, and
thoroughly sleeked or rubbed down. The edge has
now to be set up with the shoulder-stick. From a
piece of hard wood, 8 or 9 inches long, and about % of
an inch in thickness, a rectangular piece is cut out as
near as possible the thickness of the sole at the edge.
These corners may be taken off with sand-paper, or
with the fine file. With this instrument the edge is
set, or worked up all round, until a polish is obtained.
The bottom of the sole is then scraped and sand-
papered, and the slipper is ready to be taken off the last.
If a heel is required, one single thickness of leather
(a top piece) may be nailed on with short brass rivets;
s inch rivets will be long enough, as care must be
taken they do not go through the sole, but only hold
in it. A cardboard sock, the full size of the sole, and
covered with flannel or any suitable material, is inserted
when the slipper is off the last, and well pasted in.
This completes the series of articles on making
boots and shoes, all the systems practicable to the
amateur having been dealt with, except that of making
them of gutta-percha. Necessarily the descriptions
of the various processes have been abbreviated, and
many old practices in use by those who follow the
shoe trade as- an occupation have been left unmen-
tioned; but enough has been said to.enable the amateur
to construct at a pinch boots or shoes by any of the
systems in which machinery is not absolutely neces-
sary, and to identify the different kinds preparatory to
his attempting to carry out the instructions yet to be
given in regard to repairing. The construction, etc.,
of gutta-percha boots I shall deal with separately.
,»«=£=>=
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO
MAKE IT.
By CHARLES SPENCER.
IV.— Portable Frame or Stand for Swing, &e.
HE above represents a very simple con-
trivance for supporting any sort of swing,
its chief merit consisting in its portability;
its value being illustrated by the follow-
ing relation of an occurrence which took
place a few years ago, when I first had occasion for
such a construction : —
474
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
I was engaged as
judge for certain
athletic and gymnas-
tic sports which were
to be held in a park
just outside one of
the large midland
towns. Permission
had been obtained
from the owner, and
it had been arranged
that the sports should
take place on a mag-
nificent lawn in front
of the mansion. On
arriving at the town
on the morning of
the day in question,
I found the secretary
and stewards in great
trouble, as they had
just received a mes-
sage from the great
man's head-gardener
to the effect that it
was forbidden to dig
any holes into the
lawn, so that it would
be impossible to let
into the ground the
heavy supports for
the trapeze, etc.,
which performances
formed one of the
principal features in
the programme.
Here was the di-
lemma in which the
managers of the fete
were suddenly
placed, and from
which it became my
duty if possible to
extricate them.
There being very
little time for con-
sideration, I at once
despatched a mes-
senger to a builder's
yard for three small
scaffold poles, two of
them 20 feet long,
and the other 7 feet.
The latter I had
lashed on to the top
FIG. 6. — PORTABLE SWING-STAND WITH WOODEN UPRIGHTS.
FIG. 7. — PORTABLE SWING-STAND WITH IRON UPRIGHTS.
of the other two, and
stayed off with four
ropes to be made
fast to stakes driven
into the ground in
the manner shown
in the illustration
(Fig. 6) : this answer-
ing the purpose satis-
factorily, the sports
came off without any
injury to the lawn,
and to the gratifica-
tion alike of per-
formers and spec-
tators. I have since
adopted a similar
arrangement for a
children's fete, in
which the support
for the swing, etc.,
was composed of
two clothes poles, a
broomstick, and a
clothes line.
Having demon-
strated its usefulness,
let us proceed to the
construction of this
apparatus upon a
sound and proper
basis. In making a
portable stand, I
would recommend
you to construct it
of two Norway spars
(Fig. 6, a, A), say 20
feet long, which will
make a very high
swing. I may here
add that in this ap-
paratus, unlike the
preceding, where the
strain is upon the
underground portion,
the entire strain is
upon the top, where
all the strength of
the apparatus is con-
centrated by the use
of the four guys or
stays, the bottoms of
the poles standing
on the ground with-
out being let in. Nor-
WA YS AND MEANS,
475
way spars may be had of builders, as they are
used for scaffold poles, etc. They are also used
by ladder-makers, cut in two to form the sides of
ladders, the price being about 3s. each. The top
should be about 3 inches, and the bottom 4-5 inches
diameter. They are generally sold with the bark on,
which is easily removed with a chisel or draw knife.
The top, that is to say the part to which the swing is
attached, consists of a 2-inch gas barrel (b), all tubes
or barrels being measured by the calibre, or inside
diameter, so that your barrel will be 25- inch diameter
outside, the metal being about J inch thick. You will
next require two 2-inch elbows, of which there are two
sorts, one being made to a sharp angle and the other
being round. The latter is the better for
this purpose, as it has a neater appear-
ance ; 2-inch barrels cost 8id. per foot
run, 2-inch elbows are is. 4d. each. The
gas barrels and elbows are sold the
length required ready screwed, so all
you have to do is to screw on the elbow,
cut the top of the spar, and screw it
into the same, in fact, there is scarcely
any actual manufacturing to be done,
the work consisting mainly in purchasing
the parts and putting them together.
There will be a little smith's work, viz.,
two hooks (c, C) off inch round iron,-
forged and riveted through the barrel
in the centre, 20 inches apart, and also
2 staples of § inch round iron (b, b)
drilled and riveted through the elbows
to secure the guys, which consist of four
lengths of wire rope (E, E, E, e) 30 feet
long. The ordinary galvanised 7 wires
twisted, the same as that used for fencing
or staying, will answer the purpose. It
can be obtained from Newall & Co.,
Strand, and costs 22s. 6d. per 100 yards.
The stakes (d) to which the guys are attached should
be made of any kind of fir, 3 in. by 3 in., and 3 feet in
length, with an iron ferule at one end and pointed at
the other, as in Fig. 8. The ferule prevents the
wood from splitting while it is being driven into the
ground. There should be a screw eye (a) 5 inches
long, made of \ inch iron. These are often called
stage screws, being much used in theatres for attach-
ing the stays which support the scenery. After you
have driven the stakes into the ground flush (i.e., as
far as they can be driven), bore a hole with the f-inch
gimlet, and screw the screws into the stake, as shown
in the illustration.
Before finally quitting this subject, I must add one
more illustration (Fig. 7), by means of which I can
explain how, should you require an apparatus such as
7
FIG. 8.-STAKE
TO HOLD
GL'Y.
that above described for the purpose of conveyance
to one place after another, such an arrangement may
be made without difficulty. The method I have my-
self adopted under such circumstances is as follows :
Instead of the uprights, or supports, being made of
spars, use iron tubing (Fig. 7, A, A) similar to that of
which the top is formed. These uprights may consist
of three tubes, 6 feet in length each, screwed together
by the aid of the sockets which are supplied with the
tube when purchased. By using such uprights, and
by the introduction of T-piece (b, b), you can fix a
horizontal bar, and the whole apparatus is of course
less cumbrous than that made by spars. TheT-pieces
can always be added to by removing the sockets and
substituting the T-piece. Other apparatus can be
added to the above construction, as in the case of the
lawn gymnasium. With which brief instructions you
will be able to construct your poitable gymnasium
without difficulty.
WAYS AND MEANS.
[The Receipts brought together under this title are gathered
from various sources. They are given here because they are each
and all apparently possessed of value, and likely to be useful to the
Amateur. It is manifestly impossible for the Editor to test them,
or to have them tested, and he therefore disclaims all responsibility
for their accuracy or otherwise. Amateurs who may try them are
requested to communicate the results arrived at.]
Solid Emery Paper. — Emery paper is frequently
found lacking in retaining an equal efficiency, the
fresh parts biting too much, and the paper getting
soon worn through in many places. Emery has been
tried on linen, but with little success. A paper or
board has been recommended in which emery enters
as a constituent part. It is advised to employ fine
and uniform cardboard pulp, with from one-third to
half its weight of emery powder thoroughly mixed
with it, so that the emery may be equally distributed.
The mass should be poured out into cakes of from 1
to 10 inches in thickness. They must not be pressed
hard. Such a paper, it is said, will adapt itself to the
form of the articles, and will serve until completely
worn out.
Protecting Brass from Tarnish. — To keep
brass from tarnishing, after thoroughly cleaning and
removing the last traces of grease by the use of potash
and water, the cage or other brasswork must be care-
fully rinsed with water and dried, but in doing it care
must be taken not to handle any portion with the
bare hand, nor anything else that is greasy. The
preservative varnish may be shellac, much diluted
with alcohol, or it may be hard oil finish. In either
case, the brass should be made pretty warm, and the
varnish or shellac put on with a brush in as thin a
476
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
coat as possible. The proportion of shellac to alcohol
is about two ounces of the former to nine ounces of
the latter. Sometimes gamboge is used for a colour-
ing matter to make the varnish more yellow, and some-
times dragon's blood.
Silvering Mirrors. — Looking-glasses used to
be made by covering the plate with an amalgam of
tin and mercury ; but this has been superseded by
depositing a coat of real silver upon the glass, thrown
down in a smooth film by adding oil of cloves or other
organic substances to a solution of ammonia-nitrate
of silver, retained upon the plate by a raised rim of
wax. The trouble with the process has been that)
though cheaper, the plates are inferior in lustre, and
lack the "black" colour which silversmiths regard as
indicating perfection of polish. The long-looked-for
process of imparting the brilliancy of the mercurial
coating to the cheap and durable film has at last been
accomplished by chemical reaction. After the silver-
plating is complete, the film is flooded with a weak,
aqueous solution of the double cyanide of mercury
and potassium ; slow decomposition takes place, and
the mercury is precipitated, which immediately amal-
gamates with the silver film. The result is said to
be thoroughly satisfactory, the amalgam of silver
being quite as bright as that of tin and less subject to
change, while the new process has the advantage of
being readily applicable to the largest plates, which,
by the old method, could be treated only with great
difficulty, if at all.
How to Render Wood Fire-proof. — P. Fol-
barry, of New York, has devised a method of making
wood incombustible without, in any way, altering its
outward appearance. Wood prepared in accordance
with his process may possibly be charred just at the
surface, but the heat to which it is exposed, though
ever so intense, can never penetrate right into the
wood, and touch its fibres. Timber petrified in this
way is particularly suitable to staii cases that are to
resist a conflagration. The composition devised by
the inventor is as follows : 55 pounds of sulphate of
zinc, 22 pounds of potash, 44 pounds of alum, 22
pounds of sesquioxide of manganese, 22 pounds of
sulphuric acid at 6o°, and 45 pounds of water. The
whole of the solid substances are put in an iron vessel,
containing the water at a temperature of 113° Fahr.
When all this solid matter is dissolved, the sulphuric
acid is poured in slowly until the whole is saturated
with it. The solution is now ready, and in order to
prepare timber with it the pieces must be put on an
iron grate in a suitable recipient, in accordance with
the size of the pieces and the object for which they are
intended, care being taken to leave half an inch be-
tween any two pieces. The composition is pumped
into the recipient, and after the whole of the spaces
have been filled up it is left there in a boiling state for
three hours. The wood is then taken out and placed
on a grate-like wooden stand in the open air, to make it
dry and firm. When thus prepared the impregnated
wood may be used for shipbuilding and building in
general, for railway carriages, scaffoldings, posts,
wooden pavements, and generally for all purposes,
while it is desirable that the material should be able
to resist fire.
=■*«=
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
D
FIG.
22. — ILLUSTRATION OF TERM
CHAMFERING.
HE operation in carpentry known as cham-
fering has been frequently mentioned in
the pages of this magazine in connection
with the construction of various articles,
useful and ornamental. It consists in
taking off the sharp rectangular edge of a piece of
wood, formed by the intersection or line of meeting
of two plane surfaces at right angles to one another,
so as to leave a third surface inclined in most cases at
at an angle of 135° ^ e b
to each of their sur-
faces. The annexed
diagram (Fig. 22) will
help to make this per-
fectly clear to anyone
who may not exactly
u n derstand what
chamfering means.
Suppose the figure to represent in section a piece of
planed board f inch thick, of which A B is the upper
surface, B c the front or face of the board, and c D
the under surface. The planes A B, B c intersect or
meet in a line represented in the diagram by the point
B. It is desired to take off the sharp edge at B to the
extent off inch each way along B A and B c, until a
third surface E f is produced, which makes with A B
and B c the angles a e f, e f c, each equal to 1350.
To take off the edge B is easy enough, and it may be
done with an ordinary plane if the chamfer be carried
along the whole length of the board, but it is unlikely
that one amateur out of ten, or even more, will be
able to do this so nicely as to insure the inclination of
E F to A E and F C at equal angles, or in other words
to take off the edge in such a manner that the depth
of the piece removed from b to E and from B to F
shall be equal.
The difficulty, however, may be overcome by the
most unskilled of amateurs by the use of an ingenious
little tool which has been sent to me by Mr. A. S.
Lunt, Saw, Plane, Tool, and Cutlery Manufacturer,
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
All
297, Hackney Road, E., and which from its appearance
is of American origin. This tool, which is called the
" Improved Chamfering Shave," and which is sold at
2S. 3d., is shown in Fig. 23, the back part of the
tool being represented. It consists of four parts,
namely, the stock, the cutting iron, and two fences,
which are adjustable from ^ in. to ii in., and there-
fore capable of being removed or brought together at
pleasure, so as to cut any sized chamfer that the
amateur will require to make in all ordinary work
from the largest to the smallest. The stock, which is
FIG. 23.— IMPROVED CHAMFERING SHAVE.
of iron, is very similar to that of a spokeshave, and
the tool is used in precisely the same way. It is
pierced at either end or handle in order to reduce its
weight as much as possible. Between the perfora-
tions runs a groove, in which the fences slide, being
loosened or tightened at pleasure by two screws which
enter the stock. The cutting iron, which is 2'\ inches
long and if inches wide, is inserted in a groove cut to
receive it in the front of the stock. The extent of the
cutting edge exposed is regulated by a screw, which
works through a slot in the cutting iron and enters the
stock. I can thoroughly recommend this useful tool
to the notice of my readers, both for chamfering as in
the case of V jointed boards, for example, and for stop
chamfering, an operation in which the chamfer is not
carried out along the whole length of the edge, but is
terminated at a set distance from either end. Stop-
chamfering is much used in making pieces of furniture,
ornamental gates, etc. Among carpenters a shave of
this description is generally known as a canting tool.
It is possible to make one with the aid of an old chisel
or plane iron as the cutting iron, but few will be
inclined to do so when the cost of one all ready to
hand is no more than 2s. 3d.
A short time ago a correspondent was making
inquiry for a portable set of tools in a roll, which
would go into small compass and be easily carried
about by the owner. His want was mentioned to
Messrs. R. Melhuish and Sons, Carpenters, Iron-
mongers, and Tool Manufacturers, of 85 and 87,
Fetter Lane, E.C., who have added to their stock a
variety of sets of tools of this kind, and now have
them on sale. I think it so desirable that every
amateur who maybe inclined to furnish himself with
one of these cases may be able to suit his individual
requirements as nearly as possible, that I have ap-
pended in exlenso below a summary of these cases
and the various tools contained in each, with the
description of envelope, p-ice, etc.
No. 1. — Seven Tools, as under, in Black Leather
Case, or Roll, 10s.
Hammer
Bright Pincers
Turnscrew
Bradawl
Gimlet-
Small Chisel
Firmer Cliiel
No. 2. — Ten Tools, in Black Leather Case, or
Roll, 12s. 6d.
Hammer
Pincers
Turnscrew
Brad awl
Gimlet
Small Chisel
Firmer Chisel
File
Square Rimer
Pliers
Nc
. 3. — Twelve Tools, in Black
Roll, 15s.-
Leather Case, or
Hammer
Pincers
Turnscrew
Bradawl
Gimlet
Steel Chisel
File
Chisel
Square Rimer
Pliers
Claw
Cutting Nippers
Nc
. 4. — Seventeen Tools, in Black
Roll, 1 6s. 6d.
Leather Case, or
Hammer
Pincers
Turnscrew
Bradawl
Gimlet
Steel Chisel
File
Chisel
Square Rimer
Pliers
Claw
Cutting Nippers
Hand Vice
Saw
Fils
Rasp
Gouge
Nc
. 5. — Eighteen
Tools, in Black
Roll, 1 8s. 6d.
Leather Case, or
2 Firmer Chisels
Firmer Gouge
Square Rimer
Hammer
2 Turnscrews
Pincers
Cutting Nippers
Hand Vice
Claw
Key-hole Saw
^-Round File & Rasp
Pliers
Bradawl
Gimlet
Bright Chisel
Nc
. 6. — Twenty Tools, in Black Leather Case, or
Roll, 2 is.
2 Firmer Chisels
Firmer Gouge
Hammer
2 Turnscrews
Pincers
Cutting Nippers
Hand Vice
Clav
Keyhole Saw
^-Rounu File & Rasp
Pliers
2 Bradawls
2 Gimlets
Bright Chisel
Square Rimer
No. 7. — Seven To
C
ols, in Best Case
Crimson Lined, 17
5, Brown Leather,
Hammer
Pincers
Turnscrew
Brodawl
Gimlet
Bright Chisel
Firmer Chisel
No. 8.— Ten Toe
C
Is, in Best Cases
'rimson Lined, 23s
, Brown Leather,
Hammer
Pincers
Turnscrew
Bradawl
Gimlet
Bright Steel Chisel
Small File
Firmer Chisel
Square Rimer
Pliers
No. 9. — Twelve T
ools, in Best Case
s, Brown Leather,
c
Crimson Lined, 29s
Hammer
Pincers
Turnscrew
Bradawl
Steel Chisel
Firmer Chisel
J- Round File
Pliers
Claw Tool
Cutting Nippers
Gimlet
Rimer
No. 10. — Sixteen '
C
"ools, in Best Cast
rimson Lined, 35s
:s, Brown Leather,
Hammer
Turnscrew
Bradiwl ■
Gimle'
J-Round File & Rasp
Firmer Chisel
Firmer Gjuge
Square Rimer
Pliers
Claw Tool
Cutting N'ppers
Hand Vice
Keyhole Saw
Steel Chisel
Pincers
478
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
No. II. — Seventeen Tools, in Best Cases, Brown
Leather, Crimson Lined, 39s.
Keyhole Saw
-Round File & Rasp
Pliers
Firmer Chisel
Firmer Gouge
Hammer
Pincers
Cutting Nippers
2 Turnscrews
Bradawl
Gimlet
Bright Chisel
Rimer
Hand Vice
Claw Wrench
Pliers
2 Turnscrews
Hand Vice
Claw Wrench
Keyhole Saw
A-Round File & Rasp
2 Bradawls
2 Gimlets
Steel Chisel
No. 12. — Twenty Tools, in Best Cases, Brown
Leather, Crimson Lined, 47s.
2 Firmer Chisels
Firmer Gouge
Rimer
Hammer
Cutting Nippers
Having noted the
contents of the cases,
I will proceed at
once to describe the
case which now lies
before me, and which
is fairly represented
in form and con-
tents in Fig. 24, in
which the number
of tools, however,
is only nine,
instead of
ten, as in the
actual case.
When done
up, and strapped
together, the case
under consideration
(No. 2 in the above
list), forms a compact
and by no means
heavy packet, measur-
ing nearly 8h in. long,
4j in. wide, and 1 Jin.
thick. When it is
opened, and the flaps
unfolded, it presents
the appearance shown in the illustration. The case,
which is of strong black grained leather, is lined with
cotton velvet, and is traversed from end to end with a
series of leather loops to receive the tools. These
tools, which are of excellent quality, are furnished,
with certain exceptions, with polished handles, or, to
be strictly accurate, with varnished handles, which
are neatly turned and well-proportioned to the size of
each tool. The hammer is somewhat short, but it is
as long as it can be, bearing in view the necessity
which exists of limiting the length of the case, when
strapped up, to the least possible length. The square
rimer will be found especially useful for enlarging
holes in iron-work to admit screws, bolts, etc. The
file s strong and well cut : it has one side flat and
FIG. 24. — HANDY AND USEFUL SET OF TOOLS IN CASE
the other rounded, the edges being admirably adapted
for cutting. The only one of the remaining tools
that demands special notice is the steel chisel, or cold
chisel as it is generally called, a useful implement for
dealing with iron or stone, if necessaiy. The cutting
edge of this tool is J in., its length 45 in. It may be
added that one arm of the pincers is split at the end
and curved, thus affording a handy wrench for extract-
ing nails. The hammer, being a claw hammer, can be
used for the same purpose.
The element that is chiefly lacking in the smaller
cases is the saw, and I am of opinion, that even at
the risk of increasing
both size and price,
a small saw should
be found in every
case, whether large
or small. Another de-
sirable instrument is
a small wrench, for
the removal and
tightening-up of nuts,
etc. Such an addi-
tion would, I
think, make
the cases
more useful
to bicyclists,
who must often find
it desirable to carry
a small case of tools
with them to effect
such slight repairs as
may come within their
compass ; and per-
haps it might not be
without its use if any
experienced bicyclist
among my readers
would submit a list of
tools that he may consider to be likely to be most
useful to him under any emergency, so that special
cases may be made up, to meet the bicyclist's special
requirements.
I have dwelt much on the articles that have been
brought under notice this month, in order to make my
description of them as useful as possible to intending
purchasers. Many other things equally useful and
valuable must of necessity remain over for notice in
the next part, which will bring Vol. I. of this maga-
zine to a completion. The shortness of the present
paper is due partly to want of space and partly to the
annual holiday which is imperatively necessary to all
who work — as most of us do work in the present day
— under high pressure.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
419
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
[The Editor reserves to himself the right or re-
fusirg a rep'y to any question that may be frivolous
or inappropriate, or devoid of general interest.
Correspondents are requested to bear in mind tuat
their queries will be answered only in the pages of
the Magazine, ihe information sought being sup-
plied for the benedt of its readers generally as well
as for those who have a special interestin obtaining
it. In no case can any reply be sent by post.]
Cabinet Work.
J. D. (To?ting). — The method you
propose for hanging doors of corner cup-
boards was recommended in Ezery Alan
His Own Mechanic. To obviate the in-
convenience arising from skirting boards,
screw to the sides of the corner-cupboard
slips corresponding in thickness to the
thickness of the skirts. There is no
danger of the hinges splitting off if the
"Handy Corner Cabinet" be made
of sound, well-seasoned wood, and as
directed. Luminous paint is used for
painting numbers on the doors of houses.
In the next vclume a series of articles
will appear on the equipment of the hall
and all parts of the house with convenient
furniture.
Boat Building.
G. F. S. — The only point in which
your canoe, if strongly made, might
prove unequal to a voyage up the York-
shire coast, is one already noticed in the
June number of Amateur Work, Illus-
trated, p. 336, in answer to "Would-
be-Canoeist." This is the size of the
well-opening, which, as described in
Amateur Work, Illustrated, would
be too large for the rough water probably
to be met with. At the same time care
must be taken to leave plenty of room for
the full length of your feet under the
deck, which must now be brought up
nearer the waist all round, to keep the
water out. If the canoe is not deep
enough to leave ample room for the feet,
it will be necessary to add another nar-
row streak all round, and fasten the deck
on this. Leave the well-opening just
large enough to allow the body easy
entrance and exit. Then make an apron,
fitting closely round the waist, and com-
pletely covering the opening. It is a
good plan to fasten it to an india-rubber
band round the waist ; but do not fasten
it to the canoe, in case — quod Deus aver-
tat — of an upset. As to a false keel,
this is undoubtedly necessary if you wish
to carry a large amount of sail, and in
such a case you will probably find the
kind of keel described in these columns
suitable. In any case a false keel, how-
ever small, will increase the steadiness of
the canoe. As to its length, for a four-
teen-foot canoe eleven feet will do,
sloping away, that is, to nothing, about
i3 inches from either "nose" of the
boat.
G. C. W. — When writing my paper for
the June number of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, I had thought of fasten-
ing the butt of the gun to the bar across
the boat, by a kind of link, Fig. i, which
would join a ring A sliding on the bar,
and secured at any spot by a turn of
a screw B. It has since occurred to me
that a much simpler plan would be for
the crossbar to pass through the butt,
Fig. 2, a screw E being similarly
placed in the wood. This plan, unless
the gun was to be a fixture, would neces-
sitate the crossbar being separate from
the sidebars c, instead of one piece, as
FIG. I. — LINK ATTACHMENT OF GUN
TO EAR.
I before proposed. As to the spring,
Fig. 2 will, I hope, make my meaning
pla-n. It, of course, only deals with one
side of the boat. Thi recoil forces back
the crossbar D, turning the bar c o
on a pivot E, driven into the side of the
boat, the top and bottom of which are
represented by the dotted lines. This
forces forward the bottom o of c o,
which may or may not be made one with
the crossbar, as above explained. But
this motion of the sidebar is checked by
the spring S, secured by two screws
at X, but free to run down the sidebar,
till it brings the latter to a complete stop
FIG. 2.— CROSSBAR THROUGH BUTT
OF GUN.
in its forward motion, if the recoil is
strong enough to render this necessary,
by striking against the shoulder o, an-
other improvement, by the way, on my
original plan. I think this plan ought
to be simple and effective, and shall be
curious to hear how it succeeds with
G. C. W.
Turning in Ivory, etc.
H. B. (Altrincham). — The subjects
you mention shall receive attention in
due time. The size of the Magazine
renders it impossible to meet the wishes
of all applicants as soon as we and they
could wiih.
Electrical Matters.
Carbon. — The carbon strips and also
the grains of carbon used in the L4clanche
cell are practically indestructible, and will
last for an indefinite period ; but the
peroxide of manganese wears out and
becomes useless when a part of its oxygen
has been extracted.
Electrified Lawyer. — (1) The bat-
tery desired by you has been long sought
for by electricians, but has not been dis-
covered. Comparatively dry batteries
have been invented, but they are only
useful for special applications of elec-
tricity. If you will indicate what you
require the battery for I will advise you
in the matter. (2) I am not aware that
any book has been published on the sub-
ject ; but most text-books on electricity
deal with it. The best-known to me is,
"Electricity: its Sources, Applications,
etc." By J. T. Sprague. Price 8s. Spon,
Charing Cross. The book is now out of
print, but a new edition is being pre-
pared. (3) A paper on " Small Dynamo
Machines," and their application to the
production of small eiectric lights, is
now in course of preparation, and will
appear in an early Part. If you have
not a gas engine or steam power at your
command, do not think of lighting your
little room by electricity derived from a
dynamo-machine. To employ manual
labour in driving such a machine will be
cruelty to the employed. At present, too,
there are no kinds of voltaic batteries
equal to the Bunsen for supplying cur-
rent to the lamps, and this battery is
liable at any time to be indicted as a
nuisance. I mean to experiment with
others during the coming season, and
will duly report the result to Amateur
Work, Illustrated. The subject of
"Electric Motors" will come up for
treatment in due time. I am glad you
have succeeded with "Electric Bells,''
and that you like the articles on this
subject.
Battery for Electric Light.
Will Doughty. — The battery men-
tioned in page 357 has been proved
useless for this purpose. A specimen
battery was made up and tested. It
gave a rush of current at first ; but its
power gradually dwindled down until
it did not equal that of a Leclanche" cell.
You will see from the wording of the
description on page 357, that the author
had not then tried the battery. He has
since shared your experience with it.
See reply to " Electrified Lawyer."
Picture Frame Gilding.
A. B. C. (Staffs). —The details you
ask for will be duly treated in forth,
coming articles on this subject in connec-
tion with the manufacture of picture
frames.
480
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Organ Buil ing\
R. H. (Islington). — The two boards,
3 feet 3 inches long, are to be dovetailed
and screwed into the cheeks at the bnck,
and to cut slightly into the ends. They
may be f inch thick. As regards the
leather, if you once see and feel it, you
can make no mistake as to which is the
soft side. The otht-r side is shiny and
grnined. The spring for the reservoir rruy
be half a chain spring, and can be fastened
either by bending the ends of the wire
and in erting th*m in a hole in the reser-
voir and in the under or carrying board,
or by two or ihree small staples.
C. R. (K'Ikenn\). — The outside folds
of the bellows should be on the top of ihe
floating frame. If you do not succeed
with leather i inch wide, use it i\ wide.
The size of the gussets should be taken
when the bellows is nearly closed, or they
will be too small to allow the bellows to
open pr. perly. For the inner fold the
bellows should be opened to get the size
of the gusset.
C. J. C. {Havers'ock H,lt).— As you do
not mention the size of your soundboard,
I cannot say how wide the channels
should be. There is no fixed size, as it
depends on the size of the soundboard
and the number and size of ihe pipes
supplied by the channels. In Part XIV.
full details will be given of a soundboard
for a good chamber organ. The bats
channels are generally about \ inch, and
the succeeding octaves gradually get
smaller, the top treble notes having
channels only about £ inch wide. A five-
s-op organ would require pallets about
7J inches long ; it is better to have them
large enough to give a quick supply of
wind. The voicing in wooden pipes con-
sists of a series of small nicks in a sloping
direction on the front face of the block,
commencing deep at the top edge and
dying away before they reach as low as
the throat. For a 4 foot pipe ihey
should be \ inch apart and „'c inch deep
at the top. They get gradually smaller
and closer in each pipe, till in the top
treble they are mere scratches very close
together. Coarse nicks give the pipe a
coarse and full tone ; fine, close nicks
give a soft, sweet tone. The burr raised
by the file should be taken off with fine
glass paper. Voicing is the last opera-
tion, and should not be done till all the
pipes are completed, or the chances are
it vv ill be very irregular.
\V. C. {New Herrington). — The size
of >our brass pallets will be correct.
They should be all one length, and vary
in width according to the size of the
channels. No reliet panels will be neces-
sary, as they are onlyrequirtd in large
organs where I here are several couplers.
No. 16 wire will do for the springs.
Tnere is not space to spare here for a
sketch of the building frame ; but it is
merely a 4-post frame, with cro-s-rails at
each end. The extreme ends of the
soundb ard re^t on these rails. A rail is
also placed at each end about 11 inches
from the ground, for the ends of the
middle-board of the bellows to rest on.
The top of the front rail should be 2 feet
3 inches from the ground ; this is for ihe
keyboard frame to rest on. Strengthening
rails may be placed at the b*ck in any
convenient position. The posts may be
ih in. square, the rails 3 J in. wide and lin.
thick. Your bourdon would be better on
a separate soundboard (as described in
answer to " Balgenbrlter," in Part
IX.), as it would then be independent of
the manual. A general swell W'Oild be a
great improvement, and if a few of the
largest pipes in each stop were planted
off at the ends or back, you could easily
get it into a height of 8 feet or le^s.
W. C. S. {foewburgh). — I am glad
you have succeeded in getting the
right notes from your pipes by cutting
the mouths a little higher. With re-
gard to your impression that the D D
pallet will open when the CCs key is
pressed down, I thought I had made it
quite clear in my last reply that there was
no connection between those or any other
two uotes. The C C key is connected
to the C C pallet by the backfa'l. The
CCs key is connected to the roller, and
the otht-r end of the roller is connected
with the backfall of the CCs pallet, and
to no other pallet. The D D key is con-
nected to its own backfall almost over
the end of the key, and cannot possibly
open any other pallet than its own. The
D D s key is connected with its roller and
thence to the backfall at the right-hand
side of the soundboard in the same way
as the CCs key ; and so on with each
alternate note as far as the top B in the
bass. Two bell-pulls may be side by
side on a door-post, but the bells them-
selves may be in different rooms, and as
there is no connection between the two,
if one handle is pulled only one bell can
ring. You will understand the action
better when you come to that part of the
work.
Pianos.
"A Few Words on Pianos" is com-
mended. Will W. W. C. kindly insert
an article on Pianoforte Tuning.
Fiddle Varnish.
W. R. L. — Mr. Reade's opinion is
merely given as that of an eminent
connoisseur, and is that the varnish in
question was a coat of coloured spirit
varnish over the oil varnish of the fiddle.
The size I recommended was not a var-
nish at all, merely a coloured ground for
the application of the oil varnish. It is
left to choice whether to superimpose a
coat of high-coloured spirit varnish, as
suggested by Mr Reade.
H. D. — Not on!y will some of the pro-
cesses of the actual manufacture of violins
be noticed, but in Vol. II. an exact de-
scription, with accurate working models,
will be given of all the very minutiae of
the art. I cannot go into the mysteries
of " michine-made purfling ," it ought
not to exist Purfiin^, unless carefully
cut and inlaid by hand, can never be a
success.
Telephones.
J. G. (G'as^'w) must have read my
article very carelessly when he writes, —
" You don't pay whether the box is round
or square. Would a square box and a
square disc do?" I said that "the box
was made of turned wood, and measured
3 inches in diameter" and surely that
was explicit enough as regards shape ;
and if not. the marking off of the disc
with a pxir of comprises was distinctly
and clearly described. A square box
and a square — well, certainly not disc,
but diaphragm — might be made to
answer ; but surely in a large city like
Glasgow, a small round wooden box
suiiable enough for the purpose can be
obtained, and it is not absolutely neces-
sary, as my correspondent taking me " au
pied de let/re " implies, that it should
have contained tooth-powder.
Lex evidently thinks that he is cross-
examining an obstinate witness, judging
by the number and amplitude of his ques-
tions. He surely must be joking when
he puts his fifth question as follows :-r-
" Please explain the theory and practice
of 'telephone transmitter*,5 with a sketqh
if possible" ! Even if such theoretical
discourses were not, as I distinctly said
in my article they were, out of place
in Amateur Work, Illustrated, it
would keep the amateurs sitting in coun-
cil as long as the proverbial Tichb>rne
trial before I could get through half the
number. I will try and answer his other
seven questions j but in future must beg
of him and other like correspondents not
to put too great a stress on our Editor's
good nature, nor the elasticity of our
Magazine.
(ij No definite rule.
(2) A regulating screw at one end of the
magnet serves, as its name implies, to
regulate the distance between the disc
and pole of the magnet ; it also tends to
hold firmly the magnet in the iase.
(3} 'Ihe "Bell," " Gower-Bell," and
"Edison" telephones mainly differ in
the arrangement, being di:?tinct for re-
ceiver and transmitter in the last two,
together with additions of carbon con-
tacts induction-coils ; and ihe " Edison"
must have a battery attached. But it is
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
481
impossible for me to give in this limited
spice full details, and Lex really must
consult some technical book on the sub-
ject, such as the one by Du Moncel,
entitled "The Telephone, Microphone,
and Phonograph."
(4) The drawing of bobbin in the Bell
telephone (page 343) is practically correct.
The flanges are shown a httle too thick ;
they should be .^ inch, allowing ^ inch
width between them. I certainly thought
that I had given "the most convenient
and easiest method of boring the holes
for the wires through the case." I can-
not give an easier, unless they are drilled
with the help of a lathe.
(6) The above-named book gives a good
deal of information ; but I do not know
of any that I could say was ' ' the best book
on the construction of telephones," unless
I were egotistic enough to refer to my own
article in Amateur Work, Illus-
trated ! Few, if any, books enter
into details of construction, although
here are several that give good de-
scriptions of the various telephones.
(7) The phonograph, in its simpler
form, might be made by an amateur.
The price of one varies with its size and
mechanism. A small one, worked by
hand, might be obtained for ^5 ; but a
good one, with clockwork movement,
would cost from ,£12 to £15, if not
more, and I believe Mr. Edison puts
certain restrictions on its sale and use.
The date of bis patent is July 31, 1877.
F. A. E. (Newtown-Hutler). — \i by
"the strength of the telephone" you
mean its power to reproduce the voice,
then the power of the magnet, as well as
the number of the coils on the reel, tend
to clearness , but it also depends greatly
on the voice of the speaker — some persons
making themselves most distinctly heard
where others entirely fail. The intonation
must be clear and musical for shouting
produces the worst results. Like every-
thing else, practice makes perfect.
Messrs. Dale or Archbutt, both of whom
advertise in Amateuk Work, Illus-
trated, would. I am sure, tend you any
articles such as magnets, wires, etc., you
may require.
J. M. H. (Slratlon). — Thanks for your
description of the regulating sere//. It
certainly may be termed an improve-
ment ; but I cannot, without condemning
mjself, agree with you that, " It is, we
may say, absolutely necessary that there
sh mid be some means of regulating the
distance between magnet and metal
diaphragm ;" for when once the magnet
is fixed as near to the disc as possible,
allowing room for the latter to vibrate
without touching the pole of magnet,
ro regulating is requisite, and I found
no difficulty in fixing mine without the
aid of the screw. Fitting the magnet
into its case with the help of corks,
might make the operation easier, but it
would not regulate the distance any bet-
ter than the simp'e pushing of the mag-
net up until you get the correct place,
as I did.
Neptune (Salisbury). — (1) See answer
above to F. A. E. (2) About No. 24
or No. 26 B. W. G. is the usual sue for
insulated connecting or "line" wire ; but
lor long distances out of doors, the galva-
nized iron three-strand wire, similar to
that used in telegraphy, is cheaper and
more durable ; it must, however, be insu-
lated at its supports. When purchasing
} wire, it is best to state the purpose for
which you require it, and the vendors will
then supply the most suitable kind. (3)
See answer to F. S. (Reigate) in Part IX.
of Amateur Work, Illustrated.
Storm Glass.
C. Clark writes — " To prepare this in-
strument, take 2 drachms of camphor, \
drachm of pure nitrate of potash (nitre or
saltpetre), and h drachm of muriate of am-
monia (salammoniac), and triturate them
together until thoroughly pulverized. The
operation may be assisted by adding a
few drops of alcohol. When well tritu-
rated, the mixture is to be dissolved in
about two ounces of alcohol, and put
into a tall phial, as an eau-de-Cologne
bottle, or into a glass tube, of about ten
inches in height, and three-fourths of an
inch in diameter, the mouth of which is
to be covered with a bit of bladder or the
like, perforated with a pin. The instru-
ment is then complete.
The indications are as follows : — If the
atmosphere be dry and the weather pro-
mising to be fine, all the sohd part of the
composition which appears in the glass
will be closely collected at the bottom,
ani the liquor above will be quite clear ;
but on the approach of a change to rain,
the solid matter will appear gradually to
rise, and small crystalline stars will be
observed to float about in the liquid,
which, however, will remain otherwise
pellucid. On the approach of winds,
flocks of the composition, apparently in
the form of a leaf, will appear on the
surface of the liquid, which in this case
will seem thick and in a state of fermenta-
tion. Tnese indications often begin to
exhibit themselves twenty-four hours
before the actual breaking forth of the
storm, and after a short experience in
observing the changes of appearances of
the materials in the glass, not only the
magnitude of the coming storm will
readily be estimated, but likewise its
direction ; for the quarter of the compass
from which the wind blows will alwnys be
indicated by the circumstance of the solid
particles lying more closely to the side of
the glass opposite to that whence the
tempest comes. During the winter, the
composition is rendered white by the
multitude of small white stars which are
constantly floating about in the liquid.
This is particularly remarkable during
white frost and snow. In summer, on
the contrary, when the weather is warm
and serene, the liquid is clear, and the
solid matter lies at the bottom of the
glass.
W.J. R. Eads (Moullon, Northampton)
writes — "In reply to P. D., who wishes
to know how to make a storm glass, I
am enabled to inform him how one may
be made, which will not only infallibly
foretell a storm, but also correctly foretell
the changes in the weather. The appa-
ratus is of the simplest kind, and need
cost P. D. nothing. Get a rather wide-
mouthed white glass bottle, such as a
glass pickle bottle, and another bottle
having a ng, narrow neck. A salad
oil flask do well, which you must
insert, ne:k downwards, into the other
bottle. Now pour water into the wids-
mouthed bottle until the water touches
the neck of the inverted one. Having
done this, remove the narrow-necked
bottle and pour a small quantity of water
into it, and plunge it quickly into the
other bottle again before the water has
time to all run out. It will then stand
two or three inches up the neck. Now
our storm glass and barometer is finished.
On the approach of foul weather the
water will, in consequence of the dimin-
ished pressure of the atmosphere, sink
nearly to the bottom of the neck, when
you may assuredly look out for squalls.
Of course, on the approach of fine wea-
ther, the action will be just reversed, and
the water will stand at or near the top of
the neck. The glass should stand in a
room where the temperature is as uniform
as possible. I have one at the time I
write standing near to a capital barome-
ter, and though the principle of both are
exactly alike, my water glass, as I call it,
is always the first to foretell a change of
weather. Should P. D., or any of the
readers of this Magazine, want further as-
sistance, I shall be pleased to give it them
through the medium of "Amateurs in
Council. "
G. S. (Glasgow) sends instructions
similar to the preceding.
Marble Top for Wash-Stand.
R. B. (Bed ile) wishes to know where
he can obtain a marble top for a wash-
stand that he is making. He must apply,
stating size, etc., to a marble mason, and
if there is no one who follows this trade
in his own town, he must perforce take a
journey to York, where he mi^ht procure
one second-hand from some furniture
dealer.
482
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Picture-Frame Making.
Nemo recommends H. M. C. L. to send
to Mr. George Rees, 41, Russell Street,
Covent Garden, for the Amateur
Picture- Frame Makers Instruction
Book, price 4d., post free; and when he
writes, to enclose 2d. more for a price
list of backboards, mouldings, etc.
H. M. C. — See answers already given
to correspondents writing on this subject,
A person well versed in frame-making,
and everything in connection with it, has
undertaken to write on this subject, but
his first paper has not yet been received.
I am sorry to say that there are more
than one who have volunteered to write
on special subjects for this Magazine,
but have apparently gone no further than
undertaking to do what is necessary,
which causes disappointment to many
who, like yourself, are waiting for the
instructions they have asked for.
T. B. R. {Chester). — Your plan of con-
necting the corners of your frames with
sheet metal is good, but must involve
much unnecessary labour and trouble.
If the saw-cuts in the mitre-box were
lined with metal, it would tend to blunt
the teeth of the saw. If you do much in
this way, it will be worth your while to
buy one of Booth's Registered Mitre
Cutting Machines, and his Registered
Coiner Cramp, which are made in two
sizes, and sold, the machines at 15s. and
30s. respectively, and the cramps at 2S.
and 4s. per pair. These contrivances are
most useful inventions.
Bronzing Plaster Cast.
W. C. (Staffordshire).— To effect this,
try the "American Magic Bronze,"
supplied by Messrs. B. F. Brown & Co. ,
18 and 19, Norman's Buildings, St.
Luke's, London, and mentioned in
"Notes on Novelties," in Part VII. of this
Magazine. It may answer your purpose,
but try it on something that is valueless,
first of all. The ordinary method of
bronzing plaster casts is as follows: —
Coat the figure wilh isinglass size until
the surface continues in a moist state,
and will absorb no more ; then touch it
over lightly and sparingly with gold size,
and put it away in a clean, dry place for
forty-eight hours. Touch the figure all
over with bronze powder, and after the
lapse of twenty-four hours, brush off all
the loose powder, and particularly from
the projecting parts of the figure.
Mildew in Fern Case.
H. B. — From what you say, the cause
ot the appearance of mildew on your
ferns, is a want of proper ventilation.
Photography.
J. D. C. (Edinburgh). — (1) LeMeritoire
is a capital article for the money. Of
course you cannot expect a very great
affair for such a low figure. If you want
a substantial camera, etc., apply for a
list of prices to Messrs. Cusson and Co. ,
Bold Street, Liverpool, or any other firm
advertised in the journals. (2) You can
take portraits and landscapes with the
same camera, by having an extra sliding
front. (3) If you are well up in cabinet
work, of course I mean as an amateur,
you would save one-half by making your
own apparatus. No doubt instructions
will be given in Dry Plate Photography,
when those on the old wet process are
completed.
New Form of Clothes Horse.
T. E. (Newcastle-on-'Iyne) sends a
drawing of a clothes horse, from which the
annexed illustration has been engraved.
He calls it "The Mother's Handy
Clothes Horse." It is one that is easily
made, and is certainly a contrivance that
is at once simple, ingenious and useful.
A, B, is a fiat piece of wood to which are
attached two stops, c and D. Two legs,
E, F, of the same width as the horizontal
bar, and of the same thickness, are pinned
FIG. 2.— CLOTHES HORSE FOLDED.
to the latter on the outside of each stop,
and to each of these legs another is
attached, as shown at G and H. The
legs G, E, and F, H, are further connected
by strings as shown, which prevent them
from opening beyond a certain distance.
The legs, G, H, fold on the legs E and F
respectively, and these in their turn fold
on the horizontal bar A B, against the
stops c, D. When folded up the horse
assumes the appearance shown in Fig. 2.
India Kubber Stamps.
Tom. — Your request for instruction on
making india-rubber stamps has been
noted. It is not possible to compress
the information you ask for into a brief
note in this portion of the Magazine, but
I hope that I shall soon be in a position
to insert an exhaustive article on the sub-
ject, for the benefit of yourself and others
who are interested in it.
Printer's Ink.
Nemo should send to Messrs. Squin-
tani & Co., of 3, Ludgate Circus Build-
ings, E.C., for any printing materials
that he may require. He may make a
pound of printer's ink by grinding to an
impalpable smoothness on a slab with
a muller the following ingredients : —
Balsam of capivi, 9 ounces ; lampblack,
3 ounces ; indigo and Prussian blue, of
each, i ounce ; Indian red, j ounce ;
yellow turpentine soap, dry, 3 ounces.
The making of printer's ink in the usual
way involves boiling oil and afterwards
setting it alight, a difficult and dangerous
operation for an amateur to undertake.
Preventing Doors from Falling Open.
W. J. K. (South Kensington) writes
thus : — It may interest some of the nume-
rous readers of your useful and interesting
Journal if I describe a simple expedient
which I devised some years ago for pre-
venting the glass and other doors of book-
cases and cabinets from falling open,
owing to uneven floors, bad fitting, or
other causes, and where the key is not
available or is inconvenient. It is to
bore a hole with a centre bit of suiiable
size, about a quarter of an inch deep,
either on the bottom or top edge of the
door at about one inch from the free end,
and then insert a tight-fitting cork, pro-
jecting sufficiently to occasion enough
friction to keep the door in place, and
yet to allow of its being opened without
difficulty. If the cork be neatly rounded
off with a piece of sand-paper, it acts per-
fectly, and although capable of readjust-
ment, I have rarely found it necessary to
do so, and it has the additional advantage
of being out of sight if the position be
judiciously chosen.
"Graph Composition."
M. B. (Southport) wishes for a recipe
for making the "Graph" composition
used in copying machines, and another
for black ink suitable for use in such
machines. He also desires to know the
names of tradesmen in Manchester and
Liverpool where he could see specimens
of tools, lathes, fret-sawing machines,
etc., before buying. Will any of our
readers supply the desired information ?
Making Camera.
J. S. Rochond. — To give instructions
how to make a Camera you anticipate
constructing, would take up too much
valuable space in ' ' Amateurs in Council.'
You will find that the grooving, as de-
scribed by Mi. Parkinson, will answer
your purpose admirably ; hinge with three
brass hinges to each shutter. If you
follow his articles as they appear, you
will have no difficulty in constructing a
camera any size you may desire.
Stencilling.
W. J. N. (Fordingbridge) and A. H. L. /
(Croydon). — A good variety of stencil
patterns is kept, and plates are cut to
order by Mr. Warwick, Holywell Street,
Strand, W.C.
Bench Stop.
E. W. (Richmond). — Morrill's Perfect
Bench Stop is fully illustrated and ex-
plained in Messrs. Churchill's catalogue.
PRESENTED WITH PART XI. OF
1 WflM, I1LBST
I
c -
a i
OB B
Fig. 3.— Proscenium
. 1.— Arrangement of Front Fig. 2.— Arrangement of Long Room
~ Back Drawing-room.
Fig. 4 - Curtain to draw apart.
Fig. 9 .— FootlightB.
Fig. 10.-Footlight Lamps. Fig. H. Fig. 12_Footlight Candle. Fig. 13. -Suspension of Fig. 14.-Beam of Curtain Fig. 15.-Top and Side
Curtains. (both ends), Lights.
THE AM.JEUR ACTORS' PORTABLE THEATRE: ITS PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT,
b/ EDWAHD HEROH-tUEH.
iaooT'^aiwsxQ. ifcusS; has
I
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
483
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
IV. — The Norwegian Fishing-Boat.
N these papers I have hitherto confined
myself to small boats, suited for carrying
one person, or at most two. I now pro-
pose to fly at larger game, and choose
for my first big boat a kind almost, I
believe, unknown in this country, but which only
requires to be introduced to secure a hearty welcome
everywhere ; if, at least, it be granted such a reception
as its merits deserve. Shortly put, those merits are
as follows : Firstly, It can be built with, probably,
half the expenditure of time and trouble necessary for
any other kind of similar size. Secondly, It is very
fast. Thirdly, It draws almost no water. On the
other hand, it has defects : an apparent want of steadi-
ness— I say appa-
rent, for the boat
is really steady—
and a tendency
to turn round on
very slight pro-
vocation from the
oars ; both these
faults, of course,
being the neces-
sary results of the
very light draught
of water, men-
tioned as a merit
above, and both
admitting of easy
FIG. 19. — NORWEGIAN'jFISHtNG BOAT,
remedy, by putting on a very simple false keel.
This build of craft is in great request among the
Boyne salmon-fishers, being, indeed, the commonest
kind of boat to be found iri the vicinity of Drogheda.
The model was originallygor, I believe, from the
boats of a Norwegian ship, and is regarded with
favour both from being so eisy to build, — every
fisherman makes his own.«»and also from being
specially adapted, owing t<>-?ts roundness of bottom, to
run over the nets without catching in or tearing them.
I took the few measurements necessary from a Drog-
heda boat, and have just finished a very satisfactory
copy, the result of two or three hours' work daily for a
fortnight. Fig. 19 is an exact representation of this
boat, being taken from a photograph.
The main differences of this build from others are
two : it has no keel, and it has no stem or stern-posts.
A section of the boat at any point will form an exactly
similar figure, being always something very near a
semicircle ; the length of radius differing according to
the position of the section in question. The section
of greatest radius will be found at about one-third of
the total length from the stem. Corresponding to the
stem-post in other boats is a small semicircular, or
nearly semicircular, piece of board, say an inch and a
half thick, straight edge, of course, up ; while the
stern, equally thick, but about six times as large other-
wise, is of similar figure. I say semicircular, or nearly
semicircular; because the shape of the stem and stern-
pieces will be the shape of the boat throughout, and it
will be found to improve the appearance of the whole
to shorten the diameter, the top edge of the semi-
circle, by, say, an inch on each side of the larger
sections. Indeed, I believe these boats are generally
built less semicircular than I built mine, more flat
bottomed and flat sided, something like Fig. 20, and
consequently, in all probability, steadier in the water.
The gunwales are flat, parallel, that is, to the
water, with one man in the boat ; and the distance
of the lowest
points of the stem
and stern-pieces
from the water
will accordingly
equal the differ-
ence in radius of
these pieces from
that of the larger
section placed at
one-third of the
total length from
the bow.
For a boat to
carry seven or
eight people com-
fortably, the following measurements will be found
suitable, and at the same time about the simplest
possible. Total length, 1 5 feet ; radius of stem-piece,
6 inches ; of large section, 2 feet ; of stern-piece, 18
inches. It will also be found a great help in building,
to have another section, about a third of the boat's
length from the stern. A good way of arranging the
framework is as follows : Get two pieces of wood, 1
inch or 1 J inches thick, and 15 feet long, or whatever
length the boat is to be. The slips that are to form
the gunwales will answer very well. Place these side
by side, and a few inches apart, on the ground. -Place
across them, and nail to them at one end, the stem-
piece, and at the other end the stern-piece, both
inverted, or flat side down, and in their respective
places the intermediate sections. Be careful that
these are all placed exactly parallel. The side-boards
should be about a quarter of an inch in thickness.
Seven on each side will be found the best number, and-
before fastening the end-pieces and cross sections
x
484
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
to the gunwales or other supports on the ground, the
space to be occupied on their edges by each board,
when in its place, should be carefully marked.
It is plain that to find the amount of the circum-
ference of each section necessary for each individual
board all we now have to do is to subtract from the
whole circumference, amounting, of course, to half the
circumference of a circle of equal radius, the few
inches to be occupied on the bottom by the board
which supplies the place of keel, and divide the
remainder by the total number of boards, fourteen, — if
those at each side amount to seven. All the boards
should be equal in depth at any one point, and the
immense advantage of the semicircular form of the
stem and stern-pieces will now appear, in that it allows
each board to be a single piece, from stem to stern,
instead of being composed of two parts, the arranging
of which we saw to be one of the chief difficulties in
building a canoe. In Fig. 21, then, the distances
from A to H, and again from I to Q, are all equal. In
the stem-piece, of 6 inch radius, each will be \\
inches, in the section at one-third of the length, of
2 foot radius, 5 inches, and in the stern-piece, of 18
inches radius, 3! inches. It must be borne in
mind, however, that this breadth will not be sufficient
for the several boards, since they must overlap, in the
manner described at length in page 181. Allowing an
inch for overlapping on the large section, about \ in-
at the stern, and about \ in. at the stem, — the rough
boards necessary for the sides will be fourteen, each 6
inches wide, and what is called five to the plank in
thickness, since a plank is 3 inches thick, and one
board is consumed in sawing. We now come to the
bottom-board, which supplies the place of the keel.
It will be seen that there are about 2 inches left for it
on the stem-piece, 4 on the large section, and 3 on the
stern-piece. Remember, however, that it has to be
overlapped by the lowest board on either side, and
accordingly leave it wider on both edges, to fit in
under these.
Let us now return to the three sections, fixed to
the gunwales that are to be, which should themselves
be fastened firmly to the ground. Of these sections,
the stem and stern-pieces should be made of board
about an inch and a half thick, and bevelled off so as
to make the circumference on the outside smaller
than that on the inside, since the boards that are to be
secured to their edges come to them from the larger
section in the interior of the boat. The bevel, too,
should be sharper on the stem-piece, as this is nearer
to the large section in question. The stem semi-
circle can, of course, be made of a single piece of
wood, but it will be hard to procure one board wide
enough for the stern. This, however, can easily be
made of two pieces, firmly fastened by the help of a
rabbet-plane, or common moulding plane, some glue,
and a couple of strong nails, with the heads knocked
off". The bottom-board should not merely be fastened
to the edge of the sections, like the side-boards, but
sunk in them, till the outside edge of its centre occu-
pies the exact position of the old outside edge of the
centre of the section. Its two inner edges should be
bevelled off all along. The large section should be
placed perpendicular to the laths that support it, and
the ground they rest on. The end-pieces, on the con-
trary, should slope in slightly from what is to be the
top of the boat, to what is to be the bottom ; about
one inch in six is the proper amount of inclination, and
this will be found to have considerably diminished
when the boat is finished. Remember with reference
to this inclination that, if your boards are 15 feet long,
the top, that is to be, of the end-pieces must be only
about 14 feet 9 inches apart, to allow for the
round of the boat. The bottom-board must be
shortened even more in proportion, since it is the
lower round edge of the end-pieces which must be
bent in, not the top flat edge which must be bent out.
Now nail the bottom-board in the place cut for it
in each section. Fasten the fore end first. It will be
found on trying to bend down the board over the
large section, so as to rest on the s'em, that it will
swell up in a circular form about the middle of the
boat. This rise must be checked by putting some
heavy stones or other weights on the board, or tying
it to the floor. The greatest depth must be at the large
section, placed at one-third of the length of the boat,
or a little way more, from the bow. I have given no
measurements for the corresponding section at the
other end of the boat. This is because, in building
my boat, I did not consider such a section necessary,
and the consequence of omitting it is an ugly straight-
ness, instead of gradual decrease in girth, in the five or
six feet next the stern. Once the bottom-board is on
and properly bent, it is easy to form a section for any
particular point by measuring the distance from this
board to the height off- the ground at which the other
sections are supported, and making a semicircular
figure of this radius. It is of course unnecessary for
the sections, which are to i>e knocked out when the
boat is finished, to be all of one piece ; only be care-
ful that, if made of slips of wood, the centre, which
has to bear the weight, be strongly supported. The
resting places for the several boards A B, B c, etc., Fig.
21, may be flattened on the large section, though this
is hardly necessary, and quite superfluous on the
smaller pieces.
All is now ready for the first pair of side-boards.
" Five to the plank," as we have seen, is amply suffi-
cient thickness for these. The fastenings are best
made of copper, as recommended for canoes in these
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
485
papers ; but, as the expense of these for so large a
boat would be a considerable item in the total, per-
haps iron may be preferred. If so, get some " Cana-
dians." Those wonderful nails, which can be had of
all lengths, while scarcely stiff enough for ash, or
other hard woods, are unequalled for deal. They can
be bent, as an enthusiastic carpenter assured me,
" into a pig's ring," will never break, and once they
bite the wood, hold it. For the side-boards they
should be about an inch and a half long, and be
clinched securely by a blow from a hammer on the bent
point, while holding a heavy iron against the head,
previously driven home. This will be found a better
plan than the simultaneous blow from two hammers,
recommended in page 226. One every foot, will be
found about the proper number ; and screws should
be used to secure the boards to the stem and stem-
pieces. They should be fastened temporarily by
larger nails, half-driven into the temporary sections
amidships.
All ought to be plain sailing till about half theboards
are on. Ascertain, by bending it roughly to its place,
the exact part of each board which is to touch the
large section ; stick an awl or nail into it here ; put
another to fasten it to the stern ; get some one to hold
it to the stem-piece, and mark the amount to be cut
off the breadth of the ends to make them fit. The
best way will be to mark off half the necessary
amount, from each edge, say three-quarters of an inch
at the stern and a larger amount at the stem, accord-
ing to the total breadths at these places previously
settled. Draw lines from the extreme outside edges at
the large section to these marks, then saw and plane
to the lines, and bevel off the upper one. It will be
found well, in a boat of this size, not to bevel these
edges so fine as in a canoe or small skiff; and at all
events, when marking the amount to be cut off, never
forget the bevel, to be afterwards overlapped by the
next board. I have already said that I omitted, in
building my boat, to put in a second temporary sec-
tion until too late, and had cause to regret the
omission. If such a section is used, of course the
boards should always, during measurement and mark-
ing, be carefully secured to it also.
When about four boards of the seven are secured
in their places on each side, remembering that no two
boards should be put consecutively on the same side,
you will probably begin to find it harder to make the
fresh edge meet the old one evenly all along. The best
way will then be to fasten the new board on the centre
section as before ; fasten each end temporarily in
whatever way seems to suit best, allowing, that is, for
all the cutting to be done on the top, or all on the
bottom, if one of these seem preferable to the top
and bottom plan recommended above ; then pencil a
line on the new board by the old edge, now pressed
upon it, draw a parallel line outside this, allowing for
the bevel, and cut by it. Do, in fact, as previously
described in these papers, in treating of the canoe.
Another inconvenience will now make itself felt in
nailing on the side-boards, — the decreasing distance
between them and the floor. As a matter of fact, a
boy, or small man, may get under the edge to clinch
the nails till all the boards are on but one at each side;
but the simplest solution of the difficulty would doubt-
less be to fasten the sections, etc., at starting, on
higher supports than the gunwales. It must also_be
remembered that, unless these supports are very stiff,
or firmly fastened to the ground, the efforts of the
boards, continuing that of the backbone, as we may
call it, to spring up from their bent position, will
infallibly raise the stem and stern-pieces from the
ground, till the very top-boards are on, which will then
hold everything in its place.
Boat ribs may be divided into two kinds : sawn
ribs, to keep the sides in a particular shape, stiff and
immovable, the kind formerly recommended for
canoes ; and bent ribs, straight slips bent under the
influence of steam, and calculated to hold the sides
together. The former are chiefly used in boats liable
from their shape to contract j thelatter in those liable
to expand. Now, on consideration, it will be seen that
in the boat we have been describing the tendency will
be to contract, and thus let down the elevated head, or
rather the head which appears elevated from its having
no support below it ; the gunwales are really, as we
have seen, level all along. But bent ribs, binding all
together, are undoubtedly useful in any boat, and the
plan I therefore adopted, and found to answer well,
was to use ribs of both kinds. The sawn ones were
of ash. three pairs, precisely similar to those described
in page 226 for canoes. The others were formed of
the hoops of some of those small, light barrels
commonly used to pack groceries and such things in,
and made, staves and hoops, of some kind of poplar or
willow. Each one of these hoops does duty for a
pair of bent ribs, reaching as it does from gunwale to
gunwale. I put a pair of sawn ribs, ash, 3 feet 7 inches
from the stern ; the next, 3 feet 2 inches further on ;
the third pair 2 feet 10 inches away from these, leaving
about 5 feet 5 inches to the stem. In this 5 foot 10
inches space are three hoop ribs, and between each of
the other pairs of sawn ribs, and behind the last, two ;
the ribs, taking both kinds, being thus about a foot
apart. Now fasten in the gunwales, — 2 inches deep,
and 1 inch, or ij inch thick will do, — and you may
then dispense with the sections.
Next take two pairs of laths, each an inch by halt
an inch, or thereabouts, Fasten one pair round the
inside, 7 inches below the top of the gunwales, for the
486
BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY.
seats to rest on, securing it to the cut-ribs. Fasten
the other pair parallel to the keel, or where the keel
of a boat generally is, iS inches apart, to support the
inside bottom-boards. Places should be cut for the last
pair of laths, or indeed for both, in the cut-ribs, and
this should be done before the latter are screwed in.
Now turn the boat bot-
tom up to fasten on the
outside bottom - board. It
will be remembered that the
first pair of side-boards was
nailed on outside the keel-
board. A hollow is con-
sequently left all along
between the edges of this
pair, and this hollow you
cannot do better than fill
completely with tar, or the
same compound of tar and
pitch, and some soap, resin, and cart-grease, with
which you should afterwards plenteously anoint
the three or four lowest boards all round, except
towards the prow. Then nail on the outside board,
bevelling off its edges to make it fit neatly down
on the first pair of side-boards.
Next come the seats. Make these of boards 9
inches broad and 1 inch thick. Place them about 3
feet 5 inches apart, and put the usual side seats be-
tween the hindmost one and the next. There will
thus be four cross seats,
and these two side ones,
and, as the laths they rest
on are 7 inches below the
gunwales, the rowers will
sit 6 inches below these.
Drive long nails through
the sides into the ends of
the seats. Two small tri-
angular pieces of wood
fastened between the top
of the stern-piece and the
gunwales will be useful.
As the bare raised prow does not look well from
inside, it will be a good plan to cover in about 3
feet of it, nailing light boards across, and sawing them
even with the gunwales; then finish them with the
spokeshave. Put a small piece across, at right angles
to the others, as a curtain where they come to an end.
For the rowlocks, take a couple of harrow-pins to a
blacksmith, and make him split them up for half their
length, round the shank, and form one side of the
split portion into a C, to catch the oar ; leave the
other side somewhat straighter. To hold the row-
locks, take three pieces of wood, 6 or 7 inches long,
and the same depth and breadth as the gunwales.
FIG. 20. — TRANSVERSE SECTION OF BOAT.
FIG. ZI.-AKKANGEMEXr OF BOARDS OF BOAT IN SECTION.
Screw them firmly to the latter, one pair for single-
handed rowing, a foot before the amidships seat, the
second seat from the prow. Fix the third in a similar
position with regard to the right hand side, as one
sits, on the front seat. Now get three little pieces of
stout sheet or hoop iron, each with a large hole nearly
in the centre to hold the
shank of the rowlock, and
four small screw holes in
the corners, a pair for the
gunwale and a pair for
the inside piece. Bore or
burn a hole down through
the wood, from the large
opening in the iron, and
this will hold your rowlock.
I said make the hole nearly
in the centre of the iron
because thus you need not
do much harm to the gunwale, which would be
hard to restore ; the hole will be mainly in the
small piece within, which can be easily replaced if
necessary.
Next come the oars. About 9 feet will be long
enough, with blades 3 inches broad.
Lastly, put in the loose bottom-boards ; two, each
9 inches broad except towards the prow, hinged
together by pieces of leather, and fastened down by
staples driven into the ribs, with pins through them.
„, These boards need not run
quite up to the prow, only
far enough for the front
boarding across the gun-
wales to conceal their ends.
If a false keel be thought
necessary, it should be
about 10 feet long, begin-
ning with nothing, at the
point of greatest depth ir
the boat, and running bacl<
to 6 inches deep at the
stern. This will render the
total depth of the boat equal, for this distance.
Make it an inch thick, and fasten it with two pairs
of L-shaped irons, screwed to the keel and the
bottom ; or, if there is an objection to having it
immovable, fasten it with hinges so as to lift up, and
put a bolt on the stern to catch the end when let
down, and keep all steady.
This completes our Norwegian fishing boat, the
most striking feature of which is its symmetry, not
only on either side of a central plane dividing the boat
into two parts lengthwise from stem to stern in common
with all other boats, but in similarity of its sections
taken in any part transversely from stem to stern.
A QUEEN ANNE TIMEPIECE.
487
A QUEEN ANNE TIMEPIECE.
By W. MJSTIX.
■•
AVING some little time since been seized
with an attack of what I may call the
" Old English Mania," I became pos-
sessed with the desire of obtaining a
timepiece for a mantelshelf, in a case, the
style of which should harmonize with the other
fittings of the room for which it was intended. Accord-
ingly, with this intention I sought among the various
localities where clocks and clockmakers do most
abound, for such a piece of furniture, without which I
felt that my room would be but incomplete. I had
not to search long before my eyes lit upon the very
article I desired to obtain.
I inquired the price. " Forty-
five shillings, sir," was the
polite reply. I thanked the
courteous gentleman attending
to my wants, for this valuable
information, apologized for
troubling him, and returned
to my dwelling a sadder and
I trust a wiser man.
When I reached home the
need of the clock seemed
more manifest than ever, in
proportion as the possibility of
obtaining it seemed less and
less. It was out of the question
to pay forty-five shillings for
a clock just to gratify what,
after all, I felt a mere whim,
and equally out of the question
to do without the clock. There was one way, and one
only, in which I must solve the difficulty — I must
make the clock myself, or at all events the case of it.
] had by me a small American timepiece in a white
stone case, so much damaged and cracked by a fall as
to be no longer presentable. This timepiece I set to
work upon. Removing two screws and a brass plate
at the back, I succeeded in taking out the works — face
and all — entire, which then precisely resembled in
appearance one of the American clocks now so
commonly to be bought in this country, at prices
varying from three to ten shillings, only of course
without the nickel case. The diameter of the clock
face — including a brass rim to hold the glass
over the dial — was 3J inches ; the depth of the
clock from front to back, 25 inches. The inside
diameter of the hole where the clock was fixed
in the case, 3j inches. These dimensions obtained,
I set to work upon the case. First, I decided
FRONT ELEVATION.
QUEEN ANNE
to get my work on paper so as to obtain a clear
idea as to what I wanted to do, a method I always
follow, and which I believe to be almost a neces-
sity if good correct work is desired, even in trifling
jobs. I need not trouble the readers of this
Magazine with a description of the trial sketches,
plans, and so forth that I had to make, with the mis-
takes and alterations that one always finds plentiful
enough when trying to design. The front and side
elevations I give here in Figs. 1 and 2, as they finally
stood to represent my clock.
Then as to the making. I did not care about buying
wood, and as I chanced to have a lot of white maple
among the odds and ends of wood always to be found
lying about on my premises, I decided to use that.
Setting to work then on the front of the frame, I
cut a piece of wood (I omitted
to say the maple was T35 inch
in thickness when planed
down) 8 by 5 inches. In this
I cut a hole 31 inches across
for the clock-face, so that
when the dial and rim were in
place just % inch were left at
the points marked A, B, c,
where the dial came nearest
to the edge of the front.
This hole being cut at a dis-
tance from the bottom of the
board of 2 inches, I marked
out two squares of an inch
each as shown, the outer edge
of each being f of an inch
from the edges of the front.
Having drawn these squares
with pencil, I cut them to a
depth of rather more than to of an inch, smoothed
them and left them for the present. I then cut out the
sides and back of the case, leaving, of course, a hole
at the back to get at the works, 3J. inches in diameter.
This hole I closed with the brass lid belonging to the
old timepiece. I next fitted the case together, using
fine brads and glue, but I believe dovetails would be
better. While the glue dried I proceeded to cut a
band of fretwork, as shown, 1 inch in width and
t\t inch in thickness. To obviate the difficulty of
cutting in this thickness, I used wood of -J- inch, and
carefully rubbed and filed down. This band is glued
round the whole case (except the back) just a $ inch
from the bottom. Below this, by way of finish,
I fixed on a piece of wood, as shown in the diagram,
1 inch deep.
Not being a turner, I was rather puzzled to get a
little gallery round the top, but, by dint of careful fret-
cutting and filing, this was accomplished. Two orna-
FIG. 2. — SIDE ELEVATION.
TIMEPIECE.
488
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
__n
FIG. 3. — SECTION
OF PILLAR.
mental spindles cut from an old whatnot supplied me
with my pillars when — shown as plain in Fig. l at B
and c — down to 7^ inches, a i inch at top and bottom
being covered by cornice and pediment respectively.
To fit the pillars to the rectangular corners I cut out a
quarter of each longitudinally, so that,
looked at from the ends, the appearance
was as shown in Fig. 3.
The carpentry of my clock-case
finished, I decided to ebonize it, which
was accomplished with artists' black
carefully put on after the work had been well glass-
papered throughout. I next turned my attention to the
two depressions cut in the front ; into these I now fitted
with cement two small china plaques prepared for
hand-painting, and costing 4d. per dozen ; when the
cement was dry I asked a friend to paint them for mcj
thus obtaining for the front of my timepiece two
charming ornaments at trifling cost.
My clock was now practically finished. A little
touching up here and there was all tha.t was needed.
The clock-works and dial were slipped into their place
from the front, and fixed with a couple of screws behind ;
the lid, or whatever you prefer to call it, put on at the
back, and my work was done. I have since made
one in precisely similar style for a friend, using
one of the small American clocks bought at a
" novelty store " for 4s. 6d., and staining with oak
stain instead of ebonizing. In this case, however,
I had to fit a new dial to the clock, as the one sup-
plied with it was, to say the least, not very handsome.
Of course no door is needed behind with these clocks
as the case is hermetically sealed. If an alarum with
a bell on the top outside be used, the gallery should be
filled in at the back and the bell concealed behind it.
PHOTOGRAPHY :
ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
Bj ARCHER CLARKE.
V.— Varnishing'— Printing— Toning— Fixing,
Mounting, and Finishing the Print.
S I remarked in my last paper, so much
time has been lost through Mr. Dunman's
illness, that I am now compelled to
rather hasten than elaborate the subject,
but any point of practice not made clear shall be
carefully treated in " Amateurs in Council."
Varnishing. — The negative having been developed,
washed, intensified if needful, washed again, fixed in
the cyanide of potassium, is now well washed with a
soft flow of water, or otherwise the film will swill off,
is placed on a draining rack, or reared against the
wall with a piece of filtering or blotting-paper under-
neath the negative to absorb moisture. Now hold
the negative with the back to the fire, moving it gently
so that it may be evenly heated ; if made too hot the
negative glass will fly, especially if a cold draught
reaches the plate through the sudden opening of a
door. The plate should be just so hot that the back of
the hand can comfortably bear the heat ; now pour on
the varnish exactly as you did the collodion, and do
not tilt the plate up over much, or the varnish will
run in ridges ; rock the plate to and fro gently. When
all the varnish has drained off the plate into the
bottle, rewarm the plate, still holding the back to the
fire ; you will see the varnish drying, and taking a nice
smooth, bright surface. There is always a spot or two
of varnish to take off the bottom corner : this is best
done with a piece of blotting-paper ; now lay it face
up, on the table, and take another negative from the
drying racks, when all are varnished, replace them in
the rack, or use a second ; in business houses, negatives
are varnished over night, that the surface may be
thoroughly set and harden before printing from.
Should there be any transparent spots in the negative,
touch them out with a little water colour, neutral
tint, or sepia ; try and match the surrounding film, so
as not to cause a white spot in the paper print that is to
be taken from the now finished negative. The subject
of "retouching," or modelling the face with black
lead pencils, hardly comes within the province of the
amateur — certainly not the beginner. This subject,
and the cause and remedy of defects, will be treated
on towards the finish of these papers.
Printing. — The paper for printing can be bought
ready sensitised, at from 12s. 6d. to 15s. a quire, or is.
a sheet. One sheet will print from thirty-six to forty
cartes-de-visite. The paper must be kept away from
the light, but the great care needful with the sensitive
plate is not requisite here.
Materials required for printing — Paper, ready sen-
sitised, is. sheet ; printing frames, or presses, \ plate,
5s. to 6s. dozen ; the negatives ; tube chloride of gold,
15 grains, 2s. to 2s. 6d.a 15-oz. bottle ; \ lb. acetate of
soda, in bottle, is. ; 7 lbs. hyposulphite of soda, iod. to
is. ; 7 lb. stone jar for ditto ; 4 dishes ; two bottles,
one 40-oz. and one 20-oz. ; one 2-oz. graduated mea-
sure, 1 funnel, either of ebonite or gutta percha, is. 6d ;
carte-de-visite mounts, from is. per 100 ; mounting
boards ; carte-de-visite cutting glass, 9d., and a pair
of scissors. If it is intended to sensitise your own
paper, the following extras will be required — 4 to
6 oz. wide bottle to hold the nitrate of silver ; 4 oz.
nitrate silver, 3s. 4d. to 3s. 6d. the ounce ; flat dish,
2s. 6d., and 12 American pegs, id. each ; 20-oz. bottle,
1 funnel, is. 6d. ; packet filter papers, is.
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
489
To Print. — The paper cut to size, a trifle larger
than is required, as the exact size the finished print
is to be, is regulated afterwards. For carte-de-visite
prints take a sheet of paper, cut it in quarters, and
each quarter cuts again into eight pieces, for the \ plate,
or carte-de-visite negative. Take the printing, or
pressure frame, remove the back, dust out the frame,
place the negative, face up on the rebate, then the
piece of sensitised paper, the glossy side next the face
of the negative, replace the back, close all springs,
and place out in the light, not sunshine ; a pad is
required between the paper and the back of the
frame — a piece of cloth, or flannel, makes a good pad,
or even a few pieces of old newspaper. The back of
the frame is hinged, one half can thus be opened and
looked at, whilst the other half remains firm, thus
keeping the print in its place, or register. After the
frame has been out for five minutes just peep at
tbe print, by removing the spring, and gently lifting
the part of the back now open. An extraordinary
change will be apparent ; on the paper you will be
able to see an outline of the negative reproduced.
This printing is continued until the print is some
shades darker than the finished picture is desired
to be — in fact, the high lights, that is the whitest
parts in the print, should be slightly darkened, or, as
an artist would say, degraded. For the subsequent
operations bleach the image down ; remove the print
in the darkened room you first fitted the frame in, and
insert a fresh piece of paper ; many people use an old
magazine, or large cover, to keep the sensitised paper
and the printed proofs in ; anything will do that pre-
vents their curling. Very dense or opaque negatives
should be printed in the sun. When the day's printing
is done, the prints are cut round, that is, to a rectangle ;
the carte-de-visite cutting glass and the print are
held in the left hand, the glass is adjusted, and with a
pair of scissors, the print is cut to the size required.
Remember after the negative is removed from the
printing frame, to place a piece of glass in its place,
it keeps the pad clean and flat.
Toning. — The most important article here is the
toning bath, which is made as follows : The tube of
gold, having previously removed the label, is inserted
in the 15-oz. bottle ; this is shaken so that the tube
is broken, then fill up with tap-water, and label the
bottle—
Slock Gold Solution.
Tubeofgold 15 gr. | Water 15 oz.
Each oz. of solution now contains 1 gr. chloride of
gold. In the 40-oz. bottle, previously covered with
brown paper to keep out the light put —
Tap-water 30 oz. 1 Stock gold, as above 2 oz.
Acetate of soda ... 60 gr. I Bi-carbonate of soda 3 gr.
This bath must be made at least twenty-four hours
before using, and is better if forty-eight hours old. It
should be used over and over again, and is renewed
by adding 1 oz. stock solution, 30 gr. acetate of soda,
say after it has been used forty times.
To tone, have three of the dishes arranged thus : I
will suppose the scullery to be used ; dishes Nos. 1 and
Washing.
1.
After toning.
3-
FIG. 18. —ARRANGEMENT OF WASHING DISHES.
2 will stand on the sink ; No. 3 on a table or box close
by ; a piece of india-rubber tubing attached to the
tap is convenient, but if not, use a jug to draw off the
water to prevent splashing ; fill dishes Nos. 1 and 2 with
water, and carefully place the prints, one by one, face
downwards in either of the dishes Nos. I or 2, when all
are in it will be noticed the water has become milky ;
this is the chloride of silver, called free silver, coming
out of the prints. Now remove the soaked prints
one or two at a time into the other dish, and so
change the water and prints several times ; three or
four changes are generally sufficient for a small batch
of prints, say, one sheet. The prints being in No. 1
dish, and No. 2 quite clean, take \ oz., by measure, of
stock solution of gold, this is poured into dish No. 2,
and then the toning bath out of brown-papered bottle,
taking care not to disturb any of the sediment at the
bottom. These bottoms are poured into the 20-oz.
bottle (also covered with brown paper), using the funnel.
Do this every time the bath is used, and as the 20-oz.
bottle fills up, carefully decant the clear liquid into the
40-oz. bottle, to use again for toning ; by this means
the toning bath will last many years, and it gradually
becomes a purple colour, owing to the light acting
upon the gold. I had one in constant use for over
fifteen years, it came to grief at last through the intro-
duction of a. small quantity of hyposulphite of soda.
Each time the toning bath is used it wants reviv-
ing by fresh stock solution, i to £ of an ounce to each
sheet of paper that you are going to tone ; some toners
use as much as 1 ounce, = 1 grain of gold, to the
sheet, but it is seldom the paper requires as much.
Prints in washing dish No. 1, toning bath, poured out
and revived in No. 2, clean water in No. 3. The
prints are now picked up one by one, drained of the
superfluous water, and immersed in the toning No. 2,
face down ; after some eight or twelve prints are in
turn them face up and put in more prints ; as they get
done, i.e., toned, remove them into No. 3, this stops
the action of the bath. To tell when toned, note the
490
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
change in colour — which should be just under the tint
you desire them to be when finished. Now, when all
are toned, pour toning bath into the 40-oz. bottle, wash
dishes Nos. I and 2, drain, and return to their proper
place before you think of touching the fixing bath.
Fixing Bath. —
Hyposulphite of soda 2 oz. | Water 10 oz.
To be used fresh each time.
This is spoken of and known as hypo., or the
hypo, bath, just as pyrogallic acid is known as pyro.
Use plenty of solution in the above proportions, and,
after weighing up several times, the hypo, crystals can
be approximately guessed by rule of thumb, as a little
more does no harm, and it is very cheap. The prints
are removed from No. 3 dish, drained, and then
immersed in the hypo. ; when all are in, turn them face
up, and let them stay so a few minutes ; now reverse
the prints (well wash the hands) and let the prints rest
for, say, ten minutes. For the next five minutes move
them about, turning them over and over. You will now
notice they are considerably lighter and of the photo-
graphic sepia, or blue tone ; take out the lightest and re-
place in No. 3 dish, having previously filled it with clean
water, the dark prints can remain in the hypo., say, for
half an hour, or more, the others about twenty minutes.
When all are removed from the hypo., and in dish
No. 3, some arrangement must be made to frequently
change the water, such as filling the dish from the tap
with a jug, turning the prints over and over, and then
set them to drain for two to three minutes ; this being
done several times, with a change now and then of
warm water to which a little, say, an egg-cup full, of
common salt has been added, helps to displace the
hypo. ; then for the rest of the night a slight dribble
through the india-rubber tube attached to the tap,
two or three thorough changes, without salt, the next
morning, and the prints ought to be thoroughly washed
and permanent. Too much attention cannot be given
to the complete manner they are turned and the water
changed, especially at first.
Note. — It is better to wash the dark prints, that
have to be left in the hypo, to bleach, several times in
some other vessel before putting them in No. 3 dish
containing those already fixed and partly washed.
Mounting the Pictures. — The prints are now picked
up one by one, drained, and are ready for mounting; it
is usual to partly dry them by laying them on sheets of
clean white blotting-paper, unbleached calico, or other
cotton material, which has been first well swilled in hot
water to remove dress, grease, etc. If you intend to
mount at once, about five to ten minutes in the cloth or
blotting-paper is sufficient. They are now collected in
a heap, face downwards, on a slab or sheet of glass
somewhat larger than the pictures, for carte-de-visites
and quarter- plate prints a half-plate glass, 6J by 4.I, is
large enough, but for cabinets use a whole-plate glass,
8i by 6\. Now paste over, evenly and cleanly, the top
one with freshly-made starch, pick it up either with the
paste brush or a small paper-knife, lay it down on the
card or mounting-board, and place a clean piece of
writing-paper (somewhat larger than the photograph)
upon the photograph. Now rub the palm of the hand
to and fro upon the paper, and upon lifting the paper up
the photograph ought to show flat and be in its place ;
if not, remove the" photograph at once, and lay it down
again ; do not let any of the starch be on the picture
side, it is very apt to smear over or between the pic-
tures in mounting ; one has here to guard against
lumps, hairs, little pieces of grit, often out of the water,
or the dust on the mounts. Let the mounted photo-
graphs dry of themselves. They are now ready for
touching out, which simply consists of mixing upon a
palette, or a china plate — or what forms an excellent
substitute, a small piece of glass, say, a quarter or half-
plate, with a piece of white writing-paper pasted on one
side — a little of each of the following water colours,
sepia, neutral tint, cobalt, black and white ; a few spots
of gum and a nice sable brush are also required, a
No. 2 round brush costs 6d. to 7d. By mixing a little
of these colours with the brush every tint of the photo-
graph can be matched, small white spots and other
defects made good ; use the least trace of gum, as
without it the water-colour dries dead and shows a
dull spot, if much is used this also shows brighter than
the surrounding parts, and is apt to come off in the
rolling. A touch, just a pin's point, in each eye, and
again under the nostril, is often needed.
If you can make friends with the local photo-
grapher, get him to roll or burnish your prints— a
cabinet rolling-press costs from £2 2s., and a carte-de-
visite one about 20s. to 25s. — a fair makeshift for a
press is a warm flat-iron passed over the prints with a
piece of clean, dry writing-paper between. The
photographs may now be considered finished, and if
care and attention has been paid, some really pretty
examples ought to be the result.
To make starch for mounting photographs, Glen-
field starch or corn flour are best; don't use gum or dex-
trine, for both of these cause the photograph to fade.
Moisten the fine starch with cold water, and make into
a thick paste by adding boiling water rapidly, stir well ;
it first becomes thin and then thickens again ; let it
cool and take off the thick skin, otherwise lumps will
be caused. This remains good two or three days.
Under the head of Printing mention is made of
" 4 dishes " ; to save expense three of them may be
the common yellow baking-dish sold for Sd. to is.,
about 10 by 12 in. to 11 by 14 in. ; for toning, the
No. 2 dish, it is advisable to buy a photographic por-
celain, deep, white dish, 12 in. by 10 in., which costs
PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.
491
3s. This has a lip, and thus makes the pouring-off
of the toning an easy matter. This dish and the one
for hypo, must never be used for anything else.
Respecting business houses to deal with, one is
quite aware it is a delicate subject to treat of, and I
only wish I could, as in Dickens' " Dictionary of
London," make application to the Lord Chamberlain's
Office for a list of the tradesmen who supply the
Royal households ; however, I will venture to mention
the following, because I have dealt with them person-
ally for many years, or else from Mr. Dunman's recom-
mendation : —
Messrs. Cussons & Co., 79, Bold Street, Liverpool,
and Southport, have long enjoyed a well-earned repu-
tation in the trade. Their amateur's set at £6 10s.
seems to contain everything likely to be required, and
has, in addition to the usual apparatus, a supply of dry
plates, chemicals, varnish, and all necessary articles
for developing. For 7s. 6d. extra they send out suffi-
cient materials to print 50 carte de visites, tone, and
fix the pictures, as well as several small dishes for use
in the process.
Mr. C. E. Elliott, 36, Jewin Street, Alder sgate
Street. All his goods are of an excellent make, and
here the amateur is treated on the same terms as the
professional photographer. Mr. Elliott's trade is what
is known as wholesale, that is, no show is made, and
customers generally know beforehand what they re-
quire. The prices charged enable really good value
to be given for the cash paid ; he pays carriage over
£2. A stamped directed envelope will obtain his cata-
logue. About £5 would purchase a very complete set
from Mr. Elliott. His camera for quarter-plate has
three double backs, thus holding six plates at one time,
and it only costs 37s. 6d. Some of the cheaper cameras
have only one dark slide, so are no cheaper in the end.
Three double dark slides are the least oneought to have,
and many people like to have six slides, myself amongst
the number. I have thus twelve plates to expose.
Mr. Elliott's dry plates are issued to combine the three
good qualities of excellence, certainty, and rapidity.
Messrs. Lancaster, Bull Street, Birmingham, enjoy
the reputation of making the cheapest cameras and
stands in Great Britain. They have sent me a list, but
it is impossible to judge without seeing the articles.
Messrs. Marion & Co., 22 and 23, Soho Square,
Oxford Street. It is difficult to say what Messrs. Marion
& Co. do not sell, that the photographer needs, either in
furnishing his studio, reception room, or show case;
their stock is the largest in London. What, however,
immediately concerns the readers of this work is their
photographic apparatus. Their students' set, 5x4
at 50s., which comprises lens, camera, stand, dry
plates, chemicals, lamp, trays, etc., seems marvellously
cheap. I have not seen the set, but I imagine it is only
for landscapes, for I see they mention, as an extra,
15s. for portrait lens. They have also a set for half-
plates, called "The Oxford," price £% ; it is a very
complete affair. Their Britannia camera at £\ takes
either portraits or views, and is square — that is,
takes the plate either upright or longways without
altering the camera. I may mention that this firm acts
as the agent between the producer and the vendor of
the " thousand and one " portraits of celebrities 'that
adorn our shop windows, so if any of my readers should
at any time possess the negative of some person for
whose portrait there has arisen a sudden demand,
from death or other causes, perhaps they may be
favoured with an order for 50,000 copies. Messrs.
Marion's goods are all distinguished for their finish
and completeness. Promptitude seems to be the motto
and guiding rule of this firm. Their dry plates and
those of other makers will be referred to when I reach
the subject of Gelatino-Bromide — Plates and Paper,
how to make both. As soon as I can find time and
opportunity I hope to try Messrs. Marion's plates, and
will then report upon them.
Messrs. Newton, 3, Fleet Street (close to the
" Griffin," late Temple Bar), are well known as
mathematical, optical, and philosophical instrument
makers. Their catalogue at 6d. is worth sending for.
Their work is first-class. They supply a very light, port-
able folding quarter-plate camera for £1 15s., or, with
a useful landscape and architectural lens, £2 2s., and
with a portrait lens at ^1 5s. extra; should a view lens
only be needed, £2 5s. is the total cost. When I say
that their catalogue contains over sixteen hundred
articles, some idea may be formed of their stock. The
firm has been in business 200 years.
Messrs. J. Orme & Co., late Jackson & Orme (an
offshoot of Townsend & Jackson), 65, Barbican, near
Aldersgate Street Station. They describe themselves
as manufacturers of scientific apparatus and pure
chemicals for the amateur photographer. Their stock
comprises a variety of articles — glass funnels, gradu-
ated measures, stirring-rods, photo, dishes shallow,
Abel's old and new notation, pestle and mortars, spirit
lamps; chemical sets from 8s. to the lecturer's set at
£21, electrical, galvanic, and electrotyping apparatus,
including medallions in gypsum at 2d. each, materials
for making telephones — altogether a stock of over five
thousand articles makes this the very shop of shops
for the scientific amateur. Pure photographic chemi-
cals form a speciality with this firm. Their catalogue
costs is., post free.
Messrs. Rouch, 180, Strand, have an excellent
folding patent camera ; this I will personally inspect
and give my readers an opinion of in the next.
Their shop is very conveniently placed between the
City and West End houses.
X 2
492
HOW I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
The Sciopticon Co. (Mr. George Smith, Manager),
26, Colebrooke Row, City Road, near the Angel, appa-
rently lay themselves open to make improvements
upon others' work, and furnish the little details— so
often missing in commercial articles. Their motto is
absolute efficiency ; finish only as to appearance.
They supply a very nice pocket camera for quarter-
plates, with 3 double dark slides, stand, and lens for
landscapes, at £3 17s. 6d., or, with lens for portraits
£nd landscapes, £4 4s. ; this, with the few extras, as
plates, dishes, chemicals, etc., would bring up the cost
to about £5. Their half-plate camera made up as a
despatch box is a marvel of cabinet workmanship, and
ingenious beyond description ; its cost is £6 16s. with-
out lens. A shutter for taking moving objects, at 6s. 6d.,
is most effective, and I think the cheapest in the market.
The Scenograph set, for quarter-plate camera, stand,
lens, case, chemicals, plates, dish, etc., is only £2 2s. ;
this is very cheap. I must not omit to mention their
Sciopticon, an improved magic lantern. This is not
a toy, but a practical piece of apparatus of whose great
advantage over the old form Mr. Brothers, F.R.A.S.,
and Dr. Liesegang, are able to speak, and which for
the purpose of enlarging is all-sufficient. The Wood-
bury slides are used, but by means of an adaptor any
sized slide, either English or foreign, can be exhibited,
and, with a transparent screen, can be shown in a
lighted room, a no mean advantage where there are
children or students. The " Scenographic Manual "
is 6d., the " Sciopticon Manual" is., post free.
Two other firms I have found most liberal in their
treatment for sundries, not immediately photographic,
are Slippers, 87, and Bainbridge, 60, Leather Lane,
Holborn. They supply, among other articles, Canada
balsam, gums for varnish, powder colour, dyes, etc.
(To be continued.)
HOW I MADE MY TELEPHONES, AND GOT
THEM TO WORK IN MY HOUSE.
ByG.H.SAYER.
■»
II.— Getting into Working Order.
MENTIONED in my last paper that,
theoretically, it is unnecessary to have a
battery to enable one to speak through
the telephone ; but for reasons which I will
now explain, I do not think much prac-
tical use can be made without its aid.
For, assuming that you have successfully made
your two telephones, and have fixed up one in your
workshop or " den," on the ground floor, and the other
in a room on the top story of the house, with the
wires connecting the two to each other, and to
" earth," it is evident that before you can speak from
your " den " to anyone upstairs, you must be able to
call his attention, as it would be absurd to expect that
person to be constantly standing with the telephone at
his ear, on the mere chance that you might wish to
speak to him ; and if you have to give him notice
beforehand, or send a servant up to him to tell him to
go to the telephone, it then becomes a toy of no prac-
tical value or use. Means must therefore be em-
ployed to call attention, the simplest being some sort of
bell. If your workshop be near the kitchen, then the
ordinary house-bell rung, say three times, might give
you notice, but all ordinary house-bells are only
intended to ring one way, and so you could not answer
nor ring up in turn.
Pneumatic bells would do, but they involve the
trouble and expense of fixing a small pipe to run the
whole distance between them ; I should therefore
strongly recommend your adopting electric bells, the
more so because the same wire which connects the
telephones can be made the medium of ringing the
bells ; and apart from this, which by itself is a great
advantage, I feel sure that those who have made their
telephones are desirous of continuing their experi-
ments in electricity, and of employing the same subtle
agent to work them.
But electric bells require batteries, for although the
electric current created by the magnets in the tele-
phones is strong enough to transmit the minute wave
sounds to the sensitive human ear, it has been calcu-
lated that it is about a thousand million times less
than the current used in ordinary telegraphic work,
and therefore, I need scarcely add, quite powerless to
set a bell in motion.
Of the various kinds of batteries, the one most
suitable for our purpose is called after its inventor, the
Leclanche', two forms of which are now in use ; the
old form in which a porous pot is employed, and the
new and improved form in which Mons. Leclanche'
has substituted movable plates for porous pots.
I will now describe both, but before doing so I may
mention that a great deal of what is common to most
batteries, such as the jars, porous pots, carbons,
clamps, etc., have all been so clearly and minutely ex-
plained in the past numbers of this magazine by Mr.
Edwinson, in his papers on " Electro-Plating at
Home," that I scarcely need give more than a general
description.
In the old form of the Leclanche" battery one
element consists of a porous pot into which the
carbon plate is placed and then filled in all round
with a mixture of coarsely powdered peroxide of
manganese and carbon, the top of the pot being
sealed over with pitch or wax, excepting only a small
hole to connect to the atmosphere, and allow the
HO IV I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
493
gases to escape. This pot with its contents is then
placed in a glass or stone jar containing a weak
solution of sal-ammoniac and water, into which the
other element, consisting of a rod of amalgamated
zinc, is also immersed. In the new and improved
form, called, I think, the "Silvertown Patent Le-
clanche Batten'," instead of having a coarse powder of
peroxide of manganese and carbon, these ingredients
are compressed under a pressure ot several tons into
solid blocks requiring no porous pot to 'hold them
together.
Two of these agglomerate blocks are fastened by
india-rubber bands, one on each side of the carbon
plate, and then all three are put into the jar containing
the solution of sal-ammoniac into which is also put
the zinc rod.
Both forms are usually classed under three sizes :
No. i, large; No. 2, medium; and No. 3, small. I
should advise your adopting the small size, three cells
of which will be ample for each of your two batteries.
If you make them in the old form, your glass or stone
jar should be about 5 inches deep, and 3J or 4 inches
square or round ; the porous pot should be 2 inches
in diameter and 5 inches deep, and may be purchased
for a few pence ; . the carbon plate should be about 5
inches long, \\ inches wide, and 5 inch thick, and will
cost about 9d.; it must be fixed at one end into a
clamp or brass binding screw precisely similar to that
illustrated in Fig. 3, page 8r, of this Magazine, and
which Mr. Edwinson states will cost 6d. The amal-
gamated zinc rod should be about 6 inches long and
£ inch diameter, and can be purchased with wire
attached, complete for 4d.
Place the carbon plate into the centre of the porous
pot, and then fill in all around it to about \ inch
from the top with coarsely powdered peroxide of
manganese and carbon well mixed together. The
carbon plate need not touch the bottom of the pot.
Now stick into the powder a short piece of glass
tubing about g- inch diameter inside, and then pour
around it and the carbon plate some melted pitch or
wax ; the glass tube is generally made funnel-shaped,
with the wide mouth placed downwards touching the
powder to allow the gases to escape freely. The
brass clamp on the carbon plate should be also painted
with pitch or shellac varnish, excepting only the screw,
around which the connecting wire is attached. Now
put the porous pot with its contents complete into the
glass or stone jar together with the zinc rod, and fill
up about seven-eighths full with clean water in which
has been dissolved sal-ammoniac in the proportion
of 2 oz. to a pint of water, and your cell is complete,
as shown in Fig. 4.
Those who do not care to take the trouble of
filling and completing the porous cells, can purchase
them ready filled, with carbon, etc., for 2s. 6d. each,
small size. The usual price for a cell complete and
ready for work, with outer square glass jar, is 3s. 6d.,
small size.
For the improved agglomerate cells, the carbon
plate is as above described, with brass binding screw
complete, and the two blocks must be purchased, as
you could not possibly make them. They are sold in
pairs, and a pair of No. 3 size will cost between one
and two shillings. When joined to the carbon plate,
and placed in the glass jar, the whole cell is as shown
m Fig. 5. The zinc rod must be kept clear of the
blocks by india-rubber rings, for should it accidentally
touch them, it causes what is termed, " local action,"
which is a technical term, meaning that injurious
chemical action would continually take place, wasting
away the zinc the same as if the battery were working.
To keep the cells together and preserve them from
breaking they should be kept in a wooden box, which
can be easily knocked up by any amateur. For three
cells of the sizes I have given, the box should be
about 12 inches long, 5 inches wide, and 8 inches deep,
all inside measurements, and made of i inch wood.
The battery is formed by connecting up the cells
as follows : — the carbon of the first cell is left free and
the zinc rod is joined by its wire to the carbon ter-
minal of the second cell, the zinc of which is in the same
way joined to the carbon of the third cell, the zinc of
which is left free.
I will now add a few hints for keeping your
batteries in order.
1st. Do not put them in a warm place or too near
the fire, as the water in the outer jars soon evaporates,
when more must be added.
2nd. To prevent the crystals from rising up over
the glass jar, rub the inside of the neck with a little
tallow.
3rd. Scrape oft with a knife the crystals which
after a time form on the zinc rods, as they stop the
effectual working.
4th. See that your wires and terminals are kept
clean, and your conducting wires properly insulated.
5th. Every six months or so examine your battery
and wash out the cells thoroughly, putting in fresh sal-
ammoniac, and if requisite new zinc rods.
So much for batteries, now let us see how to connect
them to the telephone and bells.
The first thing to decide upon is where you intend
placing your two telephonic stations, and then the most
direct way to run the wire between them. I placed mine
in the recess behind the window shutter, there being
ample space there for the telephone with its switches,
bell, and connecting wires ; and by boring with a good
sized gimlet a hole diagonally downwards through the
ower sill of the window, clear of the sash, I led the
494
HOW I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
wire to the outside of the house and straight up to the
window on the top story. The battery I placed on the
top of the window framing behind the curtain pole,
where it was out of the way and yet close at hand.
It is difficult to give definite directions as to
running the wire between the two stations— technically
termed the " line " wire — but always choose the most
direct and shortest way possible ; and if you should
wish it to go from the lower to the upper part of the
house, you will find it best to take it straight up outside,
in and out of the window-sills. If, however, the two
rooms are not so situated, then you must lead it along
the passages and round the walls of the rooms, keep-
same time connecting them on to the " line " wire in
place of the batteries and bells. When the conversa-
tion has ended they hang up their telephones, and
replace their batteries and bells in connection with the
"line" wire so as to be ready when either again wishes
to call attention by ringing. These several changes
on the one wire are done by means of levers or
" switches," as they are called ; the idea corresponding
to those used on railways for changing the direction
of the rails.
I will now therefore describe how I made mine, of
which there must, of course, be a set for each station.
I purchased a few feet of No. 10, B. W. G. brass wire,
NO. I
SI ATIOX.
A L I
NO. 2
STATION.
FIG. 15. — DIAGRAM SHOWING TELEPHONE STATIONS AND CONNECTING LINES.
ing close to the ceiling moulding, and fastening the
wire at intervals with small holdfasts, or U-shaped
pointed wire, called — I think — carpet-staples. The
wire must be covered with gutta-percha for exposed
places, but inside the cotton-covered is less con-
spicuous and neater.
Now let us see what is to be done, supposing No.
1 station wishes to communicate with No. 2 station,
and then we shall be able easier to see how to do it.
No. 1 must first of all ring up the bell of No. 2 to call
attention, this he does by sending a current from his
battery along the " line " wire to No. 2's bell. Then
he takes off this current, and replacing the " line " in
connection with his own bell, No. 2 answers in the
same way. Both then take telephones in hand, at the
which is about g inch in diameter, and taking a piece
about 10 inches in length, with my round nose pliers
I bent one end into an eye, as shown at A, in Fig. 6.
Then leaving a little straight bit I bent it at right
angles to the eye, into two arms, as shown at B and c.
I then obtained a piece of brass tubing T35 inch
outside diameter, the bore of which just allows the
wire to fit into it easily, and cutting it to I inch in length,
I bent around a piece of thin sheet brass, f inch wide
and if inch long, as shown in Fig. 7, and before sol-
dering the two firmly together punched a hole on each
side for wood screws. I then pushed the long end of
the wire cross, Fig. 6, through the tube, and making
sure that it would slide up and down easily, finished it
off by bending the end into a hook d in the same
HO W 1 MADE MY TELEPHONES.
495
\
S[\
^W
FIG. 4. — LECLANCHE CELL.
Old form, with porous pot. One-
fourth full size.
(§1
eQ
Front View. Side View.
FIG. 6. — BRASS WIRE FOR LEVER
OR switch. Half full size.
FIG. IO. — BRASS EYE FORMING PART OF
fitting for switch. Full size.
FTG. II. — DIAGRAM EXHIBITING CONSTRUC-
TION OF ELECTRIC BELL FOR TELEPHONE.
Half size.
FIG. S-— LECLANCHE CELL.
New form, with agglomerate blocks.
One-fourth full size.
i»?v --' 'mr-i^ll
Plan.
o
o
Front
FIG. 7. — BRASS TUBING AND SHEET
BRASS FOR SWITCH. Full size.
Elevation.
©
Plan.
=@=
FIG. 13. — END ELEVATION OF
c in fig. 11. Half size.
FIG. 14. — SIDE ELEVATION OF D>
FIG. 10. Half size.
FIG. 9. — WIRE FOR BELL AND BATTERY
SWITCH. Half size.
FIG. 12. — WOOD ACROSS TOP OF BOBBINS. Half size.
FIG. 8. — DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW TO FIX SWITCH.
Full size.
49s
HO IV I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
plane as the eye, and so at right angles to the two
arms. When complete, the length over A D is about
4 inches, and the width over the two arms B, c about
if inches. To the eye A, I fastened a small spiral
spring of brass wire — a piece of clock spring will do,
or even an india-rubber band, only the latter will not
of course last long — and then the whole forms the
"telephone" switch. About 6 inches of the same
sized wire, bent into the shape shown in Fig. g, will
do for the " bell and battery " switch.
To fix them in working order, take a piece of deal
wood 8 inches long, 6 inches wide, f inch thick, nicely
squared and planed up. At a distance of 2 inches
from the left-hand side, and parallel to it, make a pencil
line down the whole length, upon which you place the
" telephone " switch, fastening it there by two brass
wood screws through the brass guide. Now, under
the arm C, screw into the wood a mushroom-headed
No. 5 brass wood screw, about 5 inch long, leaving J
inch of the shank out, as shown in Fig. 8 ; and over
the arm B screw a brass eye, Fig. 10, allowing about
-J inch play for the switch, that is to say, allowing
room for Fig. 6 to slide up and down about i of an
inch, (he arms alternately touching the screw and eye.
Then fix the little spiral spring to the board by a
screw directly above the switch, and at a distance
sufficient to keep the arm b touching the screw eye.
Now take your telephone and hang it on to the hook
D (Fig. 6), when its weight will pull against the spiral
spring and bring the switch down, so that the arm c
rests on the screw beneath it. You may find the
spring too strong, or what amounts to the same thing,
the telephone not heavy enough for this ; you must
then weaken the spring a little by stretching, or else
by bringing the screw which fastens it to the board a
little nearer the switch.
This arrangement can be better seen by referring
to No. 1 station, Fig. 15.
Now fix the " bell and battery " switch to the board
by a screw through its eye, the screw being about
1 inch from the right edge, and about ii inches from
the bottom edge of the board; and allowing the switch
to swing freely. At an equal distance from the central
screw, put two mushroom-headed screws, so that the
one is above, and the other below the straight arm of
switch, the upper one keeping it from hanging vertical
as it would do, if free, owing to the heavier bent end.
About § inch is ample distance between these two
screws, which are marked c and d in Fig. 15. In a
parallel line with the eye which you placed on left-
hand arm of "telephone" switch, and at a distance
of J inch from it screw another eye in, precisely
similar, so that the two appear as at G and H, Fig. 15.
The eye G together with the screw under right
arm, and the three screws of " bell and battery " switch
should all be fixed as shown in Figs. 8 and 10; the hole
being enlarged on the back of board by a rose bit, to
allow room for twisting the wire around the screw.
Now with a narrow gouge cut a channel a | inch deep
in the wood at the back of the board, between c and
right hand screw of brass slide mark E, which screw
should be shorter than the others, as it must not pro-
ject in front or it will not fasten the slide securely.
From the screw F cut a channel vertically upwards
to edge of wood ; from the centre screw A cut one
horizontally to right hand edge, from the screw G cut
out one to the left hand edge, and from screw D cut
one vertically down to the edge. Now take five short
pieces of the same insulated wire as you use for your
" line," and with your knife scrape off ii inches of the
cotton or gutta-percha from each end. Lay one in the
channel between c and E, and twist the ends around
the shanks of the screws two or three times, as shown in
Fig. 8. A little solder will make the joints more secure.
In the same way fasten a wire to A, f, D and G, leaving
the other ends sticking out beyond the edge of wood.
Fill in the channels all arornd the wires with a melted
paraffin candle, and then glue a piece of paper over
the whole back of the wood. To the eyes of G and H
must now be fastened the two telephone wires, and as
these should be long and pliable enough to allow the
telephone to be freely handled and held to the mouth
or ear without breaking the connections, they are
generally made of a special kind, the two wires being
woven together with fine silk, although kept insulated
from each other. This special wire can be purchased
for 2d. a yard, and 1 yard is sufficient for each tele-
phone. At each end separate the two wires and fasten
them one to each of the telephone terminals as I
described in my first paper, and the other two ends to
G and H by twisting one around each eye, and fixing
them with a little solder. (See Fig. 10.) Hang the
telephone on the hook of switch, by a small picture-
ring screwed into the end of the telephone, clear of
the magnet and terminals, and the switch board is
complete.
You will observe that the whole of Fig. 1 5 is merely
a diagram, and not therefore made to any scale. The
two stations are made respectively right and left
handed, to show distinctly all the connecting lines, but
you will of course make both your switch -boards alike
as described and shown in No. 1 station. The hook
of the "telephone" switch is for the same reason shown
on one side, but it really faces you as in Fig. 6.
Bells. — Now let us see how to make the bells ; for
I presume you would like to make them for yourself
rather than purchase the ready-made article, which
would cost, at the very least, 4s. 6d. or 5s. An electric
bell consists of an electro-magnet, which, by alter-
nately attracting and releasing a hammer, causes it to
HOW I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
497
strike agairjst and ring a bell. But some will ask,
" 'What is an electro-magnet ? " and as this is one of
the most important things in the practical application
of electricity, I will in a few words explain it. If a
coil of insulated wire be wound around a piece of soft
iron — and by " soft," I mean common iron, which has
not been hardened or tempered in any way — and then
an electric current is sent from a battery through the
■wire, the soft iron instantaneously becomes converted
into a strong magnet, remaining so as long as the
electric current flows around it ; but the moment the
current ceases, then the iron as instantaneously loses
its magnetism. Thus you see an electro-magnet differs
from the telephone, for there the permanent magnet
creates an electric current, and so magnetism pro-
duces electricity ; here the electric current makes the
magnet, and so electricity produces magnetism. The
first thing, therefore, for the bell is an electro-magnet.
To make this, get a piece of round iron \ inch in
diameter and about 5 inches long, and heating it
blood-red in the fire, bend it round to the shape of a
horse-shoe, with the ends about 1 inch apart centre to
centre, and then let it cool gradually .by leaving it in
the ashes. Now take two wooden reels or bobbins,
each about if inches long — ordinary cotton reels will
do — and enlarge the holes until they will allow the
ends of the iron to fit tightly into them. At the same
place from which you obtained the fine wire for your
telephones, purchase some No. 28 B. W.'G. wire, also
covered with cotton or silk ; its price is about 6d. per
ounce, and two ounces will suffice for one bell. Wind
half of it neatly around one of the bobbins, and then,
in the contrary direction, wind the remainder around
the other bobbin. I have shown the direction clearly
in Fig. 11. It is most important that you should do
this correctly, for when the iron becomes transformed
into a magnet, its north and south poles are also deter-
mined by the direction of the current.
To find out which is north, Ampere's rule, which is
easily remembered, is this. Supposing a man to be
swimming in the wire along with the current, and that
he is looking down on the piece of iron which lays at
right angles beneath him, then the north pole of the
iron would be at his left hand, and the south pole at
his right hand. Applying this rule to the horse-shoe,
you will see that if the wire is not wound around it
properly, you would not obtain the two requisite poles
to form the magnet. This will appear clearer if you
consider the horse-shoe as straightened out, with the
bobbins on it end to end, as if they were united into
one ; then the wire should appear wound around both
continuously, and in the same direction. When the
wire is thus wound properly, it is immaterial to which
end you apply the current, for as your horse-shoe has
its two poles brought together, even if you reverse the
direction of the current, you would certainly change
the poles, but they would still act together in attracting
the armature. Leave about 6 inches of the ends of
the wire free, as you did with the telephone coil, and
your electro-magnet is complete.
For a board, take a piece of dry and well-seasoned
wood 6 inches long, 4 inches wide, and J inch thick,
and fasten the electro-magnet to it by placing a small
piece of wood across the top of the two bobbins, and
screwing it down with two wood screws, as shown in
Fig. 12. The position of magnet on the board is
shown at a in Fig. 11, where I have omitted the bit
of wood and screws, so that the direction of the wire
coil might appear distinct.
For the armature E, take a piece of soft iron
ii inches long, | inch wide, and J inch thick, and to
one end of it fasten by small rivets a piece of springy
sheet brass F, about 2^ inches long, leaving one end
of it clear for about an inch, and bending out the
other end a little, as shown.
About s inch from this end must also be drilled a
minute hole to rivet on a bit of platinum, or else the
electric current which passes from the screw in D to
the spring F at this point would burn the brass. At
the end of the straight part of this spring make two
holes about J inch apart. Should you find it difficult
to make these holes and to fasten the spring to the
armature, any working watchmaker would soon do it
for a trifle. To the other end of E must be fastened
in the same manner a piece of brass wire G, about
if inches long, which at its far end is screwed into or
soldered on to a little brass knob about i inch in
diameter, to form the hammer. Now out of a piece
of hard wood — beech is the best — with your tenon-saw
cut one piece, as shown at C, an end elevation of which
is given at Fig. 13, and one piece, as shown at D, a
side elevation of which is shown at Fig. 14.
To C must be screwed the straight end of the spring
F by two small brass wood screws through the holes
at a height equal to the distance which the centre of
the electro-magnet is above the board. Then fasten c
by two wood screws on to the board, so as to bring
the armature parallel across the poles of the electro-
magnet, and about I inch off from them.
Through the centre of D, at the same height, screw
a thin mushroom-headed brass wood screw long
enough to project beyond the wood at each side for
about i inch. If you make D about -J inch thick, then
the screw would be f inch long. Now fasten D to the
board, so that the screw points towards the centre of
the magnet and touches the bent end of f, where the
bit of platinum is riveted.
For the bell B, you might for a few pence purchase
an old gong out of an alarum clock, or a little brass
hand-bell will do nicely if you take out its inside
498
HO W I MADE MY TELEPHONES.
clapper, and fasten it, mouth upwards, by sticking the
handle into a hole in the board, so that the edge is
about i inch off the knob G, the wire of which you can
bend a little, to bring it level with the striking edge of
the bell.
Now, for terminals, screw two large brass screws
into the board at H and I. Around H twist one end of
the bobbin wire, and connect I to the screw of D by
twisting the ends of a short piece of wire around them.
Finally, fasten the other end of the bobbin coil to the
head of one of the brass wood screws which holds the
spring F to C, and your electric bell is complete.
To ring it, you must connect up one terminal to the
" copper " of your battery, and the other terminal to
" earth." Let us suppose you have done this, and that
the terminal I, in Fig. 15, is joined by wire up to
your battery, and H to "earth." Then the current
would flow from I along the wire to the screw in D,
passing to the end of which, it reaches at the platinum
point the spring F ; then it runs along f to the screw
in C, around which is twisted the end of the bobbin
coil, and so it finds its way through the whole of the
coil around the horse-shoe to H, and loses itself in
" earth." But the moment it flows through the coil, it
converts the horse-shoe into a strong magnet, which
attracts the armature E towards it, causing the hammer
G to strike the bell b. But when the armature E is
thus attracted towards the magnet, it at the same time
draws the spring f away from the end of the screw in
D, and thereby breaks the connection, stopping the
flow of the electric current. The horse-shoe then loses
its magnetism, and can no longer attract towards it
the armature E, which, therefore, is pulled back by the
spring F to its original position, when the platinum
point again touches the screw in D ; connection is then
made, the electric current flows again, and, as musi-
cians would say, da capo.
Should a bell prove too loud for a room, a toy
tambourine or small drum can be substiiuted for it.
The screw in D will have to be adjusted so as to make
and break the contact nicely. Also, should any of my
readers prefer a single-stroke bell or gong in prefer-
ence to the repeated and continuous ring, it can be
easily done by screwing the screw in D up so as to
keep its end always touching the platinum on F, and
making the wire of G to spring slightly. Then, when
the current is started, the electro-magnet draws the
armature so sharply towards it that the wire G will
spring the knob sufficiently to strike the bell once. It
is a little fidgety to get the screw properly adjusted
for this, and you may have to slightly alter the bend
of the wire G.
The bell should be fixed vertically on the wall, in
the position shown in the sketch, with the hammer
hanging down ; and it is better to cover it over with a
casing of thin wood or cardboard to keep out the
dust.
All that is now left for me is to describe how
to finally connect up and set in working order. First
of all then, at a height of about 5 feet from the
floor, fasten by two screws the switch-board in a
vertical position against the woodwork of the shutter
recess, or against the wall in any other part of the
room that you may deem more suitable or convenient,
and having your battery in good order, place it near.
The bell will go nicely over the switch-board, and of
course the closer you keep all three together the shorter
your connecting wires will be, and the less trouble you
will have in fixing them.
In Fig. 15 (No. 1 station) I have shown distinctly
all these wires. The end of your "line" wire must
be joined to the wire which is twisted around the
central screw of the "bell-battery" switch at A. The
carbon of your battery must be joined to the lower
screw D of the same switch ; the upper screw C
you have already connected to the brass guide at E.
The screw-eye H has no wire attached to its shank,
but only one of the pliable telephone wires twisted
around its eye ; the other telephone wire being
fastened in the same way to the eye of G. The wire
from F must be connected to one of the terminals
of the bell at I, and finally the other terminal of
the bell, the wire twisted around the shank of G
and the wire of the amalgamated zinc rod of the
battery, must all three be connected to "earth" —
that is, must be twisted around the nearest water or
gas-pipe, marked K— these three " earth " wires need
not each be fastened to the water-pipe ; sufficient if
one be led to the pipe and the other two twisted around
this one, at the nearest and most convenient point. If,
as is most likely, your water-pipe is outside the house,
then you must lead the wire out of the window-sill by
the same hole as your line wire. Wherever you thus
join up two wires you must be careful to scrape about
an inch off the insulating cotton or gutta-percha, and
clean up the copper ends before twisting them together
with a pair of pliers ; and although not absolutely
necessary, they will hold all the firmer if you touch
them up with your soldering-iron.
Now let us see what takes place when No. 1 sta-
tion wishes to speak to No. 2 station. He takes hold
of the bent end of his switch a, and pushing it
upwards, causes the other end to touch the screw D,
then the electric current immediately flows from his
battery b to DA, along the line to No. 2, where the
switch being in its normal position, it goes to C, and
on to the brass guide E ; but it does not stop there, for
although the wire on which the telephone hangs is
loose enough to slide up and down in the brass guide,
it is still always touching it ; so the current goes up
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
499
the wire to F, and then on through the bell I, ringing it,
and finally loses itself in " earth " by the water-pipe.
No. 2, hearing the bell ring goes to his switch and
answers back in precisely the same way ; No. I of
course having allowed his switch to go back to its
hanging position against C whilst awaiting the answer.
Both now unhook their telephones, allowing the little
spiral spring to pull up the switch clear of F (thereby
cutting off the bell) and causing it to touch H. No. I,
the first to ring up, speaks first, whilst No. 2 holds the
telephone to his ear, and the currents now being no
longer the strong ones from the batteries, but those
generated by the telephone-magnets — the connections
are " earth " K G, down one telephone wire, and around
the telephone coil, up by the other wire to h, through
the two arms of switch to E, thence on to C a, along
the line to the other station to a c e h telephone coil,
G K " earth." When the conversation is ended, both
by hanging up their telephones, reconnect up their bells
ready for another occasion. And now I think I have
shown how I got my telephones to work, and but little
more remains for me to say. Throughout I have en-
deavoured to make everything as simple as possible
consistent with good working results, and therefore my
readers will find ample room for improvements, and I
have no doubt several will look with scorn upon my
poor mushroom-headed screws, and speedily substitute
proper brass terminals, etc.
One improvement I will mention, and it is this —
the awkwardness of having only one telephone for both
speaking through and hearing, can be got over by
having two to each station, when one can be held to
the ear, whilst with the other you can speak. To
connect up the second, or " listening :! telephone, instead
of fastening to the eye of G, one of the wires of the
first, or "speaking" telephone as stated above, you
must join it direct to one terminal of the "listening"
telephone, and then in its place connect up the other
terminal of this "listening" telephone to G.
The current will then pass from G through both the
telephones, first the "listening ' then the "speaking"
one, before reaching H.
As the weight of the one telephone is sufficient for
keeping down the switch, the "listening" one need
merely be hung on an ordinary brass hook at the side,
or anywhere near.
In conclusion, should any of my readers be desirous
to follow up the subject, and learn a little more about
this wonderful and interesting science, I can well
recommend to their perusal a little book by Professor
Silvanus Thompson, entitled " Elementary Lessons in
Electricity and Magnetism," and then they will not
rest contented until they have, by the addition of
carbons or microphones, and mysterious induction
coils, rendered perfect their telephonic stations.
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR
AMATEURS.
By A. TT. J. TATLER, C.E.
IV.— Scroll and Fret Saws.
HE scroll or fret saw is a most useful
machine for amateurs, and one with which
he could hardly dispense, for although a
1 and-savv may be employed for cutting
sweeps, and wherever it is possible to
employ it, is greatly to be preferred on account of the
cut being continuous, still, as in the case of fret work,
where the saw blade has frequently to be inserted
through a hole, the band-saw cannot be used, and a
reciprocating saw must be substituted. In no class
of wood-cutting machinery has there been expended,
perhaps, more thought and ingenuity than on fret
saws ; a good machine should have some or all of the
following features : A uniform tension of the saw at
the different parts of the stroke, a facility for in-
creasing or diminishing the same, lightness of the
reciprocating parts, which should be self-lubricating; a
simple and effective method of attaching and changing
saws ; ample room for turning the wood round the
saw ; a blower to keep the line of cut free from saw-
dust ; and a table arranged to set at any angle for
bevel cutting.
In Fig. 1 1 is illustrated a small fret machine, which
although it may not contain all the latest improve-
ments, or the highest finish, is certainly marvellous
at the price. The table is adjustable for inlaying,
and is 30 inches from the floor, the frame is en-
tirely of iron, and the arms allow a clearance of
16 inches. The price, complete, is only 13s. 6d.
Fig. 12 is a scroll saw of somewhat more compli-
cated construction ; it is fitted with a boring and
drilling and lathe attachment. The table is made to
cant for bevel cutting and for sawing inlaid work, and
is turned perfectly true upon the face. Fig. 14 shows
the hollow ball joint for tilting the table through which,
as will be seen, the saw passes. The illustration shows
the front of the hollow ball and clamp. Fig. 1 5 is a
sectional view of the clamp. The saw is driven by a
band s inch in diameter, from a grooved wheel, which
works with very little slip and a minimum of friction.
The saw clamp will hold any sized saw, from the finest
up to I inch. The boring and drilling attachment is a
very perfect arrangement, and is capable of boring
rapidly a clean hole i of an inch or less in wood or metal,
using the Morse Twist Drill. The blower, as can be
seen by looking at the sectional side view of the
machine, Fig. 13, consists of a small cylinder, which
is made of brass, with a piston worked from the top
WOOD- WORKING MA CH1NER Y FOR A MA TE URS.
FIG. II. — CHEAP AND USEFUL SMALL
FRET-SAWING MACHINE.
FIG. 13.— SECTIONAL SIDE VIEW
OF SCROLL-SAW SHOWN IN FIG. 12.
FIG. 14. — HOLLOW BALL
JOINT FOR TILTING TABLE
SHOWN IN FIG. 12.
FIG.' 16.— LATHE ATTACHMENT FOR SCROLL-SAW
IN FIG. 12.
FIG. 12. SCROLL-SAW, WITH BORING, DRILLING,
AND LATHE ATTACHMENT.
FIG. 17.— COMBINED SCROLL AND CIRCULAR SAW.
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY FOR AMATEURS.
501
of the upper spindle, this small air-
pump emits a puff" of air with each
stroke of the spindle, and thus
maintains the lines effectually clear
of sawdust. The distance from the
saw to the back of the frame is 1 5
inches. The treadle of this ma-
chine is double, so that both feet
can be used, and is attached to a
board fitted to the legs of the
table near the floor, thus rendering
the whole compact and portable.
This machine is only calculated
for light work, cutting % inch and
under readily, but can be made to
cut up to 1} inch. The lathe at-
tachment (Fig. 16) is made of iron
and steel, and has a bed 15 inches
in length, 9 inches distance be-
tween the centres, and swings 4
inches ; rests are 4 and 8 inches.
The price of this machine, com-
plete, with table, drill, and blower
is £4 5s. The lathe attachment,
with four turning tools, £1 extra.
Fig. 17 represents a combined
scroll and circular saw. This would
make a very useful little machine
for an amateur's workshop ; it is
capable of doing heavier work than
either of those already described,
sawing wood from i to 3 inches
in thickness, and allowing a clear-
ance of 24 inches from the saw to
the back of the frame. The table is
28 inches by 28 inches, and stands
at a height of 35 inches from the
floor, and to the right of the saw is
mounted on iron ways truly planed,
and arranged so that the material
may be brought to the saw at any
desired angle with perfect accuracy;
it can also be raised or lowered by
means of a set screw, to suit the
various depths of cut desired. The
arms of the scroll saw are made of
wood, and the clamps will hold the
finest saws. The boring attach-
ment is fitted with a sliding table,
moving in substantial ways, thus
bringing the wood to be bored up
to the auger or bit in a perfectly
uniform and even manner. The
depth of the hole to be bored is
governed by means of a stop.
R
FIG. 18. — POSITION OF FILE IN SHARPEN-
ING CROSS-CUT SAW FOR SOFT WOOD.
FIG. 19.— POSITION OF FILE IN SHARPEN-
ING CROSS-CUT SAW FOR MEDIUM WOOD.
FIG. 20. — POSITION OF FILE IN SHARPEN-
ING CROSS-CUT SAW FOR HARD WOOD.
For hard woods and large bits the
belt is discarded in favour of an
arrangement of toothed gearing,
whereby the speed is reduced and
the driving power increased ; for
small holes and light stuff the belt
only is employed to give the ne-
cessary high speed. The circular
saw can be moved in an instant
out of the way, when the scroll saw
or boring attachment is to be used,
without removing it from its spindle,
the spindle being so set in its bear-
ings that it can be readily removed
without detaching the saw. Motion
is obtained, as can be seen by
glancing at the engraving, by a
very simple positive arrangement ;
the wheel revolves continuously by
the downward stroke of the pedal,
thus avoiding the use of a crank
and the consequent dead centres ;
great speed can be obtained from
this device, the ordinary speed
when sawing is from 800 to 1200
strokes per minute. This machine
can be obtained as also the two
previously described, from Messrs.
Charles Churchill and Co., 28, Wil-
son Street, Finsbury, E.C., com-
plete, as shown in the sketch, with
boring attachment, two circular
saws, and twelve assorted scroll
saw blades for ,£10 10s.; circular
and scroll saw only for £8 8s.;
circular saw only, including two
circular saws, one rip and one
cross-cut, for £7 7s.
Before quitting the subject of
saws we must not omit to say a
few words about the most important
of all things in connection with
their effective use— viz., sharpening
and setting them. Unless a saw
is properly sharpened and set it
will be in vain to expect it to per-
form its work satisfactorily, besides
requiring double the power to drive.
It would be impossible to teach
anyone merely by writing, and
without any practice how to file a
saw in a proper manner, but a few
hints may often be given which in
matters of this description may save
a beginner a vast amount of time,
S02
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
trouble, and expense, the natural result of finding
them out by experience alone. Before commencing to
sharpen a circular saw it should first be made perfectly
round; the best method of performing this is by placing
the saw on its spindle, and running down the points of
the teeth by means of a hard piece of stone. The cut-
ting angles, and the tops and faces of the teeth should
be bevelled exactly alike, the gullets also should be
of even depth, the saw working freer and with less
power than if the teeth are allowed to get short and
stumpy. In clamping a saw for sharpening, the jaws
of the vice should be covered with sheet lead, about
J-inch thick. If not so covered, the saw will vibrate
in sharpening, and most probably strip the file.
The following, taken from Holly's Art of Saw-
Filing, showing the position of the file in sharpening
saws for different kinds of wood, may be found useful.
In Fig. 1 8, A shows the position of the file for a cross-
cut saw for soft wood, such as pine, bass wood, cedar,
etc., B shows the shape of the tooth, and C the bevel of
the point, consequent on the position of the file and
bevel of the back of the tooth. There is no difference
in the angle of a large or small file ; all the difference
is in the fine or coarse cut of the file. I prefer a good
sized file, not less than 4j or 5 inches, if it is cut
equally fine and sharp on the corners.
In Fig. 19, A shows the position of the file for saws
for medium wood, such as chestnut, black walnut,
cherry, etc., B shape of tooth, and C bevel of point.
In Fig. 20, A shows the position of the file for saws
for hardwood, such as hickory, ash, oak, maple, beech,
etc., B shape of tooth, and c bevel of point.
For ripping saws the pitch of the tooth should not
be less than an angle of sixty degrees, and space
enough should be left between the teeth to hold the
shaving without crowding, till, it can be carried out-
side the wood and dropped.
In setting the teeth of saws, the usual practice is
to bend by means of a saw-set, the teeth alternately
to the right and left. Some prefer to set their saws
by means of a blow given by a hammer or punch, as
they stand their work better, and require less frequent
setting, the teeth having a constant tendency to
resume their original position, especially in saws of
a thin gauge, when bent by means of a saw-set.
In setting saws with a hammer, the best plan is
to fit the saw horizontally on a stud fitted in a
wooden frame having a transverse movement. A
small steel anvil with a bevelled face should be placed
at one end of the frame, and the saw traversed
backwards or forwards for the teeth to overlap the
anvil centre, the distance of the set required. A series
of smart light blows should be given with the hammer
in preference to one heavy one, and the teeth set a
little coarser than is absolutely required in work.
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO
MAKE IT.
By CHARLES SPENCEB.
V.— Horizontal Bars.
HE horizontal bar has become in these
days the principal feature in a gymna-
sium, as it affords a greater scope and
larger variety of exercises than any other
sort of apparatus, affording almost equal
pleasure and amusement to the merest tyro in the art
as to the matured or professional gymnast, while per-
formances on the horizontal bar are always agreeable
to the spectator. There is scarcely a circus in the
///ih\.B i &H
B ' ' ' . \ \\
FIG. 9. — HORIZONTAL EAR WITH WOODEN UPRIGHTS SUNK
IN THE GROUND.
kingdom, or any place of amusement where variety
entertainments are given, where performances on the
horizontal bar do not form an attractive item in the
programme. What the violin is in an orchestra, that
the horizontal bar is in a gymnasium ; and what the
respectable fiddler is to the great violinist, that the
ordinary performer on the horizontal bar is to the
highly-trained and skilled gymnast. Performances on
the bar have been popular with the public for twenty
years or more, but occasionally artistes make their
appearance — such, for instance, as Avolo and others —
whose performances entirely eclipse those of the
ordinary gymnasts, and fill us with surprise that such
feats of agility and grace can be performed ; just as,
in his day, Paganini, and, in our own, Vieuxtemps or
Joachim, astound their audiences, "drawing houses
with a single string." The reason, then, that a fair
comparison may be drawn between these two widely
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS, AND HOW TO MAKE IT.
5°3
FIG. 10. — PORTABLE HORIZONTAL EAR WITH WOODEN UPRIGHTS.
different instruments is
that the notes produced
on the one, and the
movements on the other,
alike depend upon the
skill of the performer.
The variety of move-
ments on the horizontal
bar undoubtedly afford
the finest and best
gymnastic exercise,
though middle - aged
men may easily look
back to the time — not
so very long ago — when
the horizontal bar was
very little thought of, for
the simple reason that there was not a bar to be had
that was fit to practise upon, not being made in proper
proportion. Now, to revert for a moment to our
comparison, proportion to a horizontal bar is as
important as is tune to a violin, and it is impossible
to excel in either practice unless this vital quality in
each is accurately insured. Without permitting
myself to be led away into a treatise upon the
excellence and advantage of the exercises upon the
horizontal bar, it is not a divergence from the subject
immediately in hand, but a preliminary necessity of
the case, to impress upon you the very great import-
ance of the strictest accuracy in the construction of
the instrument.
The horizontal bar itself consists simply of a pole
of ash, supported at each end by uprights of wood or
iron, or suspended by wire rope and staged off. I
shall proceed in due course to describe the various
forms of making and fixing the apparatus, and I
shall first give the most
primitive form. This is
a bar supported by two
plain wooden uprights,
of fir, sunk into the
ground as shown in
Fig. 9.
The first thing to be
decided is the height at
which the bar is to be
placed from the ground ;
and this depends upon
the height of the person
for whom the bar is to
be constructed. You
must ascertain this by
raising yourself upon
your toes, and extending
your arms above your
head so that the fingers
of both hands may just
touch the under side of
the bar. Thus, when
you hang by the handsi
your feet will just clear
the ground. You see,
therefore, that bars vary
in height according to
the reach of the per-
former. Some bars are
made to shift up and
down, so that one ap-
paratus may be available
for any number of per-
sons. The uprights (d, d)
should be made of two
yellow battens, 2i ins. by 7 ins., 12 feet in length. Cut
2 feet 6 inches off each batten to form the sole pieces
(a, a), which will leave for the uprights 9 feet 6 inches,
of which 2 feet 6 inches are to be let into the ground,
the remaining 7 feet from the surface outside. The
sole-pieces must be halved into the uprights in the
same manner as described in the instructions for the
Lawn Gymnasium, and four struts, 3 inches by 3 inches
(b,b, b, b) notched and spiked on. Be careful in letting
into the ground that you get both the supports exactly
upright. This you can test by an instrument called a
plumb-rule ; and I may here remark that all appa-
ratus let into the ground should be made perpendicular
by this means. The bar itself (c) is then passed
through two holes which have been previously mor-
tised through the uprights, f inch iron pins passing
through the whole to prevent the bar from turning.
Now as to the bar itself. If you are going to use a
plain wooden one, it must be
FIG. II.— PORTABLE HORIZONTAL BAR WITH IRON UPRIGHTS.
; inches in diameter and
not exceeding 6 feet in
length. Let me impress
upon you that it must be
of straight grained ash.
If, however, you desire
to have a very much
stronger bar, the length
will be 7 feet and the
diameter if inch. In
this case a steel core
is passed through the
centre, which imparts
to it greatly-increased
strength, and renders
it impossible for the bar
to be broken. This steel
core is 1 inch in dia-
meter ; and as the
operation of boring an
5^4
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
FIG. 12. — EYE
SCREWED TO END
OF HORIZONTAL
BAR.
inch hole through a bar 7 feet long to take the steel
requires the use of a lathe, and must be done by
a tool made expressly for the purpose, I should
recommend your buying one ready made. The cost
of it is £1 ios., and it may be had on application to
Mr. G. Spencer, 52, Goswell Road, E.C., of whom
gymnastic apparatus of every description may be
obtained by those who do not care to, or cannot, make
the various appliances required, for themselves.
The uprights must, of course, be planed and
painted over in the usual way.
Figs. 10 and 11 represent two different methods
of supporting a bar, so that the whole may be re-
moved at a moment's notice. Fig. 10 is a very simple
contrivance for supporting a bar. It consists of
four pieces of wood, each 8 feet long, 4 in. broad, and
2 in. thick. I find clean spruce timber, such as is
used for oars, is very strong and light. They should
be planed over and the edges chamfered. The end of
the bar should be made square at
each end, to fit into square holes
Orr,,rjJj mortised into the two supports
13/ (a, a), Fig. 10, which come inside,
and the two outside supports (b, b)
merely have a J inch hole bored
through them, to receive the con-
tinuation of an iron rod which passes
through the whole length of the bar,
screwed at each end to take an eye, as in Fig. 12,
to which is fastened two stay ropes with toggles, the
same as those used for tightening-up tents, and
screwed to the ground, or floor, with screw-eyes to
prevent the supports from spreading out too far. A
stay of I inch round iron, 4 feet in length (c, c),
cranked, or bent, at the ends, is inserted into holes
made in the supports to prevent them from spreading
or opening too far. This bar has a very neat appear-
ance, and, as it is generally used for indoor purposes
it is better, instead of painting, to size and varnish the
four supports with one coat of size and two coats of
hard oak varnish.
Fig. 12 represents another method of construc-
tion. This consists of 1^ inch iron gas tubes of 8 feet
each in length (a, a), fitted on the top with caps, or
ends (b, b) which are sold with the tubes when
ordered. There are also two T-pieces (c, c). The
part which is to slide up and down the uprights will
have to be bored, or filed out, to allow them to pass up
and down freely ; and by drilling a series of holes,
£ inch diameter, about six inches apart in the uprights,
as shown, you can then, by the aid of a pin passing
through the uprights and T-pieces, fix the bar to any
height required. In this case the bar must have a
core of steel or iron passed through the centre, and
fastened into the T-pieces, and secured by a § inch
pin or bolt passing through the bar and core. There
must also be two f inch iron staples inserted into the
ends (b, b) to which the guys, or stays (d, d, d, d) are
attached, the other ends of which are fastened into the
floor (if for indoor use) with screw eyes, or into the
ground (if to be used out-of-doors) with stakes, as be-
fore described. These guys are made of § inch round
iron, with hooks forged at each end. It is best to have
them linked together in the centre, as being more
portable when in that form. One of the stays should
have a coupling screw in the centre, so that when the
bar is in its place the whole may be screwed up tight.
I have now finished my instructions as to the
making of a complete gymnasium, which, when con-
structed, and you are engaged upon the exercises to
be practised upon the various apparatus, you will find
a source of much healthy amusement.
=-#■=
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
By EDWARD HERON-ALLEN.
X.— The Violin— its Vagaries, and its Variegators.
HAVE often been asked by persons un-
acquainted with the construction or
full powers of the violin, " How is it
one never hears of improvements to the
violin ? Pianos, and indeed all other
musical instruments advance in perfection with the
march of progress, but the fiddle seems to stand still."
This is perfectly true, at least, it is necessary to search
the most obscure sources for notices of " improve-
ments to the violin," improvements, only in name and
on advertisements, which live their short existence,
known only to the few who are brought into contact
with the inventor, and go out without leaving a trace
behind. The reason for this is not far to seek. The
violin, called as it justly is, " the king of instruments,'
is perhaps the only human contrivance, which, taken
as a whole, may be pronounced to be — perfect. If you
will turn to page 167 you will find the following para-
graph : " Let us look at the tout-ensemble of a fiddle.
What is it? It is a hollow box, from 13 to 14 inches
in length ; at the widest part, 8£ inches, and at the
narrowest 4! inches, broad. It is about 2j inches
deep at the deepest part, and weighs about 8j ounces.
Beyond this we have a neck terminating in a scroll,
which, with pegs, finger-board, and tail-piece of ebony,
bring the weight up to about twenty ounces. The
wondrous capabilities and wonderful equilibrium of
all the parts may be summed up in one short sentence
— it supports a weight on the bridge of from 88 to 92
pounds' pressure."
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
5°5
This exquisite machine, standing apart in its
mysterious simplicity from the vulgar herd of instru-
ments of melody and harmony, is capable of expressing
more by its unaided voice than all the rest put to-
gether ; and when this has been said, are we not
perfectly justified in ascribing to it the attribute of
perfection ? and is it extraordinary that any attempted
improvement only proves to be a deterioration, and
that to this day we can say to the fiddle in the words
of Cardinal Wolsey : —
' ' I charge thee, fling away ambition,
By that sin fell the angels ? "
In the year 1804, Ernst, the celebrated violinist
and concert director to the Prince of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, . who was also a practical fiddle-maker*
and experimentalist, wrote as followsf : " After the
numerous and repeated essays which I have made in
the construction of the violin for more than twenty
years, I have come to the conclusion that its form and
manufacture as they have come down to us from the
best Italian masters, are not susceptible of any im-
provement, especially as regards the body of the in-
strume.v." It has very justly been remarked, Phira
faciutit homines e consaetiidine quam e ratione, and
as though to contradict this statement, and from a
feeling of independence, many daring innovations have
been made (or rather attempted), many of them the
results of carefully-applied science, and of the labours
of intelligent and learned men ; as such, they become
most interesting to the violin-maker, and as such, it is
the intention of the present chapter to consider them.
Crimine ab tino disce omnes. First comes the list of
instruments which have been made of various and
wildly unsuitable materials, beginning with
Earthenware Violins. — There is a specimen of this
vagary in the Musee des Antiques, at Rouen, and
another in Delft faience in the Muse'e of the Conser-
vatoire at Paris, which has been played on (with a
result easily anticipated) by Mons.G. Choquet, the com-
piler of the catalogue of the museum, who describes it
as " neither powerful nor pleasant."
Metal Violins. — Copper, brass, and silver have all
been used for making fiddles, the tones of which may
easily be imagined. A notice of these may be found
in the "Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung," Vol. vii.,
1804, page 50. The silver violin which has been on
view in Mr. Davis's window in Green Street, Leicester
Square, longer than any living man can remember; is
doubtless a familiar object to many of my readers.
Leather Violins. — There is one such to be seen in
the museum of the Conservatoire de Musique, in
* He was the master in fiddle-making of J. A. Otto, to whose
" Treatise on the Construction of the Violin," reference has been
made in these pages.
t " Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung," vol. vii., 1804, p. 49.''
Paris, of the date of 1776 ; and in the " Gentleman's
Magazine," Vol. Ixxxiii., for the year 1813, at page 312,
we find mention of one Gavin Wilson, a bootmaker of
Edinburgh, who, having invented a process for har-
dening leather for the construction of artificial limbs,
etc., made therefrom a German flute and a violin,
which are described as " not inferior to any con-
structed of wood."
Next in order come the various eccentricities of
shape, the application of various complications to the
beautiful simplicity of the violin, and the various in-
struments which have from time to time been intro-
duced, bearing eccentric arrangements and numbers
of strings.
Trumpet Violin. — This was patented in 1854, in
Germany, by Ferdinand Hell, and in England by
W. E. Newton (1854, Jan. 25 ; No. 186), and con-
sisted in adapting a horn or a trumpet to a violin, the
mouthpiece opening into the body of the instrument at
the point where the neck joins it, the tube running
down the neck under the finger-board, and the bell,
or mouth, taking the place of the scroll. It is said
not to have very much damaged the tone of the violin,
but it was very hideous, as may be supposed.
The Pear-shaped Violin, of A. Engleder, was
exhibited at Munich in the same year (1854). The
corners were abolished, the upper bouts contracted,
and the lower bouts expanded, to produce the desired
result. They were, it need hardly be said, a failure.
In 1862, at the London International Exhibition,
one Hulskamp, a German resident in New York,
exhibited a fiddle, the tables of which could, by a
mechanism inside the instrument, worked by a key,
be submitted to a regular tension to suit that of the
strings. The back and belly were quite flat, which
was considered an improvement on the score of
expense in construction. Instead of f f holes, this
fiddle had a round hole between the bridge and finger-
board. One foot of the bridge rested on the belly,
the other on a post set upon a rib glued to the back of
the fiddle, through a hole cut in the belly, so that the
latter was not touched by bridge or post. This last
arrangement seems to be based on the experiments of
Savart, referred to on page 210 ; the whole contrivance
received good opinions from some high authorities
(including Joachim, Laub, and Becker), but did not
last longer than the generality of such vagaries.
Five-stringed Violins, or rather combinations of
the violin and viola (i.e., tenors with a high E string
added, or violins with a low C string added), are
frequently to be found among the curiosities on a
fiddle-dealer's walls. M. Chanot made many of his
guitar-shaped violins (those compendia of curious
contrivances !) to mount with five strings, the size
being between that of a tenor and a fiddle. About
5o6
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
the year 1840, a German, named Hillmer, introduced
such a combination, and called it the " Violalin," it
was noticed in the "Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung,"
1840, p. 245. He had the audacity to call it an in-
vention, but of course, even if such a thing had not
been made over and over again already, it was only
reverting to the arrangement of the old violas, or viols>
which were
mounted with
five or six
strings.
One Prinz, in
a work written
in 1649, tells us
that Lord So-
merset invented
a violin with
eight strings, to
which he attri-
buted extraor-
dinary advant-
ages. A M.
Urhan played
on such a fiddle
at a concert at
the Parisian
Conservatoire in
1830.
A rather curi-
ous instrument
must have been
the " Violon-
Gdneral," in-
vented by M.
Vincenti, a Flo-
rentine lute-
master, during
the first half of
this century. It
had eighteen
strings, and was
played on with
two bows, and
derived its name
from the fact michael henry collins's echolin (1879).
that, according to M. Vincenti, it combined the effects
of the violin, viola, violoncello, and violono.
A violin was presented to the Academie des
Sciences (also in the first half of this century) by
M. Isoard, the strings of which passed through two
blades. Instead of being played on with a bow, the
strings were vibrated at one end by means of a current
of air, whilst they were stopped by the fingers at the
other. Its tones were said to resemble the French
horn and the bassoon !
Wettengel (in his " Lehrbuch der Geigen und
Bogenmacherkunst," Weimar, 1869), mentions the
Violon-leiwr, invented by the elder Dubois (a Parisian
amateur), the four strings of which were tuned an
octave below those of a violin. The raison d'etre of
this instrument it is difficult to imagine, but as an idea
it is about as original as the Violalin of Herr Hillmer.
It was intended
to supersede
the viola, or act
as an interme-
diary between it
and the violon-
cello.
J.B.Vuillaume
introduced, in
1855, a new
model for the
tenor, which was
much broader
and deeper, and
consequently
more difficult
to play than
that in ordinary
use. These in-
struments were
constructed on
scientific prin-
ciples, so that
the mass of
contained air
should give a
note of 341 "33
vibrations to
the second, giv-
ing the note F,
which is the
right scientific
proportion ac-
cording to the
discoveries of
Felix Savart.
They were tried
at the Brussels
Conservatoire, and their tone was found to be more
like that of a violin, and twice as powerful as that
of an ordinary viola, but they did not come into
universal use for the reasons given above.
Violins with the tipper and lower bouts of the same
size, have been constructed by more than one experi-
mentalist. In 1808, we find a record of such a one,
with the bridge set in the centre; and in 181 1, one
Jean Antoine Hoensel, luthier and chamber musician
to M. le Due de Schcenburg, claimed attention for a
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
5°7
similar one, which he asserted to have been invented
by him in 1801.
In the year 1S00, J. J. Hawkins took out a patent
(No. 2446) for a violin, which had no sides or back,
but only a strong rib running beneath the belly, on
which was set the sound-post, which pressed up on the
belly by means of a spring. We are told that the
the century, produced various triangular fiddles with
arrangements of sympathetic strings for increasing the
sonority of the bowed strings by consonant vibration,
and also a structure with two sets of strings one above
the other, and so far distant as to allow either set to be
played upon by passing the bow between them. Of a
similar nature are the productions of other makers,
FIG. 6l. — WILDE'S NAIL VIOLIN (1740).
PIG. 65.— THE CHANOT VIOLIN (1817). FIG. 62.— THOMAS HOWELL'S VIOLIN (1833)
mere loudness of a fiddle was little impaired by this
ruinous proceeding, though even this is a matter for
considerable doubt ; at any rate, it is acknowledged
that the quality of tone was absolutely destroyed. I(
is said that he committed the vandalism of ruining a
valuable Stradiuarius by the application of his ridi-
culous contrivance. Fiat experimenlum in corpore
vilz, but spare the masterpieces of Cremona.
Mr. Davidson refers to the inventions of one Sin-
clair, a Scotch maker, who, at the commencement of
FIG. 67. — THE CHANOT VIOLIN (1819).
who, having time to experimentalize, have constructed
violins with double strings (like a mandoline), tuned
either in unison or octaves. A few years after the
above was born, another Scottish vagary, which was
a double violin, having one back, belly, and sides, but
two necks, bridges, tail-pieces, and sets of strings; it
has been described as a loud, harsh-toned instrument,
of little or no value, excepting as a curiosity.
In the year 1740, a German musician, named
Johann Wilde, living in St. Petersburg, invented a
y
5o8
VIOLIN-MAKING: AS IT WAS, AND IS.
curious instrument called a Nail-violin (in German,
Nagel-geige, nagel-harmonika, eisenvioline). Its in-
vention seems to have been accidental, for it is
thus described by Mr. Carl Engel : " One evening,
after returning home from a concert, Wilde, in hang-
ing his violin bow on a nail accidentally produced a
tone by drawing the hair of the bow over the metal,
whereupon he conceived the idea of constructing a
musical instrument of nails. And that he has suc-
ceeded in producing a fine-toned, if not a practically
recommendable instrument, will probably be granted
by all who draw the large black-haired bow over the
iron pins. The bow is best made with black hair, for
white hair is softer, and does not ' bite ' so well for
such an iron fiddle. It must also be plentifully sup-
plied with resin to make it bite well." It was held in
the left hand by a hole underneath. Mr. Engel gives
a figure of it, which I reproduce, Fig. 61. In 1780 it
was improved by the addition of sympathetic strings,
when Senal, an artist of Vienna, excelled upon it.
The nails diminish in length as the notes get higher,
and the chromatic nails are slightly bent. In 1791,
one Trager produced an arrangement of it, worked by
keys, called nagel clavier. It is interesting as a
curiosity in the way of bow instruments.
In the South Kensington Museum, and figured and
fully described in the catalogue thereof, is a most
curious violin, made of boxwood, dated 1578. It is of
a queer and cumbrous shape, being in the form of a
wedge, which narrows at the thick end to a sort of
neck, which is formed by a round hole to admit the
hand, the shift being thus rendered impossible. It is
carved all over with various rural and allegorical
scenes, and, as may be supposed, the tone is very poor.
It is described by Hawkins and Burney in their
Histories of Music; the latter describes it as having
no more tone than a mute or violin with a sordine.
" It is said to have been given to the Earl of Leicester
by Queen Elizabeth, and has both their coats of arms
in silver on the finger-board. It is, perhaps, one of the
most interesting fiddles (if it can be so called) in
existence.
In 1835, Thomas Howell took out a patent (No.
694) for a new form of violin, which is represented at
Fig. 62. Its object was, by shortening the upper bouts
and lengthening the finger-board, to facilitate playing in
the upper shifts, and obviating " that inelegance of ac-
tion which is so much complained of, even in the most
expert performers." The back and belly were flat, the
tail-piece glued to the instrument, to be " out of the
way of the chin," and the sound holes reverted to
the form in vogue in the fifteenth century.
In 1S56 a clergyman (the Rev. George Jacque)
took out a patent (No. 1684) for adapting to the violin,
and enclosing within it a series of sympathetic strings,
set obliquely across the interior of the instrument.
They could be taken out, tuned, and replaced by an
opening in the lower bouts. He thought in this way
to increase the sonority of the instrument.
In 1858, one Henry Bell patented a design (No.
2823) for applying a flattened glass cylinder to the
interior of a violin with the same object.
In the same year (No. 2587) John Robertson
patented a device for increasing the tone of violins by
grooving out the soft part of the pine of the belly,
so as to leave only the fibres standing out. He thought
that in this way the vibratory surface would be in-
creased, and the fiddle thereby improved.
In 1866, Henry Bell, the patentee of the last con-
trivance but one, took out another patent (No. 2071)
for increasing and improving the tone of fiddles by
placing in them a sheet of crystal or glass, with a hole
through it to admit the sound-post. It was about as
successful as his first contrivance.
In the year 1879, Michael Henry Collins, an
American, took out an English patent (No. 2118) for
a fiddle, which he termed an Echolin. The body was
quite circular, and inclosed inside a domed case A,
which had a circular hole b in the middle to admit the
bridge, which rested on the circular belly, and was
formed like a violoncello bridge. Space forbids my
going into the theory of this instrument here ; it is
represented in plan by Fig. 63, and in elevation and
in section in Fig. 64. The bass bar was curved
as at C, and the sound-post was replaced by a
heavy mechanism which hung to the left side of the
belly as at D. The neck had a protuberance E corre-
sponding to the shoulder in the ordinary form, and
another opening F for the high shifts. It was held by a
chin rest G, and was fitted with patent pegs, which
are represented in Fig. 65. The diagram explains
itself. The string is tuned by turning A, an ordinary
thumb-piece ; when the string is tuned, the screw c
is turned by the milled head, B presses the plate D
against the cheek of the scroll E, and prevents the peg
from slipping.
Two years later (1879, No. 3022) one Howell
patented a most curious instrument, the strings of
which were set along the side, the neck being formed
by a long hole in the side to admit the hand ; in its
way it was interesting, and especially so to acousti-
cians, who could thus test the results of the vibrations
of the strings being transmitted longitudinally to the
fibres of the wood, instead of vertically. He patented
several modifications of the instrument on the same
principle.
Still more lately (1881, No. 621) E. R. Mollen-
hauer, of New York, obtained protection for a design
for dividing the inside of the fiddle into two chambers,
by means of a fiddle-shaped plank resting on a sup-
VIOLIN-MAKING : AS IT WAS, AND IS.
5°9
plementary side-lining, set round the centre of the
ribs. He claimed by this means to increase the
sonority of the instrument. Comment is needless.
Enough of these minor vagaries. If necessary, I
could fill a thick quarto with them. Such as they are,
they are interesting and beneficial as warnings ; it re-
mains only to notice two intelligent and scientific experi-
ments (I will not insult them by calling them vagaries).
I allude to the guitar-shaped violin of Mr. Francois
Chanot, and the trapezoid violin of M. le Docteur
Felix Savart, to whom the world of violins owes so
much for his valuable and devoted scientific researches
into the forms and qualities of the Cremonese and
other violins.
Guitar-shaped Fiddles have been made in all
countries and all ages, since the invention of the fiddle
proper in the sixteenth century. M. Gallay in his
" Luthiers Italiens," mentions the interesting fact that
M. de Chanot (brother of the naval officer mentioned
below) had once in his hands a violin by Stradivarius,
which was guitar-shaped, and had a flat belly. I have
myself seen such, the work of Peter Walmsley, Ben-
jamin Banks, and other of our native makers. It is
a reversion to mediaevalism, which is, to say the least
of it, feeble and unimportant.
In the year 1832, Carlo Antonio Galbusera, an
Italian officer, exhibited in the Brera Palace at Milan,
a violin of a guitar shape, which he claimed to have
invented, but which was really a reproduction of M.
Chanot's essay. He prepared his wood by chemical
means, by which he claimed to get all the resinous
particles out of it. They were criticised and argued
against by M. Antolini in a pamphlet entitled, " Osser-
vazzione su due Violini espceti nelle sale dell' I R
Palazzo di Brera" (Milan) 1832.
The most celebrated instruments having this form
were the violins of M. Francois Chanot, a French
naval officer, and uncle of M. Georges Chanot, of
Wardour Street, to whom I am indebted for much
valuable aid in the production of this work. M.
Chanot would seem to have commenced with the
same line of scientific consideration as M. Felix
Savart in the construction of his trapezoid violin, to
which I shall presently allude.
These violins were very favourably pronounced
upon by a council of the Academy, appointed to
consider their merits, and, indeed, preferred to a
masterpiece of Cremona with which they were com-
pared— the instruments being alternately played in an
adjoining room by M. Boucher, the eminent violinist.
M. Fetis, on the other hand, stigmatizes them as not
worth ten francs apiece, excepting as curiosities, and
a musical critic in the " Allgemeine Musikalische Zei-
tung," Vol. xxxii., for February, 1820, finds considerable
fault with their tone. However, for a few years they
found a market, being sold at 300 francs each, and in
late years M. Georges Chanot tells me they have
realised ,£10 to collectors. These violins may be seen
at this gentleman's shop in Wardour Street, they are
made in light-coloured wood, and specimens of both
kinds, as represented in Figs. 66 and 67, may be
seen. Their tone is poor and unsatisfactory. Fig.
66 represents the first form in which they were
introduced in 1817 ; it will be observed that the
corners are abandoned, which produces the guitar
shape, the edges do not overlap the sides, but end flush
with them in a rim of ivory, or hard wood, like a guitar.
The sound-holes are openings following the outline, of
the same length as the_/_/ holes of the ordinary form,
but following the curvature of the sides (to which they
are set rather close), they take the form of a segment
of a circle. The reason assigned for this was that in
cutting the ordinary/ form, a large number of fibres
had to be cut through, and were therefore no longer
affected by the vibrations of the bridge. The new
form claimed the merit of reducing these cut fibres to
a minimum, and of producing a maximum of long
fibres. It had been determined by experiment that
the low notes of a fiddle were principally produced by
the long fibres, and the high notes by the short fibres
(and it is on this principle that the sound-post, by
pressing upon the belly against the bridge divides the
violin into two sets of short fibres on the side on
which the high notes are produced, whilst on the other
side, on which the low notes are produced, the fibres
are intact throughout the length of the instrument).
For when the fibres under the low strings were
similarly divided (by shifting the sound-post to the
left foot of the bridge), the low notes lost all their
power. M. Chanot claimed for his violin the merit,
therefore, of having more long fibres to produce the
low notes, and more short ones to produce the high
ones. The bass bar is set as in Savart's fiddle, down
the exact centre on the join of the belly. Close to the
tail-pin will be seen a screw, which, passing through
the tail-piece and pressing on the belly, enabled the
tail-piece to be raised, so as to lessen the angle
formed by the strings passing over the bridge, and
lessen the pressure on the belly at this point. A simi-
lar contrivance to this was patented in England by
one Claggett, in 1788. Passing through the back of
the fiddle was a screw, which, acting on the sound-
post, enabled the 'pressure of this latter, against the
belly, to be regulated at will. M. Chanot at first pro-
posed to place frets upon the finger-board, but aban-
doned this design on the suggestion of the Council.
Two years later (in 1819), M. Chanot discarded,
in Fig. 67, the tail-piece and tail-pin, and the strings
were fastened by pins to two plates of wood, one glued
outside and the other inside the belly, like the string
Sio
THE MANUFACTURE OF NUTS FOR MODEL ENGINES.
attachment of a guitar. The bar was removed from
the centre join, shaped like an arc, the centre of which
was under the left foot of the bridge, and whose ends
approached the centre join. The sound-post was set
in front of instead of behind the bridge. The volute
of the scroll was turned back instead of forward, as
is usual, to give greater facility in manipulating the
ends of the strings inside the peg-box. His memorial
on the subject was read to the Academie des Sciences
on the 24th of May, 1817.
A full description of it may be found in the
" Description des Machines et Proce'de's Specific's dans
les Brevets d'Invention," Tome xv., p. 161 : Paris, 1828.
And a report of its trial before the Council of the
Academy may be found in the " Moniteur Universel,"
22 Aout, 1817.
{To be continued.)
THE MANUFACTURE OF NUTS FOR MODEL
ENGINES.
By JAMES FERNLEY.
N all probability, like myself, many an
amateur has been greatly troubled about
the making of small nuts and bolt heads
for their model engines. There is nothing
that makes a model look so nice as care-
fully-made nuts and bolts ; but a model, otherwise well
and carefully made, is quite spoilt in appearance by the
nuts being badly finished and out of shape. I will
in this short paper do my best to help any amateur
model- engine maker out of his difficulty by showing
ones round iron is used. The wire or iron, as the
case may be, is cut into lengths of about 4 inches, and
must be well straightened if at all bent in cutting.
In Fig. 1 is shown a drill chuck of the ordinary
pattern, that I generally use for making these small
nuts. A is the body of
chuck ; B is a collet
that is fitted in to the
body, and then drilled
to take different sizes of
wire ; C is the set screw,
which springs the collet
upon the work and holds
it secure. In the end
view it will be seen
that the collet is sawn
through to the centre,
this allows of a certain
amount of spring, which
is necessary in order to
clamp the work.
Having given a de-
tailed description of the
chuck, I will now pro-
ceed with the method of making the nuts.
Take a 4-inch length of wire, straighten and file it
up to a hexagon, draw file it, and polish lengthwise
with emery cloth.
Now place it in the chuck, letting it project about
f fhs of an inch, set the lathe going, and bring up the
cutting centre to the work. This will give a centre
for the drill to start in. Drill as deeply as possible,
say i inch, with drill of proper size to allow for tap-
ping ; then, with a tap of proper size, cut the thread
fig. 2.—
bevelling
edge of nut.
FIG. I. — DRILL CHUCK FOR MAKING SMALL NUTS.
the various plans I have made use of in fashioning
these nuts. Some of these plans, perhaps, will be
old to some of my readers, but I am inclined to
think that a description of them will help many who
are just beginning this kind of work.
For small nuts, as used in models, iron wire of
suitable diameter is the most handy material, for larger
for a depth a little more than that of the nut when
finished.
Now bevel off the edge A in Fig. 2, this will be the
top of nut, and cut off to proper size, taking care that
the cut adjoining the finished nut is at right angles to
the wire. The nut is now finished ; the wire should
be brought out fths of an inch as at starting, and the
THE MANUFACTURE OF NUTS FOR MODEL ENGINES.
5"
same performance gone
through ; if the hole is not
deep enough for another
nut it will form a centre for
starting the drill, so that
once started the nuts are
quickly made.
In Fig. 3 is shown
another method I have often
made use of. Get a piece
of stout sheet metal, mark
off a hexagon. At each
angle, and also in the
centre, drill and tap holes
same size as the nuts are
to be, screw into each hole
a stud and rivet over on the
underside, letting it project
above the plate enough to
n
i
A
B B
A
£3
jfi.
FIG. 4. — CONTRIVANCE FOR CUTTING NUTS WITH
CIRCULAR CUTTERS ON MANDREL.
M
.'
=sA
<\
V
ra
SL
t==
/
b rrh
n_
loo 0]
tPrHiEP
W~pti^
1
FIG. 5. — DIAGRAM
SHOWING METHOD
OF CUTTING NUTS
BY AID OF CUTTING
FRAME, ETC.
I
take two nuts. The plate
will now have the appear-
ance of Fig. 3, which
shows the nuts in place.
Screw into these studs
your roughly-shaped nuts,
taking care to screw up
tight to prevent shifting,
and when all are screwed
on proceed to file them up.
It will easily be seen that
each nut forms a guide for
the file, and if you are
careful to file all equal, they
will be perfectly hexagonal.
H shows the file in position
in the sides e, f, g.
It is not advisable to put
more than two nuts on
each stud, as the pressure
of the file would most
I I
M.
1 1
O W ~ C7 O
FIC 3.— MANUFACTURE OF STUDS WITH ULE IN PIECE OF PIERCED SHEET 1
SI2
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL HARMONIUM.
likely bend them, and so cause the nuts to be out of
shape.
The next method I am now going to describe
will require some more costly tools, but the work done
in that manner is more accurate, and it will amply
repay the amateur for the little trouble it costs him to
make one. It will be as well to make the mandrel A,
Fig. 4, rather stout, as it works steadier. I have
made the drawings to scale, half full size, so that they
may be used as working drawings, b b are two
circular cutters that slide on mandrel A, they are
separated by washers c — washers of different sizes, of
course, being used for each size of nut to be made.
The cutters and washer are firmly locked against the
collar H by a f-inch nut, D. E is a hexagonal man-
drel, made of a piece of |-inch hexagon steel, about
5-inch long. A f-inch hole is tapped in the end, into
which must be screwed the holders for nuts, these
being brought up to the cutters by the cross feed of
the slide-rest. When the first cut is taken the man-
drel E should be turned round to rest on the adjoin-
ing face, and another cut taken. It is necessary that
the centre of the mandrel E should come exactly
between the two cutters ; and to save the trouble of
having to adjust it for each fresh cut, I screw two
small pins in the top of the slide-rest for the edge of
the mandrel to bear against, as shown at F and G.
For shaping a number of nuts at a time, the fol-
lowing is the method I generally adopt : The roughly-
formed pieces of metal that are to be accurately
shaped are first drilled and tapped, and then slipped
on a mandrel made as per sketch, in which a b
represents the mandrel. A thread is cut on it the
whole length, then the centre part of the thread is
turned off. A nut is first slipped on it at A, then the
rest are screwed over the threaded portion at B, and
slipped along to A. When full, a nut at B secures the
lot. This mandrel is put between the centres of the
lathe, and a few light cuts are taken along the whole
length with a flat edged cutter. The division plate is
then moved round Jth of a revolution, and another cut
taken. When the six sides are finished they are taken
off and another lot done. They are finished by bevelling
off the top edge and turning the underneath side flat.
If the mandrel be long or extra slender, it will be
found necessary to put some packing behind, or else
the pressure of the cutter against the work at the
centre would cause it to bend, and thus spoil it.
For Fig. 5 I think but little explanation will be
required. The partly-shaped nut is placed in the
chuck, as shown at a. The cutters are then brought
up to it, and a cut taken ; the division plate is then
moved round fcth of a revolution and another cut
taken, then one more cut and the nut is finished.
It will be seen that there are two cutters, b and c ;
if only one was used it might unscrew the nut, but
the addition of an extra cutter prevents this. The
nut may now be bevelled off on the front edge, and
then turned and faced off underneath. This will be
found a very handy method for those possessing a
cutter frame.
Before bringing my remarks to a conclusion, I beg
to say that I have tried all the methods that I have
described above, and found them to answer well. If
there is anything else in model-engine making about
which any reader of this paper may find himself in
difficulty, if he will kindly let me know, I will, with
the Editor's permission, do my best to help him.
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL HARMONIUM.
By THOMAS MAIN,
♦■
II. — The Interior of the Instrument.
HE foot-boards may be made of one inch
deal, hinged on the underside of the
front edge to the foundation-board
already mentioned, and connected from
the top by a cord to the lever arm, which
is fixed into an axle working on centres in two up-
rights placed at the front and back of the inside of the
case. Another arm extends from the other side of
this axle immediately under the centre of the feeder,
to which it is connected by a short lug. The general
view in Part 8 will, I think, sufficiently explain this,
the axle there being shown in section only. The
foot-boards should have a ledge of j inch stuff on the
front edge, and they may be covered with a piece of
carpet to make them look neat.
The reservoir having been completed, should now
be fastened with glue to the reservoir-board, which has
previously been referred to. This board lays on the top
of the two wind trunks, which should have a strip of
leather run all round the top edges to make all air-tight.
The holes in the reservoir-board over the wind-
trunks must be covered with leather valves to open
upwards, made in a similar manner to those in the
feeders. These valves are to prevent the return of
the wind after it has been pumped into the wind-chest.
A small hole, 4 inches long and 1 inch wide, is cut in
the centre of the reservoir-board to let the wind into
the reservoir, and if this is covered with a wood valve
lined with leather, so that it may be closed by pulling
out a stop knob, you will then have the stop termed
" Expression," but if you do not wish for this stop —
which is rather difficult to manage, and causes the
breakage of many reeds by over-blowing — you will not
require any valve over the hole, but may, if you like,
make it rather smaller, and cut two more holes, one
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL HARMONIUM.
513
each side of the centre one, and about equidistant
from that and the ends of the reservoir, as shown in
Fig. 9. To form the wind-chest take some \ inch pine,
I inch wide, and glue it all round the top of the reser-
voir-board fair with edge of it at the sides, but 2 inches
in from the ends, and plane it level all round, thus
forming a shallow box J inch deep. Now to see if
your bellows answer, lay a strip of leather all round
the edge of the wind-chest, and screw a \ inch board
tightly down on it and glue some paper all round the
joints to prevent any escape of air, and when dry. fit it
into the case, placing a couple of long wedges under
the cheeks to hold the reservoir-board firmly, and a
screw or two through each end of the bellows board
into the ledges. Press the foot-boards gently and fill
the reservoir, but don't overdo it, and then if your
bellows is sound and the valves act all right, the reser-
voir will take some minutes to empty itself. This
board is only used to test the bellows and does not
form a part of the instrument. It may seem to
amateurs that there should be no escape whatever,
and that the reservoir would, therefore, keep full, but
it is utterly impossible to make the bellows entirely
without leakage.
The pan, or sound-board, as I term it, will next
occupy our attention. Take the beech plank (that re-
ferred to in the last article) which is to be 2 feet 7
inches long, 6 inches wide, i-j inch thick at the bass end,
and tapering off to | inch thick at the treble end.
Plane this very truly on both sides, for it must not be
touched with the plane after the subsequent operations.
Take the width of the row of keys — which will be
about 2 feet 5j inches — and mark it on the sound-
board, leaving 1 inch at the bass end and \ inch at the
treble end ; divide the 2 feet 5! inches into 54 equal
parts, and the lines thus made will be the centres of the
mortises, which are set out as follows : — At a distance
of \\ inch from the back edge of the board draw a
straight line all along it ; at the bass end set off ii
inch from that line on the first of the cross marks ; at
the treble end set off £ inch on the last cross mark,
and join it by a sloping line to the bottom of the in-
line, you will thus get the lengths of all the mortises.
Then mark the widths of the mortises, which should
be j inch wide at the bass and diminishing to 5- inch
at the treble, cut the mortises right through the sound-
board and clear them out nice and smooth, those in
the bass may be cut back on the underside as shown
by the dotted line in Fig. 8. Cover the top of the
board with a piece of stout veneer — sycamore being
the best — which should be glued and clamped tightly
down, and, when thoroughly dry, the pallet-holes may
be cut through it, those at the bass end being 1 inch long
and rather more than £ inch wide and gradually dimi-
nishing in size up to the treble. You can mark these
out in the same way as the mortises. Having done
this, take some i inch beech, or pine, 2 inches wide,
and box round the edges of the sound-board fair on top
side, the boxing projecting on the underside only. Now
get out a bar of beech 1 inch square and 2 feet 6 inches
long, and glue it down on the top of the sound-board
so that the centre of it is i\ inches from the centre of
the pallet-holes. Run a deep gauge mark all down
the centre of the top of this bar to receive the centre
wire on which the pallet levers work. Cut out 54
grooves in the bar in a line with the pallet-holes ; this
may be done by tying two small tenon saws together.
Now make the pallets and levers, as in Fig. 8, the
levers being made first and bored through the centre
with a fine bradawl, or drill. The hole in the end to
receive the long thin screw can be best made by
screwing the lever lightly into a vice, and the screw
can also then be inserted without danger of splitting
the wood. The pallets themselves are made large
enough to cover the holes well, and are tapered off at
the top as shown. They are covered with soft
leather on the underside, and whiting should be well
rubbed into the leather with a little block of wood. In
gluing the pallets on to the levers some place a piece
of stout soft leather between the lever and the pallet.
String the levers on to the centre wire, put them into
the proper grooves and press the centre wire down
into the gauge mark, then glue a piece of wood \ inch
thick on each end of the bar, with a hole in it level
with the gauge mark to receive the ends of the centre
wire, which may be drawn out from either end if re-
quired at any future time. Just at the back of the
pallets fasten a strip of wood just thick enough to be
level with the tops of the levers ; this is to fasten the
pallet springs in. The springs are made of tolerably
stout piano wire, bent into the form shown in the
sketch, the front end being turned up to run in a
gauge mark on the top of the lever, the back end
turned down and fixed into the strip of wood above
referred to ; a small screw being inserted close behind
it, so that the head holds the wire well down, or a
small loop may be made in the end of the spring
and the screw passes through that. It may be
of service to others if I mention a plan for entirely
dispensing with these steel springs, which I put into
practice myself, as I was unable to procure good
spring wire. I bent some pieces of wire thus |, and
inserted one between every pallet lever, just behind
the centre bar. I then procured from the drapers 2%
yards of covered elastic band that would stretch well,
and, having made a loop at one end, I slipped it over
the first wire crook then over the first pallet lever,
under the next crook, and over the next lever, and so
on all through. This plan is simple and answers well;
and as I have had my harmonium in constant use for
5i4
HOW TO BUILD A SMALL HARMONIUM.
over two years, and it is still in good order, I think
there is no doubt about its durability. When the
elastic does wear out it can be renewed with very
little trouble, and at a cost of only a few pence.
The band should be \ inch wide, and contain at
least 6 strands of elastic.
The vibrators may now
be screwed on to the
underside of the sound-
board in the position
shown in Fig. 8, and the
sound-board may then
be considered complete.
It should be hung by a
peg through each end,
which is made to project
3 inches for that purpose,
the peg running into the
cheek blocks, so that
the sound-board may be
turned down as on a
hinge, and lay flat on the
wind-chest. Make a
little roll of cloth, cover
fasten it all round the
board, and then fix two
and two eyes in
sound-board is turned down on to the wind-chest,
fig. 9.— section of upper portion. Scale, | in. to foot.
\, Bellows Board ; B, Reservoir Board ; C, Wind-trunks, with
Valves at top ; D, Reservoir ; E, Expression Valve ;
F, Sound-board : G, Pallet Levers and Rails ; H, Roll of
Cloth on Edge of Sound-board ; K, Folding Side to Case ;
L, Wedges to Secure Reservoir Board.
it with soft leather, and
underside of the sound-
iron hooks in the side
the wind-chest, so that when the
proper keys, so that when the key is pressed down it
opens the pallet belonging to that note.
A folding lid should be made to the case, and
hinged at the back edge so that it may be turned right
back if required to get at the interior of the instrument.
Finish off the case in any
style you may fancy, and
your harmonium will be
completed. If the case is
made of mahogany, all
that need be done is to
French polish the ex-
terior, but if it be made of
pine, it should be stained
and varnished, or ebonised
according to the instruc-
tions that have been al-
ready given for the per-
formance of this kind of
ornamental work in
special papers on the sub-
ject that have appeared in
this magazine.
In making my farewell bow, I have only to wish
every amateur success in his work, and much enjoy-
ment from playing the instrument when completed.
It is far easier to make than even the smallest kind of
chamber organ, for the labour of making is consider-
B a
FIG. 8. — SECTIONAL VIEW OF BASS END OF SOUND- BOARD OR PAN. Half full size.
A, Vibrator ; B, Screws by which Vibrators are fixed ; C, Mortise ; D, Sound-board ; E, Beech Boxing round Sound-board ;
F, Pallet ; G, Pallet Lever ; H, Pallet Lever-rail ; K, Spring Rail ; L, Spring ; M, Wire Crook ; N, Elastic Band in lieu of
Steel Spring ; O, Screw on which Key rests ; P, Veneer ; Q, Roll of Cloth.
and the hooks fastened into the eyes, there can
be no escape of wind from the wind-chest except
through the vibrators and pallet-holes. The key-
board will, I assume, be purchased either new or
second-hand. When it is placed in position the screws
in the ends of the levers should come under the
ably abridged by the substitution of reeds for pipes for
the production of the notes. In this respect, but per-
haps in this respect only, harmonium building seems
to me to offer more attractions to the amateur than
organ building, especially if he have but little time to
spend on pursuits of this nature.
HOME-MADE TOOLS FOE BOOKBINDING.
5*5
HOME-MADE TOOLS FOR BOOKBINDING.
By AX AMATEUR BOOKBINDER.
AM a regular reader of Amateur Work,
Illustrated. Many little things in my
home, if seen by those who read this
publication, would elicit the expression,
" Oh, I see where he got his idea."
And amongst the self-help papers that have appeared
in this Magazine, all of which have interested
me, those on the art and practice of Book-
binding are especially welcome.
Many volumes, such as Band of Hope,
Chatterbox, Children's Friend, Countries of the
World, and others (some in bought cases, Coun-
tries of the World, being quite smart) are now
on our shelves, which would never have been
there if all of them had had to go to the
bookbinder to have been done and paid for.
Commerce here does not admit of a multitude
all themselves, but say they must have had some help
from a practised hand, which remarks do not dis-
please them.
Some few years ago I visited an old-fashioned
bookbinder's home, and I saw one apparatus they
used, on which to sew the parts together, another in
which they were tightly pressing the parts together,
and where they made saw-cuts for the stitches, etc.,
hammered the back, cut the edges — I think they called
fig. 1. — sewing STAND. Scale, i\ inches to the foot.
it a press ; another they called a
plough, which they used in conjunction
with the press to cut the front, the top,
and bottom of the books. I kept
these all in my eye, and many a long
month afterwards I set to work to
make copies of them, on a smaller
scale, for home use.
FIG. 3. — PLOUGH AND CUTTING-KNIFE.
of extras, so we, for the olive
branches help, try to be self-helpers
where we can.
I have said this because the valu-
able instructions given in the papers
on Bookbinding seemed to me, in
tool expenses, rather calculated to
damp the zeal of a beginner. The
work-tub costs £■$ 1 5s. : now I ac-
knowledge I should very much like
to have such an one, but £3 15s.
would bind a lot of books ; and then there are so
many other things I should also like to have beside
this tub, that, whilst I try to describe our " set out," I
must beg the writer of "Bookbinding for Amateurs" not
to be severe in his opinion of the machinery, which
we made for almost as few pence as a profession-
ally-made one costs shillings. Neither should I
expect other than that in viewing our books his
experienced eye would detect that some green
hand had been at work, although very many who
see them scarcely believe the lads have done them
fig. 2. — PRESS.
Sea'e, \\ inches to foot.
Now I leave out of this paper all description of the
modus operandi of bookbinding, for the papers I have
spoken of are by far the best I have seen in print, and
I must confess I envy the author of them the apparer.t
ease with which he writes, and the lucid and accurate
distinctness with which he details what is necessary
to procure a satisfactory success. Yet I hope, as I
try to describe our tools, I may induce some of my
readers to make an improvement upon them, for that
can be done with but a fractional increase in cost,
and then to bind many a volume neatly for themselves
Y 2
5i6
HOME-MADE TOOLS FOR BOOKBINDING.
and be as pleased with the results as we at home are
with ours, for it has kept the boys many an hour out
of the streets.
First, then, we were given to understand that our
performances " were to make no mess in the house,"
we were to have it all so that it could be conveniently
packed away. We looked about for a box. The
nearest in size we could find was one smaller than we
could have wished for, being only 20 inches long, 10
deep, and 10 wide — in fact, a spare box that had come
with goods packed in it. " Oh, father," said one lad,
" the lid will make the bottom for a stand to sew the
parts together on (see Fig. 1), but how can you make
the uprights which have a thread and a nut on them
to carry the top bar?" " And then," said the other,
" the lid will soon split." " Wait a bit," I replied ; " go
and get two bed-screws, as long as you can get them;
under 10 inches, or they will be too long to go into the
box, and let them have flat heads." Off he went, and
brought home two, 8 inches long, long enough, he said
for the thickness of any book we should want to bind.
Now to fix them ! make the holes A, A, just far enough
from the ends of the lid (ours are ih inches from the
ends and the same from the side), so that when it is
turned upside down these uprights marked B in Fig. I
will go inside the box, the stand will act as a lid again
and cover all up ; two battens, marked E, each having
at one end a depression cut to receive the heads of the
bed-screws and of sufficient length to reach across the
lid, were then securely screwed on to either end, so
that the bed-screw passing through the hole in the lid a
just large enough to admit it, had its head pressed
firmly against it by the batten E, and so stood up
straight and firm. Now for the bar marked D, apiece
of wood £ inch thick and 1 i wide, and just long enough
to go into the box (from end to end), had two holes,
the size of the upright screws B, burned in them (to
prevent splitting), and at such distances from either
end as to slide freely up and down upon the uprights ;
between these two holes we cut away the wood to a
little over | an inch, rounded it up, and sand-papered
to make it neat. This bar D rests upon the nuts C
(supplied with the screws), and therefore is adjustable
to any height required ; a slit, H, was then cut about
1 1 inches long and j inch wide between the two up-
rights and directly under the bar D. Our stand was
then complete, as shown in Fig. 1., with the battens
acting as feet when standing on the table.
The Press. — I have said my box was 20 inches
long, 10 wide, and 10 deep. On either end we
nailed, on the inside, a batten, A (Fig. 2), 2 inches
thick and long enough to reach from the front to the
back, and 3 inches below the top of the box. Next,
two pieces of ash long enough to reach from end to
end inside the box, marked B, each piece being
3 inches in depth and i-J inch thick (or wide), were
placed loose upon the battens inside the box. These
are, therefore, exactly level with the top of the box,
and slide from front to back of it as required. Two
8-in. bed-screws, C, C, were got long enough to reach
through the front of the box and also through the two
ash bars. The bars being then held firmly against
the front of the box, a centre-bit, slightly larger
than the thickness of the bed-screws, was used to cut
a hole right through the lot, and being cut in a perfectly
straight line parallel with the end of the box and
1 J inch from the inside end, and the same from the top
and also the bottom of the bars, D, D, a bed-screw was
then passed through all, a wider space, e, being counter-
sunk to allow for the head. The other end of the bars
being treated similarly, and the other bed-screw being
also inserted ; then the nuts being placed on the ends
of the screws, C, C, projecting through the front at D, D,
a common screw-wrench (or a bed-key would do)
being used, any amount of pressure could be secured
by simply tightening the nuts. Now for its faults : —
The width of these bars in our press is such that when
great pressure is put on them they spring slightly in
the centre, which is awkward, when cutting the edges
of a book ; stouter cutting and also stouter backing-
boards make up for this defect ; but if any amateur
makes one, I advise that for bars, short as these are,
they should be as stout and as strong again. The
repeated tightening of the nuts against the front of the
box chafe and cut it. This should be plated with a
piece of metal or two good washers used between the
nut and front of the box. Here let me say, both my
backing and cutting-boards are made the entire length
of the box, but the ends are cut away to allow them to
pass between the screws at either end, whilst the piece
left projecting prevents them falling down into the
bottom of the box if let fall from the hand, or other-
wise left loose.
The Plough and Cutting-knife. — For these we first
obtained a piece of pine 12 inches long, 1^ inches
thick, and 7 inches wide ; this we cut into three
lengths, one 6 inches, A, and two others, B, c, 3 inches
each. The three were then held securely together, the
6-inch piece of course projecting 3 inches below the
other two ; then from the centre of the front 3-inch piece,
viz. c, we cut a f inch hole perfectly straight and com-
pletely through the three pieces, A, B, c. A rod of
•f inch iron, E, E, about thirteen inches long, was next
got, having a good stout thread cut on it (ours is
about ten threads to the inch) and a good, strong,
square nut made to fit it. Taking the 6-inch piece of
wood, A, and one of the 3-inch, B, we cut the wood
away around the hole in the 6-inch piece, into a square
depression, the depth and width of the nut taken off
the iron rod — the nut just fitting tightly into the hole
ELECTRIC BELLS.
5i7
in A. The 3-inch piece, B, was strongly fastened by
screws over the face of the nut, so that it was held
immovably between these two pieces, A, B, and yet so
that the iron rod could be screwed into and through
the two woods and enclosed nut. The ends of the rod
having been previously tapered, or drawn, two chisel-
handles were got, and one securely knocked on to each
end of the rod. I should have said the remaining
3-inch piece, C, had had the hole in it slightly enlarged
so as to slide easily over the threaded part of the rod,
E, and it was put on so as to fall against the correspond-
ing piece, B, and then the handle was knocked on.
These placed upon the top of the bars in the press
would slide from end to end of the box and level with
its surface — whatever the width between the opening
in the bars might be — the 6-inch piece having its extra
3 inches hanging over and behind the bar furthest
from the front, therefore by turning the handles on the
rod, the front part, C, that carries the cutting-knife is
compelled to travel towards the block B until they
met. Let me now describe my cutting-tool and the
means taken to make it travel straight and steadily
when in use. A ^-inch joiner's chisel was taken, and
at about 2I inches from its cutting end it was welded
in T form to a piece of bar-iron 4 inches long and 1 1 inch
wide. In this iron four holes were punched and care-
fully countersunk so that four ordinary wood-screws
should secure it to the bottom part of the loose block C,
a suitable piece being cut out of the bottom part of
the block to admit the upper part of the T, the
cutting edge of which, therefore, pointed directly and
straight to the opposing part containing the nut. I
found it necessary to grind off the square points at the
end of the cutting-tool, making the end of the chisel a
somewhat blunt V in shape, each side of which, as well
as the point itself must be kept as sharp as possible.
I think the reader will understand how this knife will
cut, as it is passed from end to end of the press, and
how, after every cut either backward or forward, he
can draw the point nearer to block B, and make another
and further cut. Yet to insure the knife keeping its
position correctly, he will find it absolutely necessary
to keep the two parts, B and C, directly opposite
to each other when they are in motion ; to do this,
two pieces of rod iron 12 inches long and about
I inch thick, having one end of each drawn out, must
be procured, and the drawn end carefully driven into
block c, half-way between the screwed rod having the
handles on, and the end, or edge of the block. These
must be made perfectly straight and equally firm
(perhaps to screw them into the block would be a
better way) — but fast they must be — as they must
slide through holes in the blocks, A and B, that cor-
respond in position with those in which the guides are
a fixture in c. These rods will be found to make the
two parts travel as if the whole were one solid piece,
and will ensure the knife making a level, clean, and
even cut, if properly sharpened. This plough will
be found to go into the box behind the press bars,
and so be safe when not in use.
I only hope my inexperienced manner of putting
into print what I have tried and succeeded in doing
may induce others to try to help themselves. Then I
shall indeed be well repaid, for I anticipate getting
many a wrinkle myself from the papers on Book-
binding that are now being written for us. For my
part, I fear I shall be held in light esteem by the
writer, but, as regards his evident professional know-
ledge, I do not know from what other source other
than Amateur Work we could obtain such a share
of it as he is good enough to place at our disposal.
ELECTRIC BELLS.
By GEORGE EDWINSON.
V.— Pushes, Switches, and Keys.
E now enter into a part of the work in
which the amateur wood-turner and
carver may show his skill, and find a
pleasurable occupation, whilst the ama-
teur worker in metal may emulate his
brother artist in making the articles out of that
material.
The woods in general use for making pushes are
those of ebony, walnut, rosewood, oak, zebrawood,
boxwood, satinwood, maple, pitch pine, cocus, ma-
hogany, sycamore, and poplar ; when the two last are
used, they are also ebonised, or stained black to imi-
tate ebony, or they are polished and varnished. The
first four woods make handsome pushes, and admit
of gold being used to enhance the richness of carving.
Mahogany, and sometimes teak, is used in making the
bases of key and switch-boards, and also for pushes
where required to match the furniture or other fittings
of a room.
When the ornamental parts of a push are made of
metal, it is necessary to have the working parts
inserted in an insulating substance, and for this pur-
pose the material known as ebonite is used ; hard-
baked wood is also sometimes used for the same pur-
pose. Pear, or rose pressels are usually made of cocus,
ebony, maple, satinwood, or rosewood, and are
ornamented to present a handsome appearance as
they hang from the ceiling, or by the bedside. Ivory
and tortoise-shell may be employed in the construc-
tion of those pressels, if so desired, and ivory or bone
is in general use for making the press button itself
in all pushes.
Some few years since, a substance named " cellu-
<i8
ELECTRIC BELLS.
FIG. 60.— SECTION OF BOX
COMMUNICATOR.
FIG. 59. —INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT OF
BELL PULL.
FIG. 58.— BED
PULL.
FIG. 57. — PEAR PRESSEL
(Section).
ELECTRIC BELLS.
5i9
**<>,
u
L©^ I ^
<s o
^3
FIG. 6q. — TAPPER EEY
FIG. 62. — PULL FOR ELECTRIC
BELL.
SJffl IM11 f[q. 61. — DIAGRAM SHOW-
ING HOW TO WORK TWO DOOR BELLS WITH ONE
BATTERY. A, Tradesman's Bell and Pull ;
B, Visitor's Bell and Pull.
x<l
~
FIG. 6.| . — SECTIONAL PLAN
OF KEY.
FROM BATTERY
FIG. -72. — SPRING SWITCH.
FIG. 65. — ONE-WAY SWITCH.
FIG. 73.— SPRING BRASS IN
ELEVATION.
FIG. £7.— TWO-WAY SWITCH.
CF3 H
FIG. 71. — DIAGRAM ILLUS-
TRATING METHOD OF WORK-
ING. TWO DISTANT BELLS
OVER ONE LINE.
0~
COURSE Of CURRENT THROUCH THE EARTH
BATTERY LINE
FIG. 74. — ARRANGEMENT FOR WORKING TWO
DISTANT BELLS WITH ONE BATTERY.
FIG. 68.— PLAN OF IMPROVED
TWO-WAY SWITCH.
COURSE OF CURRENT THROUCH THE EARTH
520
ELECTRIC BELLS.
loid" promised to be of great service in the manufac-
ture of pushes, pressels, and bases of electrical
instruments. It is capable of being coloured to any
tint, moulded and turned to any shape ; and will
receive gilding or any other ornamentation easily. It
also has the advantage of being a bad conductor of
electricity, but unfortunately it proved to be a too
rapid conductor of heat or fire when a flame was made
to touch it, and, unless this tendency to quickly
inflame has been overcome by the makers since I
tested a sample or two in 1880, I cannot recommend
it for pushes and pressels.
Another substance named "insulite" is just now
before the public, promising great things ; but I am
informed that it has the defect of becoming very soft
at a moderate temperature, and is not dense enough
to hold small screws.
Porcelain, and also glass, has been largely employ-
ed in the manufacture of pushes, some beautiful
effects being produced by a glass crystal let into the
cover of an ebony and gold push box, with a gilded
press button passing through a hole in the centre.
Where porcelain and glass is used, they should not
be fitted direct into wood, but be held thereto in a
metal rim or socket cemented to them, as wood is apt
to expand or contract with variations of temperature,
and injure the other materials.
The leading type or form of all push boxes is
shown in Figs. 42, 43, 44, of which Fig. 42 shows
interior of push box, Fig. 43 the cover of the box,
and Fig. 44 the press button. The sketch represents
a common 3-inch push box, but boxes are made in
various sizes, 2, 2 J, 3, 3J, or 4 inches in diameter,
to suit their intended positions and requirements.
Readers who are apt at wood turning will find no
difficulty in turning out one of those boxes, and others
who have an aptitude for wood carving will find room
here for the exercise of their skill, as any quantity and
the best quality of carving may be shown to advan-
tage on a push box. Nor need the fret-worker be left
out in this work ; that there is room for the exercise of
his art may be seen from the accompanying sketches
of fret-work, and carved bell pushes, Figs. 49 to 55.
The ornamentation may even be carried still further
by the application of gold and silver leaf to the outer
and ornamental environments of the push box, and a
crystal or stone set in the press button. Readers with
humble tastes and means may even improvise a push
box out of one of the wooden boxes in which tooth
powders is sold, and a little ingenuity exercised on
one of these may turn out a respectable little electric
bell push. When the box is ready it must be fitted up
with the internal machinery, for it is only a case to
hold the works. The plan of their arrangement is
shown at Fig. 45, whilst Fig. 46 gives a sectional dia-
gram of the same, and Figs. 47 and 48 the working
parts. The parts shown in Figs. 47, 48, are cut out of
ordinary hard hammered sheet brass to the shape
shown. Fig. 47 represents the bottom contact piece,
and this must have a speck of platinum soldered or
in some other way attached to the part represented
by the black dot. Fig. 48 shows the shape of the
under side of upper contact piece, and this must
also have a speck of platinum attached to it. This
piece of brass must be bent and twisted to form a
spring supporting the press button, as shown in Fig.
46, and when thus placed, the speck of platinum on
its under side should touch the speck of platinum on
the lower contact piece when the press button pushes
it down. Ordinary sheet brass, or sheet copper, not
hammered hard, would not spring back after being
pressed down, and it would not do to place a spiral
spring between the two pieces, for this spring
would always maintain an electric communication
between the two parts, and thus defeat our object,
which is to break the circuit, and keep it broken,
until, by pressing the button, we close it. We
must therefore see to it in fitting up a push box, that
these parts are kept properly apart, and not acci-
dentally connected at the bottom of the box ; a bit of
spiral spring may, however, be held between the foot
of press button and top of contact spring, to keep up
the press button. The dotted lines in Fig. 45 show
the position of the wires, and the dotted circle shows
the part covered by the foot of press button.
It is frequently convenient to have the push hang-
ing at the end of a flexible cord, as in the tasselled
bell-pull of the old system. The push box is then
made in the form of a pear, as shown in elevation in
Fig. 56, and in section in Fig. 57 ; from this it
will be seen that the internal fittings and arrange-
ments are similar to those in the ordinary push, but
on a smaller scale. The cord to be used with the
pear pressels, contains two copper wires insulated
from each other, the ends of those wires must be
bared, the cord passed through the hole in the pressel
case, the wires bent to right and left at the bottom of
the cavity, and secured in position, one under the
lower, and the other under the foot of the upper con-
tact piece. The two wires at the opposite end of the
cord must also be bared, and united to the two branch
lines of the bell circuit. This is sometimes done in,
or near the ceiling, or in some other equally con-
spicuous part of the room ; the branch wires must
therefore be brought through two holes in an orna-
mental rosette of wood, furnished with a centre piece
made to screw on like the cover of a push box, the
cord must pass through a hole in the centre-piece, and
this piece screwed on to the rosette after the wires
have been joined.
ELECTRIC BELLS.
S2i
Messrs. Gent and Co., of Leicester, sell a set con-
taining a pear pressel, a rosette, and six feet of the
flexible cord, for 7s. 6d. The flexible cord alone,
covered with silk in any colour to match the furniture,
is sold by them, and by most other dealers in electric
bells, from 4d. to ad. per yard, according to thickness
and quality. A glance at the figure will show that the
pear pressel may be covered with silk fringe to imitate
the tasselled bell-pull if desired. I may also mention
as a suggestion before I leave the subject of pushes,
that these handy little contrivances may be made to
be fixed in the floor, under a desk and be pressed
down with the foot, or the press button may be
attached to a light platform of metal and covered with
a carpjet, or hid in the seat of a chair, and in many
other ways do duty as detectors or alarms where
required. Special forms are needed to foil the skill
of the professional burglar and thief, and these I hope
to deal with at some future time.
Some persons object to pushes and pressels ; they
like to have something to pull at as in the ordinary
bell-pull of the old system. There are others who
have become habituated to the bell-pull, and cannot
take comfortably to the new order of things. To meet
the prejudices and tastes of those persons, electric bell-
pulls have been devised. Figs. 58 to 60 show a simple
form of a bed-pull, or a communicator for use by the side
of a bed. Fig. 58 shows its external appearance with
the depending cord, and Fig. 59 shows the internal ar-
rangements. It consists essentially of a shallow wooden
box, similar to those used for push boxes, but with the
cover made to screw on, instead of into the box, and
without a hole in the centre. To the bottom of this
box must be attached two pieces of brass, shaped like
two truncated pyramids ; these will form the two con-
tact pieces to which the like wires are to be attached.
Between these must be placed the bridge c (Fig. 59),
also made of brass, and provided with a spring to keep
it above the contact pieces when not in use; this spring
may be a piece of stout clock spring attached to the
bridge by screws, or soldered to it, and attached to the
side of the box, as shown in sketch, or the bridge may
be suspended from a stout spiral spring fastened to the
box above. The depending part of this bridge passes
through a hole in the lower side of the box, as shown in
Fig. 60, and is then fitted with a ring to which is tied
the cord of the pull. When this cord is pulled it brings
the bridge down upon the two contact pieces and
thus affords a way for the current to pass whilst the
bridge is down ; but, when the cord is released, the
spring again raises the bridge and breaks contact, we
must therefore have the spring strong enough to raise
the weight of cord • and tassel, and contact points
should be guarded with platinum foil, as in pushes
and pressels. The holes on each side above the
bridge are for screws to fasten the box to wall or
furniture ; two small holes beneath the contact pieces
admit the wires from the back. These pulls will
admit of any amount of ornamentation, and may be
made of any kind of wood.
When electric bells are made to replace the usual
door bells, they should have larger gongs than those
in use for signalling from room to room, so as to give
a distinct loud tone, which all may recognize as that
of the door bell ; 3^ and 4 inch gongs will give tones
suitable to announce the arrival of visitors or trades-
men. One battery will do for both, and one return
wire, but two distinct wires must be led from each of
the pulls to its own bell ; this arrangement is shown
in Fig. 61. Pushes, or pressels, are not suitable for
door bells, for, even when the word "push" is engraved
on the knob, or placed above it on an enamelled plate,
there is still the danger of a mistake being made in a
dark, foggy night, when the word cannot be read. All
such mistakes may be avoided by the use of a pull,
such as that shown at Fig. 62. The external appear-
ance of this pull is exactly the same as the ordinary
door bell pull; there is the usual knob with its shank
passing through a circular plate fixed to the door post,
but behind the plate it differs from the ordinary pull,
as will be seen on referring to the sketch. The shank
of the pull passes freely through a block of ebonite,
A, at the back of the plate, and to this block is
fastened by screws two stout brass springs, B, B ; on
the end of the shank is fixed another block of ebonite,
on which the curved ends of the brass springs rest.
This block, c, is fitted with a brass ring on its outer
edge, and the block is made to slightly taper from this
edge to the inner edge, the ends of the brass springs,
therefore, rest on ebonite until the shank is pulled from
the outside, this movement brings the brass ring
into contact with the springs, and it forms a bridge
for the electric current to pass in the direction of the
arrows. A stout spiral spring surrounds the shank,
and presses back the contact bridge when the knob is
released. Such pulls must be enclosed in a weather-
proof box fastened to the back of the post, and thus
protected from damp, dust, and injury. Mr. Mayfield,
41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C., sells such a pull
for 6s. 9d.
When signals have to be transmitted from office to
office by means of a bell, a tapper key is sometimes
preferred instead of the ordinary push. The most
simple form of this key is shown in Figs. 63, 64. It con-
sists, as will be seen, of a strip of polished wood on
which is mounted a brass lever attached to a brass
bracket, and kept in position by a stout spring beneath.
One of the wires is fastened by a screw to the bracket
which holds the lever, and the other wire to a stud
inserted in a board under the head of the lever.
522
ELECTRIC BELLS.
Contact is made, and the bell is rung by tapping this
stud with the head of the lever or key.
When two or more lines of bells converge to one
point, and it is desired to work them all from one
battery, or send signals by them through one press
button, it is necessary to have a switch at hand by
which any one of the lines may be thrown in or out of
action. Also, when we wish to set a bell ringing to
awaken a servant, or to give an alarm, it would be a
tiresome task holding down an ordinary push or pressel,
in such cases we have recourse to a little contrivance
shown at Fig. 65, known as a "one-way switch."
This is one of the most simple forms of a switch, and
its construction is shown in section at Fig. 66, where c
shows a disc of hard wood, I inch thick, and 4 inches
in diameter, turned up smooth, stained and polished,
and fitted with the following : D, D are two brass studs,
which for cheapness may be two round headed brass
screws, a third brass screw is inserted at E to hold the
lever, or bridge H. This bridge is a strip of hard
spring brass, with a hole bored at one end to receive
the screw E, and a brass button for handle at the other
end. One of the wires leading to the bell is twisted
under the head of one of the screws D, a small brass
collar or washer of wire is placed on the screw under
the lever at E, then the other line wire is attached to
the screw under the collar, and the screw tightened up.
The lever should just bridge over the space between D
and E when required to do so, or rest on the other
stud when we wish to throw the bell out of circuit.
Pins inserted by the sides of those studs will prevent
the lever from being moved too far. Fig. 67 shows
the plan of a two-way switch ; this may be used to
turn on the battery power to a bell circuit leading
either to left or right. When the lever rests on the
middle stud, both lines are cut out of circuit with the
battery. Fig. 68 shows the plan of a better kind of
switch where the lever or bridge is made of stout brass
bar, and studs are replaced by small pieces of brass
carrying a binding screw as shown at Fig. 69, a bind-
ing screw is also used to attach the lever to the base.
Fig. 70 shows another contact arrangement for a
switch ; the deeply shaded parts represent pieces of
ebonite, and the light parts two pieces of brass A inch
long, J inch wide, by \ inch thick. These two pieces
are destined to form the contact pieces to which the
line wires are attached, and they are separated from
each other on the base of the switch board by a thin
strip of ebonite, the check pieces or buffers are also of
ebonite, and these are made high enough to bear the
two ends of a brass bridge under which the lever of
the switch works. The whole is arranged in the form
of the segment of a circle, as shown between a and
B on the plan. A switch made on this plan is more
effective than those previously mentioned, for the light
brass bridge presses the lever firmly on a broad
surface at each end of the sweep, and the ebonite
perfectly insulates one part from another.
In closing this chapter I give two more diagrams
to illustrate methods of erecting electric bell systems.
Fig. 71 represents the arrangement when we wish
to use only one line wire for working two bells at some
distance, for the purpose of sending messages and
receiving a reply ; for this purpose we must have two
bells, two batteries, two switches, and two earth con-
nections. The main line may pass underground or
over-head. If the latter, it may be of iron telegraph
wire, but it must be supported on insulators and well
insulated in every part. If the bare wire is allowed
to touch wood, stone, brick or other building material,
the line will be short circuited and the battery power
lost. If the line is to be an underground one, even
more care must be taken to ensure insulation. Gutta
percha covered wire, taped and tarred, should alone
be used, and this should be run through gas pipe or
laid in a trough of wood to protect it from injury.
Wire suitable for this purpose can be obtained from
Messrs. Archbutt, 8, Bridge Street, Westminster, for
4d. per yard, or 220 yards for £2 5s. ; or from Mr.
Dale, for ^22 10s. per mile. The switch to be used
with this arrangement is shown at Fig. 72. It con-
sists of a circular disc of wood, on which is fastened
some strips of spring brass. Fig. 73 is simply a
bracket of this brass with the free end bent over to
form a hook. B is another but longer strip of brass
bent to form a spring, and this is fastened to the
board in such a way as to bring the free end under
and in contact with the hook A when at rest ; to the
centre of this spring is soldered or fastened a press
button D. Stretching across this at right angles
beneath, is another brass strip c. It will be well
to protect all contact points at A and at D with
platinum, and the switch may have a cover (with a
hole in the centre) fitted to it, and thus resemble the
ordinary push. In connecting this switch to the
arrangement shown in Fig. 71, connect the main
line wire to the long spring B of switch, connect one
wire from the bell to the hook A, and the other bell
wire to the earth-plate E ; connect one wire from the
battery to the brass strip c, and the other wire of
battery to the earth-plate E, a similar arrangement at
both ends. The earth-plate may be a gas or water-
pipe, or a bar of iron driven two or three feet into
damp earth, but in all cases the wires must be soldered
thereto. The battery under the bell marked a will
ring the bell B, whilst the battery under B is available
to ring the bell a. If we wish to ring the two bells
with the current from one battery, we must have two
lines, two switches, and two earth-plates whilst having
recourse to an arrangement similar to that shown in
THE AMATEUR ACTORS' PORTABLE THEATRE.
523
Fig. 74. Here it will be observed that one line is
called the "battery line," and both ends of this is
connected to the lower strips of the switches ; the
other line is named the " bell line," and is connected
to the long springs of switches, whilst the wires from
one bell terminal at each end is connected to the
hooks of switches, and the wires from the other ter-
minals to the earth-plates. I have shown the carbon
element of the battery as being joined up to the earth-
pi ate, and the zinc element to the c contact piece of
switch, but the reverse arrangement may be adopted
with equally good results. Referring to the diagram,
it will be seen that if we press the long spring b down
on T, the bell B will be thrown into circuit with the
battery, and the bell A will be cut out of circuit at the
same time ; but the moment the spring B is released it
restores the bell A to the bell line, and allows it to be
put in circuit with the battery by pressing down the
long spring A. We can therefore transmit signals and
receive replies with facility by this method. In my
next article I propose to give directions for repairing
faults in batteries, bells, and lines, and also a code of
signals for use with electric bells.
{To be continued.)
^=^==-^
THE AMATEUR ACTORS' PORTABLE
THEATRE.
By EDWARD EEROX-ALLEN.
{For Illustrations, see the Supplement to this Part.)
O, I'm not going to have the house
knocked to pieces, and twenty pounds
worth of damage done, because you
and your friends want to dress up and
bore a company of polite spectators."
" But, my dear father, here is this month's copy of
Amateur Work, Illustrated, and in it you will
find directions for putting up a stage in an ordinary
room, without any damage to your lares and pettates,
and which can be put up and taken down again in
half an hour."
A sufficient time having elapsed for Paterfamilias
to read, mark, and outwardly digest this present
article, the results are the paternal consent and
cheque, with which you can at once set to work to
construct the stage for amateur theatricals hereinafter
described.
The stage described in this chapter and illustrated
by the Supplement to this part, is not gorgeous. It
merely has these six advantages : —
1. It is cheap.
2. It is easy to make.
3. It is easy to work.
4. It can be put up and taken down within half an
hour.
5. It can be put up in any room of moderate dimen-
sions.
6. It does not damage the walls, etc., of any room
in which it is placed.
Many houses are built with that combination of
back and front drawing-room, which reduces the
erection of a stage simply to the construction of a
cross-beam carrying a curtain, and a row of footlights.
There may or may not exist folding doors, if such are
in being, it is only necessary to screw a cross-beam,
carrying a curtain to the tops of these, which simple
operation will be more fully described when we
approach the consideration of the various forms and
actions of curtains. If there are no folding doors, or
if instead of a front and back drawing-room, only one
long room is at your disposal, it will be necessary to
erect a cross-beam to carry the curtain or curtains, as
described further on. Figs. 1 and 2 represent respec-
tively a front and back drawing-room, and a long
room arranged for private theatricals. Both these
figures are divided, as will be seen, into stage and
auditorium. In Fig. 1 the usual arrangement of doors
and windows is shown, and unless the architecture of
the house differs from this, it will be seen that the
entrances to the stage and auditorium, and communi-
cation with the dressing-rooms, are quite clear and
convenient. It is but seldom that amateurs have
more than one exit by which they can get away, the
opposite exit, like the left hand one in Fig. 1, being
only into the corner. The arrangement of a long
room, as in Fig. 2, requires more science, and it is to
this that I propose chiefly to turn my attention. The
stage must of course be at the door end. The open-
ings on the right hand side of Fig. 2 are generally
windows, but if one be a door it is good, as it can be
utilised either as an entrance for the audience, or
another entrance and exit for the stage. As a rule,
however, the door of such a room is as at C. In this
case the two uprights and cross-beam forming the pro-
scenium, must be set up just below the door, as at
B B, only the left hand upright must be sufficiently far
from the wall, a, to enable the audience to come
through the door c, into the auditorium by the open-
ing D. This opening is covered when the audience
are seated, as set down further on.
In the construction of the amateur theatre no nail
ought to exist. Everything must be screwed, so as to be
taken to pieces and put together again as often as you
like. The proscenium, as seen by the audience, may
be either composed of painted canvas, or otherwise, as
your own taste or fancy may suggest. Such a pro-
scenium, however, as is represented by Fig. 3, can be
formed of any spare curtains, etc., there may be in the
524
THE AMATEUR ACTORS' PORTABLE THEATRE.
house, without hurting them in the least. The prin-
ciple of the construction of the proscenium is ex-
plained by Fig. 7, and consists of two uprights A A,
connected at the top by a cross-beam B B. If your
room is that shown by Fig. I, the ends need only be
long enough to be rested on the tops of the folding
doors, or, in their absence, to reach the walls, or
framework which divides the two rooms, to which
they may be fixed, either by the woodwork already
there, or to two brackets screwed to the wall, as at D,
Fig. 8. If your room is a long one, as in Fig. 2,
with the door through which the audience must pass
being, as at C, Fig. 2, also the entry for performers, the
left-hand upright must be 4 feet from the wall A, and
that end of the cross-beam B, Fig. 7, extended to that
wall. The proscenium may, if desired, be strengthened
by struts D, D, Fig. 7, in which case they must be
hidden by the top curtains, Fig. 3. Now as to the
method of fixing up this frame in a room, as at Fig. 2,
this may be done in two ways — either by fixing to the
side-walls at each end of B, B, Fig. 7, a small solid
wooden bracket, like D, Fig. 8, to which the ends B, B
are screwed ; if you have picture rods round the room
the ends B, B may be perforated and lashed to the rods
instead, or you may adopt the (to my mind) better
method of fixing shown by Fig. 8. From each up-
right of the proscenium B B, to the back wall of the
stage, there run laths, a1 a1, which are attached to the
proscenium by hooks (or screws), and at the back to
brackets D, or to the tops of any windows or doors
which are generally found at the end of a long room,
or to picture rods if they exist. The framework
being secured to these, will be perfectly secure ; it is
always as well to fix to the bottom of each upright a
block of wood c, Fig. 8, with a perpendicular hole in
it, through which a large brass-headed nail goes into
the floor. It need not be driven home, indeed it is
not absolutely necessary ; and if there is any question
of spoiling the carpet it may be dispensed with, but
really it does no damage to the carpet to be just per-
forated in two places once a year, and proves an extra
security to your rather flimsy structure.
Such, then, is the erection of your proscenium ;
hardly any two houses being similar in construction,you
may have to alter a little, but with these guiding prin-
ciples, anyone clever enough to play a part can build
himself a stage to play it in. The frame being set up,
the next thing is to drape it. This, as I have said
before, may be effected as in Fig. 3 without any detri-
ment to the material used, by lashing the curtains to
the cross-beam. If, however, they are old and useless,
they may be tacked to the frame for better security.
The draperies must fall to the ground, and extend
quite from wall to wall, covering the opening D, Fig. 2.
The door c will, of course, open inwards ; when the
audience are ready to enter, let the door C be opened
at right angles, and, the curtain being drawn inwards
from D, let it be hitched over the door so as to form a
little rectangular passage, which hides the stage, and
through which the auditorium is reached ; when all
are seated, the curtain is dropped again across the
opening D, and the door C is cleared for the actors.
The next question is that of curtains. These are
either, to draw apart, as in Fig. 4, to tuck up, as in
Fig. 5, or (what is better than either) to roll up, as in
Fig. 6. The final curtain, or " green," may follow any
of these methods, but a painted cloth, or act-drop
must always roll, for obvious reasons. Whatever
method is adopted, the entire control must be concen-
trated at the prompt side. This, in amateur stages, is
whichever side there is room for that important person.
To draw apart and close, as in Fig. 4, requires two
pair of ropes, the first pair consisting of one drawing
the curtain nearest the ropes towards the puller, and
one passing along the top and round by the other end
to the centre, to pull the further curtain away from the
puller ; the second pair of ropes will be arranged in
an exactly inverse manner, their object being to draw
the two curtains from the sides to the centre. The
curtains are hung by rings on to two rods, which just
overlap each other in the middle, so as to effect a good
join of the two curtains. Have a separate pulley (as
at Fig. 13) for each rope at each point, for the deadly
peculiarity of this form of curtain is that consequently
on a "jumble" of the ropes they frequently stick half
way ; and a dreadful anecdote is told of an amateur
performance of " Ours " whose second act closed in
this way, which necessitated the heroine rising from
her faint, and exewit omnes, individually longing for
an instantaneous earthquake. This danger is obviated
when the curtain is constructed to ruck, as in Fig. 5.
To effect this, the curtain has stitched upon it in ver-
tical rows, at distances of i£ to 2^ feet, curtain rings.
At the bottom of each column of rings is attached a
cord, which, passing through the whole row, goes
through a pulley at the top to another at the side,
whence it descends to the prompter's hand. For each
column of rings there is a rope and corresponding
pulleys, so that if the curtain is broad, the prompter
has (actually, not metaphorically) his hands full. At
the bottom of each column of rings there must be
stitched a good heavy piece of lead, to weight the cur-
tain down to the floor, otherwise, stopping six inches
before the floor is reached, an exit of visible feet will
considerably mar a good denouement. After all, the
simplest and most effective curtain is that which rolls
up from the bottom, as in Fig. 6. This requires only
two pulleys at the pulling end and one at the other, as
in Fig. 14. It is so arranged that when the roller
1 which forms the lower border of the cloth is on the
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
525
floor the cords are rolled round the ends of the roller,
either on reels (as in the figure) or without. When
the ropes are pulled these cords unwind, and the cur-
tain rolls up neatly with the minimum of unsightliness
and the minimum of anxiety to the person in charge.
Such a curtain is tacked to a beam which carries its
pulleys, as in Fig. 14. The curtain to ruck is fixed in
a similar manner to a beam, which beams are fixed to
strong double brackets, C C C, Fig. 13, which are
screwed to the upright, or cross-beam, represented by
B B1. A A represent the pairs of pulleys. Space
{arbiter seriptorum) bids me go on to the final ques-
tion of lighting. The above directions will, I hope,
enable the amateur to build himself a stage and erect
his curtains in a simple and inexpensive, and at the
same time highly effective manner. It will be observed
no set measurements are given ; these would be im-
possible, as each amateur stage-carpenter must suit
his figures to his room and material.
The principal charm of the amateur stage is the
lighting, the auditorium being kept as dark as possible ;
this is effected by means of foot-lights, side-lights, and
top-lights, each of which correct the too violent
shadows which would be produced by the use of only
one of them. Foot-lights, which may either be lamps
or candles, as in Figs. 10 and 12, are set along a
board, a, a', as in Fig. 9, and hidden from the audience
by a tin reflector to each light, or a board, as at a, a in
Figs. 10 and 11, which serves also the purpose of a
reflector to intensify and direct the rays of light. This
board should be painted black on one side, and lined
with bright tin on the side facing the stage, and
should be set at a slight angle by means of a hinge, B,
as in Fig. 10, to throw the light up to the faces of the
actors. The best light is, of course, gas, which is
almost impossible to fit to a private room, after which
comes lamps, as in Fig. 10, which have the objection
of expense and inconvenience in working. The best
light for amateurs is, after all, candles, surrounded by
glass chimneys, as in Fig. 12, which are fixed as
follows. Hammer through your board, at stated inter-
vals, from the other side, nails long enough to stick up
about 1 J inches. Bore a hole with a hot bradawl at the
bottom of each candle, so that it sticks straight up on
its respective nail. Take three strips of stout tin and
bend them in the shape shown at Fig. 15, and at a1,
Fig. 11. Bend them so as to have a foot at the
bottom of each, and set them round the nail to receive
the chimney, as in Figs. 11 and 15. These chimneys
may be got at about one penny each at any fairly
wholesale glass shop. If the strips of bent tin do not
hold them firm, tie rings of wire round strips and
chimney to hold them together. Side-lights and top-
lights are built as at Fig. 15, the reflector (which also
serves in the case of top-lights, as protection to the
ceiling) being composed of a sheet of tin bent to shape.
Make these about a foot long to carry three or four
candles, and screw two such sets to the cross-beam for
top-lights, and two on each side of the stage, on
brackets on the walls of the room, about seven feet
from the floor. The question of side and top-lights
must necessarily accommodate itself to your room ;
the golden rule being, have as many as possible, and
wherever practicable. If it is desired, on some future
occasion, I shall be happy to give further directions
as to amateur stage-carpentry, scenery, etc.
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
HE majority of articles that demand notice
this month are books and trade cata-
logues, and to these publications I have
much pleasure in calling the attention of
the readers of this magazine, for all are
interesting and instructive, although amateurs, in all
probability, will be inclined to value one more highly
than another, each in accordance with his own peculiar
bent and bias.
From Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Co., 7, Sta-
tioners' Hall Court, Ludgate Hill, I have received two
volumes, one of which assuredly no amateur should
be without. The little book to which I am alluding,
a perfect gem in its way, beautifully and clearly
printed, and very nicely got up and finished, is a
waistcoat-pocket companion, entitled, " Tables, Memo-
randa, and Calculated Results for Mechanics, Engi-
neers, Architects, Builders, Surveyors, etc.," selected
and arranged by Francis Smith ; or, in briefer terms,
'' Smith's Tables." Though barely i\ inches long,
if inches broad, and \ inch thick, this compact little
vade mecum, bound in roan with rounded corners and
thickly gilt edges, contains 226 pages of memoranda
on every possible subject on which any one engaged
in any department of the building trade, or in almost
any mechanical trade, may require carefully tabulated
statistical and numerical information at a pinch.
Apparently every necessary subject is touched on and
nothing omitted, and, to show the variety and wide
scope of the information given, instructions are given
on the mode of making knots and splices, profusely
illustrated with small but very clear explanatory
engravings. The cost of this book is no more than
is. 6d. It would tend to its better preservation if an
elastic band were passed over it to keep it closely
shut when not in use ; but any purchaser can add this
for himself. The other book sent by Messrs. Lock-
wood and Co. is " Practical Organ Building," by
W. E. Dickson, M.A., Precentor of Ely Cathedral.
;26
NOTES ON NOVELTIES.
This work, which has reached a second edition, affords
reliable information on everything relating to this sub-
ject, in which many amateurs take so profound an
interest, and the illustrations leave nothing to be
desired. A chapter is devoted to the construction of
two-manual organs, and a new and supplementary
chapter has been added on " Village Church Organs,"
which cannot fail to be acceptable to those who may
be seeking to purchase a small organ for a country
church, and desire a few hints as to its design and
erection. Much is said about wooden and metal
pipes, their construction and regulation. This book
forms No. 235 of Weale's Rudimentary Series. It
contains 182 pages and 57 illustrations, including an
excellent design for the front elevation of a two-
manual organ with eight stops, in the frontispiece, and
may be purchased for 2s. 6d. By the way, I may take
the opportunity of reminding my readers that in the
next part of this magazine will be commenced a new
series of articles on f Organ Building," from the pen
of Mr. Mark Wicks, in the first of which he will
describe his method of making organ pipes of a
material more easily dealt with than either wood or
metal, and whose prime cost is so little that it reduces
the expense of making pipes to a mere trifle.
I mentioned not long ago Messrs. Charles Churchill
and Co.'s new " Illustrated Catalogue of American
Tools and Machinery." Of this another and smaller
edition, measuring 5i inches by 4i inches and j inch
thick, has been produced from the larger edition by
means of photo-lithography. It is, therefore, an abso-
lute fac-simile of the larger one, containing (like the
larger one) 160 pages, and is not a selection only from
the larger catalogue, as was the first " Amateur Cata-
logue" that Messrs. Churchill and Co. published. I
must not omit to say that the small catalogue of which
I am writing costs 6d. Messrs. Churchill and Co.
have now taken possession of their new and commo-
dious premises at 20, Cross Street, Finsbury, where
they will be pleased to exhibit their tools and
machinery to any amateur who may wish to inspect
_them. Notices of catalogues received from Messrs.
Hamley and Co., and Messrs. Marion and Co., and
other articles, are unavoidably defeired till next month.
I have received from Messrs. Henry J. Martin and
Co., Douglas Road, Cork, a compact and handy little
box containing specimens of the Metal-bodied Rubber
Type manufactured by them, and the various appli-
ances necessary for its use. This is an article which
should be found in every family, and, indeed, in the
hands of every individual, for there must be few indeed
who cannot turn the box and its contents to good
account. This firm manufactures and supplies many
varieties of type for family and office use, in different
quantities, according to the requirements of the pur-
chasers, but both quantities and prices can best be
ascertained from the catalogue issued by the firm,
which, I trust I am correct in saying, will be for-
warded to any address on receipt of a penny stamp to
clear cost of postage. The cost of the various outfits,
according to the price-list that I have, range from 7s.
to 3SS. ; but these include forty collections, differing
from each other in the quantity of type supplied
and the case in which it is sent out, so that there is
ample room for choice as regards both personal
requirements and the pocket. The box now before
me contains five rows of type, including capitals,
small letters, types for punctuation, and metal spaces,
neatly arranged in a wooden rack, a pair of tweezers
for taking the type from and replacing it in the rack, a
type-holder in nickel silver, a small bottle of ink, and
two pads for the distribution of the ink and its appli-
cation to the surface of the type. The modus operandi
is as follows : — The initials of a name, or the letters
of any word or words that it is desired to impress on
linen, paper, etc., are taken from the rack by the
tweezers and arranged in due order according to direc-
tions given, in the type-holder. Any void space is
then filled up with metal spaces, and the whole locked
tightly together by the action of a screw with a milled
head at one end of the type-holder. Some ink is then
placed on one of the pads which is covered with
glazed cambric, and this is rubbed over the face of the
other, by which means the ink is distributed over the
entire surface. The surface of the second pad is then
touched twice or thrice with the type with a gentle
pressure, and the type, now sufficiently inked, is
applied with a firm but light touch to the surface to
be marked. The result is all that can be desired,
exhibiting a sharp, clear, but delicate, impression of
the letters that are in use. The types most commonly
supplied are a fancy letter consisting of large and
small capitals, a neat script, and a clear and well-cut
black letter, or old English letter, all of which are
available for printing on linen, on visiting cards, or in
books, etc. In addition to these are a great variety of
other kinds of type and figures, with type-holders of
different sizes, and automatic numbering stamps for
consecutive numbering. I do not find any mention
made of crests, monograms, etc., in Messrs. Martin
and Co.'s catalogue, but I am inclined to think that if
these could be supplied to order at a fairly moderate
price, for affixing the owner's imprint to linen, books,
etc., their manufacture would form a large and lucra-
tive branch of this business. I hope I may be per-
mitted to express a hope that this industry may
flourish because it is an Irish industry, and that it is
in the extension and encouragement of manufactures
of all kinds in Ireland that the future welfare and
prosperity of Ireland chiefly depends.
AM A TE URS IN CO UNCIL.
527
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
[The Editor reserves to himself the right of re-
fdsirga reply to any question that may be frivolous
or inappropriate, or devoid of general interest.
Correspondents are requested to bear in mind that
their queries will be answered only in the pages of
ihe Magazine, the information sought being sup-
plied for the benedt of its readers generally as well
as fox those who have a special interest in uDtaining
it. In no case can any reply be sent by post.]
%• TO MY HEADERS.— On the com-
pletion of this, the First Volume of Ama-
teur Work, Illustrated, a few
words, ex cathedra, on some matters of
importance immediately connected with,
and bearing on, the past and future of the
Magazine, will not be considered inap-
propriate or out of place.
iv The Nature of ihe Magazine. — As
now and then it is asked when and in how
many Parts Amateur Work, Illus-
trated, nill be completed, it is desirable
to say here once and for all that it is not
a work which, like " Every Man His Own
Mechanic," is intended to be brought to
a close in a certain fixed number of Parts,
but that it is, in every sense of the word, a
Magazine, to be continued from month
to month, and from year to year, as long
as a demand exists for it. It is designed
to supply information to the amateur
worker on the modes and means of
carrying out constructive processes in
every department of mechanical art and
science. Knowledge of every kind, both
practical and theoretical, is daily in-
creasing in the present time, and as
long as any desire is evinced by amateurs
for instruction in Constructive and Artistic
Work, so long will Amateur Work,
Illustrated, within whose scope it
falls to give such instruction, continue
to appear.
2. Subjects yet Incomplete.— Every series
of papers that has been commenced in
Volume I., and which as yet is incom-
plete, will be continued and brought to a
conclusion in Volume II. The necessity
of giving as much variety as possible to
the contents of each Part in succession, by
dealing with as many subjects as possible,
has chiefly tended to bring about this
result. Want of punctuality in furnishing
copy, according to promise, has been exhi-
bited in one case only. In another case
circumstances over which human power
has no control — I allude to the illness
and regretted death of Mr. Dunman —
has created delay which it has been im-
possible to avoid, for in the staff of a
Magazine it is not as in a regiment of
soldiers, that when one falls another is
ready to take his place immediately.
Again, some who have expressed readi-
ness to deal with certain subjects that
have been asked for and promised, appa.
rently content with the mere acceptance
of their proferred services, have troubled
themselves no further in the matter. So
I call for volunteers to write on the
various subjects that are asked for, ii they
are possessed of practical experience
therein, assuring them that their labours
will by no means go unrewarded, from a
pecuniary point of view.
3. Ne-w Subjects for Volume II. —
Among the new subjects that will be
treated in the next and Second Volume
of Amateur Work, Illustrated,
attention may be especially called to —
Artistic Fittings and Furniture
for Interior Decoration. By J. W.
Gleeson-White.
Artistic Modelling and Sculp-
ture for Amateurs. By Mark
Mallett.
Brazing and Soldering. By George
Edwinson.
Organ Building for Amateurs.
With a New Method of Making Organ
Pipes. By Mark Wicks.
Overglaze Painting on Porce-
lain. By Aurelio de Vega.
Painting, Graining, Staining, and
Varnishing. By George Edwinson.
Printing for Amateurs. By "A
Practical Printer."
Relievo Maps and their Con-
struction. With Instructions on Map
Mounting, etc. By John Brion.
Sun-Dials and Dialling. By Arthur
Yorke.
With a great number of practical articles
complete in themselves, presenting points
of interest to amateur workers in every
description of handicraft. Every article
that is capable of it, will be, as usual,
profusely illustrated with explanatory
sketches, diagrams, and working draw-
ings.
4. Supplements. — These will be con-
tinued as heretofore, and it will be ear-
nestly sought to impart as much variety
to them as possible, and to render them
as useful as they can be to every section
of amateur workers, by dealing with a
different subject in every Part. Among
those that are now in preparation are
Supplements in connection with Photo-
graphic Apparatus, Painting on Porce-
lain, Musical Instrument Making, Deco-
rative Art, Furniture Making, Carving in
Wood, Fret Cutting, Metal Working,
and Building Construction. Suggestions
for Supplements are requested from the
readers of this Magazine, who are invited
to make known their special wants, re-
quirements, and desires in this direction.
5. Special Supplement to Part 12. —
The immense mass of correspondence
that the appearance of this Magazine has
elicited from all parts of the world, and
the difficulty that has consequently arisen
in dealing with it promptly, has doubtless
caused disappointment to many, for
which I can only express my sincere
regret. An effort will be made to clear
up all arrears in a Special Supplement,
to be included in Part 12,- the opening
Part of Volume II. , while in future Parts
additional space will be made for this
department of the Magazine by reducing
the size of the type as far as is compatible
with clearness and legibility.
6. " Amateur Work" Sale and- Ex.
change Sheet. — In Part r 2 of this Magazine,
and in every succeeding Part, a portion of
the Advertising Pages will be set apart for
announcements of Articles for Sale or Ex-
change. It is recommended that in every
case the lowest sale price that the Adver-
tiser is willing to take shall be appended,
and that the Exchange system shall be dis-
couraged and abandoned as much as
possible, as far less trouble is involved in
buying and selling at a stated price, than
in exchanging and bartering. Advertisers
can advertise any article tkat they have
for sale, naming the price they will take
for it, or any article that they wish to
purchase, naming the sum that they are
willing to give for it. All responsibility
must remain entirely with ihe buyer and
seller, and for every article advertisedbd.
in stamps must be forwarded to The
Publishers of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, Warwick House, Salis-
bury Square, London, B.C., all letters
being plainly marked ' ' Sale and Exchange
Sheet," in the left hand upper corner of
the envelope. Persons agreeing to pur-
chase any article of an advertiser, must
forward the amount asked to the Pub-
lishers, who will hold the money in the
interim, and forward it to the Seller, on
receiving due notification from the Buyer
that the article advertised has duly
reached him. For facility of communi-
cation the real name and address of
buyer and seller must be forwarded in
every case, though not necessarily for
publication unless so desired. It must be
understood that no advertisement re-
ceived later than the rsth of each month
can appear in the Sale and Exchange
Sheet in Am ateur Work, Illustrated,
for the 1st of the month immediately
following ; and that no notice whatever
will be taken of any advertisement that is
sent in without stamps to the amount of
Sixpence for each article advertised or
asked for, as said above.
*#* All letters connected with the ' ' Sale
and Exchange Sheet " must be addressed
to the Publishers of "Amateur
Work, Illustrated" {not to the
Editor), and plainly marked " Sale and
Exchange Sheet." The conditions,
as stated above, must be regarded as
being preliminary only, the Publishers
528
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
reserving to themselves the right of
making any alterations therein, or addi-
tions thereto, that may be found requisite
and necessary to the satisfactory manage-
ment and working of this department of
the Magazine.
"Graph " Composition.
W. C. (Hooky Hill) writes:— In an-
swer to M. B. (Southport), in Amateur
Work, Illustrated, I give the follow-
ing formula for making a "Graph,'' which
is a very good one. The measurements are
to be taken by weight. Glycerine (pure),
6 parts ; water, 4 parts ; barium sulphate,
2 parts ; sugar, 1 part. After mixing
them, let them soak for at least twenty-
four hours ; then melt at a gentle heat ;
stir until thoroughly mixed, and pour the
composition into a shallow tin tray or
pan. For ink, I believe there is no black
made that is any good; but Judson's
violet dye answers well enough when not
more than from thirty to forty copies are
required, otherwise the ink (violet) should
be purchased. When the surface of the
"graph" becomes smudgy, scrape it all
out of the tray, re-melt it, stir it well, and
pour it back again. A jam pot in hot
water will do very well to melt it in. It
is not necessary to melt the composition
every time it is used, a damp sponge will
remove the writing from it for many
times (unless it be written on very thickly)
before it needs to be melted. I conclude
your correspondent knows how to use it,
or he would have said so, so I will not
take up your valuable space in informing
him. Concerning his query as to where
he can see tools, lathes, fret-sawing ma-
chines, etc., he will undoubtedly find
Gleave and Son, Oldham Street, Man-
chester, the best place lie can go to.
They keep everything that is required in
that line, and have pattern-books for fret-
work from is. 3d. to 9s. each, in which
there are a very large assortment of
designs. I always go there when I re-
quire anything, and find it the best place.
I do not know of any firm in Liverpool, I
never having had occasion to purchase
anything from there.
M. B. (Southport), page 4S2, will find
receipts for "Graph" composition in
page 749, No. 12, of " Scientific Recrea-
tions," Messrs. Ward and Lock.
Modelling In Clay.
P. B. (Seldown, Dorset), — A series of
articles on the modelling of busts, por-
trait medallions, reliefs, etc., with direc-
tions for the practice of sculpture,
generally, is in preparation, and wil
shortly appear in our pages. In these
articles you will find all the information
you seek, given in practical form, by an
experienced sculptor.
.Kollan Harp.
A. H. (Glazebury) writes : — Make a box
of as thin deal as possible, and of a length
answering exactly to the width of the
window in which it is to be placed, four
or five inches in depth and five or six in
width. Glue on it at the extremities of
the top two pieces of oak, about a quarter
of an inch thick, and about half an inch
high, to serve as bridges for the strings, and
withinside, at each end, glue two pieces
of beech about an inch square, and of
length equal to the width of the box.
Into one of these bridges fix as many
pegs, such as are used for pianofortes
(but not so large), as there are to be
strings, ^and in the other fix as many
small brass pins, to which attach the
strings, which should be of catgut. These
strings should not be drawn tightly, but
should be tuned in unison. To procure
a passage for the wind, a thin board,
supported by four pegs, is placed over
the strings at about three inches from the
sounding-board.
Fiddle Varnish.
Geo. R. Raiburn. — By "turpentine,"
which is set down on page 347, as making
the varnish "tacky," is meant the resin,
or lump turpentine, which has been often
recommended as an ingredient. In the
formula just following it, "essence" is
used alone, though it should be under-
stood essence of turpentine is meant,
but "essence*' is used alone, because
any other essence (rosemary, etc.) maybe
used in its absence. At the end of page
347, before passing on to No. 2, I
assume that with this coloured alcohol
you have coloured the 200 C C of essence
you intend using in the manner described
by evaporation) then "2, when this
(i.e., the resin) is cold, etc., etc." I
now see that this is not clear, and thank
you for calling my attention thereto.
Violin Making.
C. G- (Cayton) writes : — " I have made
a violin, and instead of giving 15s. for
irons for bending the sides, I made wood
blocks the shape the sides ought to be,
and after steaming the sides, I tied them
tight round the blocks with string, and
when they were dry they were bent to
perfeciion. I have also made several
dulcimers ; but as I am not a very good
hand at composition, I dare not under-
take to give instructions for making one."
[Try to do so. You write a good letter,
which promises success to any attempt
you may make. — Ed.]
Inspection of Violins.
A. H. T. (Newport, Mon.).— Mr. HilL
or any good maker, would examine your
violin and report on it. We cannot make
arrangements with any maker to do so
for all comers.
Organ Building.
Diapason sends the following list of
articles, and their prices, supplied by
Mr. ]. Dresser, 181, Albert Road, Aston,
Birmingham , trusting that it may be of
service to amateurs engaged in organ
building: — Prepared sheep skins, 3s. 3d.
per skin ; stopper handles, 3s. 6d. per
doz. ; pipe feet, 2s. 6d. per doz. ; pallet
springs, 5s. per set ; tapped wires, 2S. per
gross ; roller studs, bushed, 2s. per doz. ;
brass tuning cones, 3s. 6d. each j leather
discs for securing silent action, 8d. per
100 ; leather buttons, is. per 100 ; stopt
diapason pipes, CC to G in alt, 56 pipes,
all wood, voiced, £8 15s. per set ; the
metal treble (stopt diapason), 30 pipes,
about £2, unvoiced.
Soap Making.
W. P. N. (Darlington).— Yon had bet-
ter try the "cold process" described in
the second paper.
Dyeing Sheepskin.
J. H. W. ( Warrington). — You will do
better to send your sheepskin to the dyer.
The writer who proposed to deal with
"picture-frame making" has disap-
pointed us.
Amateur Dentistry.
I believe in every man doing all he
can for himself, or I should not regularly
take and read Amateur Work, Illus-
trated. Therefore, as a dentist, I reply
to "A Paper Stainer." First, can he
work with a blow-pipe with hard solder?
if so, let him try his luck. Process, as
briefly as I can put it is this. Get as
exact a copy of the mouth as is possible.
Do this by putting into the mouth a
softened piece of bee'swax, or any pre-
pared compo — " stento, " for instance.
Any inaccuracy obtained by a faulty im-
pression will be found out when the work
is completed, "for it won't fit." Next,
cast plaster of Paris in the impression
taken. This should give an exact model
of the mouth. Upon this fit the tooth or
teeth. Place gold, platinum, dental alloy,
or whatever other metal is used, so as to
fill up the required alteration ; fix all the
parts together with plaster of Paris, put
borax as a flux, and place a hard solder
made according to the hardness of the
metal. Apply blow-pipe, and run all
into one piece, then dress and polish.
Mind as the teeth are mineral that you
don't heat nor cool too suddenly, or they
will crack. For vulcanite woik the ne-
cessary apparatus could not be had under
^10 at least, so I do not give any descrip-
tion of process, although I would do so
with pleasure if desired. I would even
try to help an amateur if he tried to help
himself, not if he tried to do work for
others. There is a Dental Act and Re-
gister of Dentists. My address is with
Editor.
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
S29
Lathe-making.
Delta. — If an illustrated supplement
of fancy turnery would be useful to
readers who work at the lathe, the author
of the papers on lathe-making is quite
willing to supply it. A descriptive article,
with numerous illustrations of specimens
of fancy turnery, vases, etc, was pub-
lished in The Furniture Gazette of Octo-
ber 29th last. A copy would cost 5d. ,
post-free, from the publishers, Messrs.
Wyman & Sons, Great Queen Street,
London, W.C. The illustrations were
sketched from the specimens of wood
turnery exhibited at the Mansion House,
under the auspices of the Turners' Com-
pany.
F. Jackson. — You will find a chapter
in Lathe- Work, on ' ' Screw-cutting by
Self-acting Motion," which fully answers
your question. Mr. Calvert, 99, Great
jfackson Street, Manchester, will supply
the book you name, post free, for is. 6d.
He has a large stock of technical books.
Household Clocks.
W. U.— You should state how fast the
clock goes. Your query suggests that the
pendulum is disconnected from the
crutch, or that there is some other error
in the putting together, or a tooth may
be gone from one of the wheels. Add-
ing weight to the pendulum bob is alto-
gether a wrong method of procedure. If
precise instructions are wanted, querists
will be precise in their questions ; ''an
old striking clock " is not sufficiently
definite to enable identification.
S. S. — Probably the striking train has
been put together wrong. You should
examine it carefully, and you may be
able to discover where the defect is. A
future chapter will treat upon the striking
work of clocks, and will afford the infor-
mation which you consider to be now
wanting. The author of the papers will
be glad to receive suggestions as to the
information desired by readers.
Chemicals, Test Tubes, etc.
H. W. P. (Rughy).— Misses. Griffin
and Co., Garrick Street, Covent Garden,
supply test tubes and cheap chemical
apparatus for amateurs. See also the
paper on " Photography," in this Part,
for firms supplying scientific apparatus.
You do not mention the subject on which
you require a text-book. The recipe
mentioned in your letter for drying and
keeping the colours of wild flowers is not
to hand.
Model Ships, etc.
John Haddock. — The subject will be
dealt with when opportunity offers.
Picture Framing.
H. M. C. L. — The gentleman who
undertook to w rite on this subject has not
yet sent in his promised contribution to
our pages.
Cabinet Fittings.
X. Y. Z. (Brighton). — Your experience
is certainly disappointing, but in writing
to any firm for goods, and such things as
brads for fretwork, brass fittings for
cabinets, etc., it is necessary to specify
the size you require and the purpose for
which the articles, whatever they may be,
are wanted. The fittings you send are
used by makers of cheap boxes sold in
toy shops and fancy goods shops.
Cabinet Hangers, etc.
E. S. (Aylestone Hill).— Messrs. R.
Melhuish & Sons, 85 and 87, Fetter
Lane, London, B.C., will procure for
you any cabinet hardware that you may
require, if you communicate with them
on the subject. With regard to the
preparation of wood for ebonising, if
you closely follow the instructions given
already in the pages of this Magazine,
you will ultimately be successful. In
this, as in everything else, practice is
necessary.
Hanging Bookshelves.
W. W. ( Warrington). — If you hang
glass doors to this set of shelves, you
must make the shelves of the same width
from top to bottom, and you must hang
them to the edge of the sides. The
materials for the sides must be 9 inches
wide. By a clerical error 8 has been sub-
stituted for 9.
Edging for Bookshelves.
C. S. (Holloway). — Embossed leather
edging for bookshelves may be obtained
through any upholsterer or dealer in lea-
ther goods of this description. There is (or
was) a shop in Great Queen Street, near
Freemasons' Hall, where it can be bought.
With a little trouble you can cut Ameri-
can cloth in scallops to form a serviceable
edging, but you could not emboss it.
Colouring Veneered Work.
J. B. (Tetsworth). — If your work is
veneered with ebony on the main surface,
use ebonising fluid on the edges, and
then polish. In any case, use such stain-
ing as will render the plain wood as near
as possible in colour to the veneer, and
then polish or varnish.
Oak Mantelpiece.
A. E. (Fulhani). — When opportunity
offers a description and working drawings
of oak mantelpiece, with mirror in centre,
and shelves on either side, suitable for
amateur woodworkers will be given.
Small Locomotive.
T. Edwing should apply to Bateman
or Hanley of Holborn, or any maker who
supplies these articles entire or in parts to
be fitted together.
House Decoration.
C. P. C. ( Wolton-under-Edge).— -The
decoration of staircases and other parts
of the house will all be treated in due
Heating Greenhouses.
R. B. (Skipton).— This subject will be
taken up later in the season.
"Amateur Work " in Canada.
Thomas Heaps. — This Magazine can
be obtained in Canada through any book-
seller, or the publishers will arrange to
send it to you by post if you will send
your address. Any article that you may
send will receive careful attention with a
view to publication.
Self-acting Fountain.
L. M. (Staplehurst) is thanked for his
communication ; but a description fuller
in detail, with sectional diagram, is
necessary for publication .
Callipers.
A.B.(f-ra*/aM!).— Messrs.C. Churchill
& Co. wish me to inform this correspond-
ent that such callipers, with adjusting
screw as he wishes to have, are manu-
factured by Messrs. Darling, Brown, &
Sharpe, of the United States, for whom
they are agents in the United Kingdom.
Messrs. Churchill & Co. 's new address is
21, Cross Street, Finsbury.
Top of Glass Book-Case.
J. H. (Brighton). — You do not give the
dimensions of your book-case, but an
appropriate finish at the top might be
made with a piece of plain wood, as you
are no carver, about 2 J in. high at each
end, rising to 5 in. high in centre, with
the fides returned of same height as ends
of front piece. Round the upper edge a
piece of moulding might be run, so that
the surface below would assume to a
certain extent the form of a sunk panel.
Ample instructionsfor staining and French
polishing have been already given. In-
structions for oiling clocks are given in
the papers on this subject.
Filters.
W. C. (Al/reton). — As you say, a very
good filter might be constructed by
dividing a thirty-six gallon barrel into
three parts, by perforating boards, and
using the top division for the unfiltered
water, the middle divison for the filtered
materials, and the bottom division for the
filtered water. You will see that the
article in Part' 10 contains directions
for the collection and purification of
rain water. Although advisable, it is
not absolutely necessary to ignite fresh
charcoal before using it. Whether an
earthenware or iron crucible is used for
the ignition, is immaterial. The merits
of the patent filtering compound you men-
tion shall be inquired into, and if the sub-
stance stands the test of experiments, its
use will be recommended. Thanks for
enclosures.
Incubation.
J. B. C. (Capponfield).—We hope to
give a paper or papers on this subject
shortly.
53°
AMATEURS IN COUNCIL.
Subjects in Magazine.
A. T. F. (Egham). — You are thanked
for your suggestions, but it is not possible
to carry them into effect. An index will
be issued for each entire volume of the
Magazine, which will facilitate reference.
By all means send your sketches of grind-
stone with lever arrangement, and wooden
grape stand, with suitable descriptions.
The former will be especially useful, and
the latter acceptable to many of our fret-
workers.
H. J. S. (Maidstone) is thanked for his
suggestion, which it would be difficult to
carry out in such a manner as to please
everybody.
Polish for Harness.
S. C. (London). — If your harness has
turned brown by exposure to the air,
wash it well with potash water to remove
grease, and give it a fresh coat of black-
ing ; when this is dry, rub the surface
well with a mixture of oil and tallow in
equal parts. A black polish for harness
is made by soaking 2 ounces of best glue
in 4 pint of vinegar till the glue is soft,
and r ounce of gum arabic in ^ pint of
black ink in another vessel till dissolved.
Also melt 1 drachm of isinglass with as
much water as will cover it, in a cup
before the fire. Add J pint of vinegar to
the softened glue, and set it over a slow
fire until the glue is perfectly melted.
Then add the gum and ink, let it remain
over the fire for a few minutes, and,
lastly, put in the melted isinglass. Warm
the mixture until it becomes fluid before
applying it, and put it on with a piece of
dry sponge before the fire or in the sun.
To stain and polish brown leather, apply
beeswax and oil melted together ; smear
over the leather when warm, and then rub
with a flannel rubber, finishing with brisk
rubbing with the palm of the hand.
Coloured Varnish.
H. H. D. B. (Blundellsands) can make
red, white, and green varnish for metal
work, cork, etc., by dissolving sealing-
wax of the colour required in spirits of
wine. Apply with a camel-hair brush,
which should be cleansed, when done
with, by soaking in spirits of wine.
Second-hand Lathe.
P. A. R. (South Hackney) has a good
second-hand lathe, 5 in. centre, 3 rests,
7 chucks and back gear for metal
turning, with about 70 tools, including
chasing tools, which he will sell for
£7 10s.
Barometer Making.
One in a Fix. — Try Kay's Coaguline
for cementing the tube into the cistern.
The depth of cut is indicated by the dia-
gram. A Mnch tube with ^-inch bore
would do ; but a smaller one will answer
your purpose.
Fishing Rods, etc.
J. B. [. (Dublin). — Full instructions
on this subject will be given when oppor-
tunity offers. The difficulty in dealing
with many subjects that are asked for,
putting space out of the question, lies in
meeting with men of practical experience
that can and will handle them properly.
There are many who are competent to
take up this and other subjects, if they
can be found. All articles are paid for,
and I have, therefore, no hesitation in
calling for volunteers to furnish papers on
any subjects that correspondents may
suggest.
Printing.
Musician. — Papers on Printing will
be commenced in Vol. II., and in these
music type printing will be considered.
Why not try the Trypograph, or Electric
Pen, for the multiplication of copies of
pieces of music ?
Fernery.
Constant Subscriber. — A paper on
the Construction of Ferneries will be
given in an early part. Many things that
are asked for are unavoidably deferred
through want of space.
Photography.
G. B. (Helensburgh, N.B. ).— There is
nothing vague in the late Mr. Dunman's
second paper on " Photography." The
glass is to be coated with orange or yellow
paper to prevent the entrance of white
light. This is stated clearly enough.
Elementary Carpentry.
C. E. H. (Liverpool). — We sympathise
with you in your difficulties, but it is im-
possible to give the A B C of every simple
operation in Carpentry in Amateur
Work, Illustrated. You will find
■this in " Every Man his own Mechanic,"
which you should purchase. In articles
on Carpentry in Amateur Work, Il-
lustrated, it is taken for granted
that readers possess a certain amount
of necessary elementary knowledge. You
must mark out your dovetail joint with
the utmost care. Make the saw cuts
with a fine tenon saw, the board being
held immovable by means of the bench
screw, and then remove the pieces
between the dovetails with a sharp
chisel. You must learn to sharpen your
own tools, and have patience in carrying
out this part of the work ; it may be
tedious, but nevertheless it is indis-
pensable.
Preservation of Eggs.
W. B. J. (Glazeley). — Lard is better
than paraffin for preserving eggs. Smear
the eggs well with lard as soon as taken
from the nest, and set them in bran or
sawdust, small end downvaris.
Enamelling Iron.
E. R. S. (Lewisham). — This is a pro-
cess which no amateur could carry out.
Miscellaneous.
S. J. N. (Halton).—\ am obliged for
your suggestions, which shall receive
careful attention.
Information Wanted.
Brick Burner wishes to know how
to tune an English concertina. Bricks
are glazed by a process similar to that
employed for glazing earthenware ; that
is to say, a glaze is applied consisting of
a mixture of substances, which when
fused together, produce a vitreous mass,
which is ground and mixed with water
after being cooled. The earthenware, be
it what it may, is dipped into the glaze
thus made, and then baked or fired in a
furnace.
A Sufferer wishes for instructions
for making ' ' a cheap self-acting battery "
that he can use himself to relieve sciatic
pains in the hip-joint ; or he desires to
buy one cheap.
Printer wants to know how to make
a " thoroughly efficient ruling machine at
a small cost, to rule a sheet of foolscap
broadside, or demy folio."
E. E. H. (Peterbord) wishes to know
where he can procure dried grass for
stuffing couches, etc.
C. J. C. asks for a short article on
"How to make ventriloquist dolls, with
movable mouths, eyes, etc. " Dolls' eyes
and mouths are made to move by wires.
The method of doing this, and of making
the little squeaking instrument that is
placed in the interior of such dolls, would
be best learnt by taking a doll to pieces.
Still, if any correspondent can satisfy
C. J. C, our pages are open to him.
J. H. (Middle Hulton) wishes to ac-
quire a lathe by purchase on the hire
system. This is worth the consideration
of manufacturers of lathes, for it is as
reasonable to supply a lathe on this
system as a sewing-machine or a bicycle
or tricycle.
Sheemus desires to know where he can
obtain " soft metal gilt ornaments for the
corners of picture frames."
W. B. J. (Glazeley) asks how to car-
bonize bran for preserving fruit.
Robert of Elswick wishes to know
how to make a set of bag-pipes.
W. W. (Norwich) wishes to know how
to make model windmills, ships, etc.,
that are worked by dropping pence or
coins into them.
A. H. R. D. G. (Reading) asks for "a
simple recipe for making a shampooing
mixture." What can he mean ?
INDEX TO FIRST VOLUME.
A full Index and List of Illustra-
tions to Volume I. of Amateur Work,
Illustrated, will be given away witli
next month's Part,
INDEX.
Actinic, meaning1 of term, 59
JEolian harp, how to moke an, 336, 528
"Alhambra" five o'clock tea table, the,
159
Amateurs, best shape of lathe for, 5
Amateurs, bookbinding for, 360, 468
Amateurs in council, 44, 92, 140, 190, 238, 335,
383, 479, 527
Amateurs, lathe-making- for, see Lathe-
making for amateurs
Amateurs, use of gas to, 183
Amateurs, wood-earring for, 358
Amateurs, wood-working machinery for, 212,
313,499
American clocks, 152
American ma^ic bronze, the, 332
Antique furnit are, to restore, 305, 318
Apparatus, gvmnastic, 369, 473, 502
Apparatus, photographic, to make, 302
Asbestos, use of in laboratories, 91
Auto-pneumatic fountain, patent, 143
Bachelor's sideboard, a, 376
Bar-frame hive, a cheap, 111
Bar, horizontal, to make a, 502
Barometer, how to construct a, 147
Baths, photographic, 56
Batteries, electric, to make, 80
Batteries, galvanic, to make, 192, 238
Battery, galvanic, definition of a, 79
Bed, lathe, how to form, 6
Bee-keeping, electricity in, 41
Bellows, organ, leather for, 52
Bells, electric, 320, 367, 414, 419, 517
Bells, electric, sundries for, 517
Bench-clamp, patent-, 142
Bicyclist, hints for, 280
Bleeding, how to check, 160
Boards, bevelling edges of, 338
Boards, warped, to straighten, 242
Boat-building made easy, 179, 224, 325, 483
Boats, how to copy, 179
Bookbinding, amateur, 244, 360, 468
Bookbinding, home-made tools for, 515
Bookcase, top finish for a, 529
Book shelves, hanging, with drawer, 229
Books, useful, for amateurs, 332
Boot-makers, technical slang of, 28
Boot-making, tools for, 83
Boots and shoe3, how to make and mend
them, 28, 83, 125, 162, 238, 297, 39 >, 473
Boots, chief parts of, 30
Boot 9, hand -sewn, 297
Boots, measurements for, 28
Bo its, riveted and pegged, 125
Boots, sizes used in, 28
Boring glass, method of, 186
Bottle-jack, to repair a, 241
Bowed instruments origin of, 71
Box, catch for, 383
Brace, new drill, 95
Bracket clocks, 151
Brackets, gas, to fix, 198
Brackets, wall, for corners, 136
Bran, carbonised, 236
Brass, how to clean, 41, 385
Brass, polishing, 377
Brass, to protect from tarnish, 475
Bric-a-brac, Japanese cabinet for, 17
Bric-a-brac, manufacture of, 18
Bric-a-brac, wood for, 17
Bronze, American magic, 332
Brush and chisel, decorative work for,
87
Building up clay, process of, 61
Cabinet, Japanese, for china, a, 17
Cabinet, skeleton, hanging wall, 177
Cabinet, wall, au seful and ornamental hang
ing, 24
Camera, dark slides for, 32
Camera obscura, description of the, 31
Cameras, sliding body, 31
Canoe for rough water, 479
Canoe, how to build a, 225, 336
Canoe, paddles for a, 227
Canoe, rudder for a, 227
Cinoe, sails for a, 227
Caoutchouc, hard, to expand, 373
Carbon tracing paper, 43
Carpenter-bee, work of the, 39
Carpentry, instructions in, 239
Casting in plxster of Paris, 371,387
Catch for a box, 386
Caterpillars, the preservation of, 165
Ceilings, hints on finishing, 232
Ceilings, lathing and plasteiing, 232
Ceilings, sheet zinc for, 237
Ceilings, to whitewash, 337
Cement for fixing wood to stone, 379
Cement for joints, 379
Cement for leather belts, 237
Cement for marble, 42
Cement, gutta percha, for leather, 42
Centre, inches of, meaning of term, 5
Chamfering, patent shave for, 477
Chandeliers, how to fix, 293
Chest of drawers, a miniature, 67
Chime clocks, 151
China, hints for painters on, 134
Chisel, brush and decorative work for, 87
Chisels, best way of sharpening, 19
Chromatism, to remedy, 32
Cisterns, filtering, for rainwater, 3
Clay, difficulties in working in, 59
Clay, modelling in, 12, 59, 107, 55, 215
Clay, suited for modelling, 13
Z
532
Clepsydras, description of, 22
Clock making, tools for, 152
Clock movements for fret-cutters, 383
Clocks, household, how to adjust, clean, and
repair them, 22, 75, 151, 328, 403
Clocks, movements of, 75
Clocks, old, 23
Clocks, parts of, 75
Clocks, repairing balances iu, 239
Clocks, varieties of, 151
Cloth, focussing, use of, 33
Clothes-horse, a simple, 482
Clothes-horse, new ways of making a,
374
Clothes, rack for, 375
Coins, electrotyping, 89
Coins, medals, etc., reproduction of, 89
Coins, stereotyping, 89
Colours of plants, to preserve, 43
Combination trysquare, level, etc., 48
Corks, air and water-tight, 91
Corner cupboard, a handy, 145
Corners, wall-brackets for, 136
Council, amiteurs in, see Amateurs in
council
Cupboard, handy corner, 145
Dark room, photographic, 118
Decorative process, a new, 42
Decorative work for brush and ousel, 87
Decoration, interior, 240
Dentistry, hiuts ou, 526
Dessert-plates, hints on painting, 87
Dials, spring, 151
Dining-room, a sideboard for tbe, 49
Disinfectant, a cheap, 237
T>'at illation, hints on, 100
Doors, new catches for, 333
Doors, to keep shut, 482
Double dark slide, to make, 302
Draughtsmen, red ink for, 238
Drawers, a chest of, in miniature, 67
Drawers, miniature, uses of, 67
Drawing-board, Lockenby's, new, 233
Drawing-paper, sectional, 187
Drawings, hints on enlarging, 9
Drawings, to copy, 378
Drawings, working, appliances for, 7
Drawings, working, bow to prepare and pro-
duce them, 7
Drill brace, new, 95
Duck gun, how to fix a, 479
Ebonisiug, black fluid for, 43
Eggs preserved by paraffin, 186
Eidographie, 42
Electric bells, 320, 367, 449, 517
Electric light, the domestic, 355, 461
Electric paint remover, the, 94
Electricity in bee keeping, 41
Electricity, modes of procuring, 79
Electro-plating at home, 9, 79, 97, 170, 202,
261
Electro-plating, brushes for, 203
Electro-plating, connectors for, 99
Electro-plat iug, fittings for, 98
Electro-plating, solutions for, 171
Electro -plating, vats for, 98
Electro-plating, water for, 100
Electro-plating, wires for, 99
Electrotyping, hints on, 90
INDEX.
Emery paper, solid, 475
Enigmas in wood, some, 39
Facetisescopes, construction of, 241
Fence, tarred, how to whiten, 336
Fiddles, origin of, 71
Figure- painting in china, 135
Filter for a tap, 221
Filter, cask, for ponds, 224
Filter for kitchen use, 131
Filter, large compound, 133
Filter, ornamental, 131
Filter, pocket, 223
Filtering cisterns for rain-water, 34
Filters, construction and maintenance of,
130, 221, 291, 446
Fire-plices in suniuier, 259
Fires, gas, to fit up, 294
Fishing -boat, Norwegian, 483
Floor, preparation of for dancing, 241
Floor-staining, hints on, 106, 24 J
Flowers, painting, on china, 135
Folding paper, hints on, 361
Foot, how to measure a, 29
Fountain, patent auto-pneumatic, 143
Fountain, self-acting, 383
Frames, making, without a mitre-box, 93
French polish, to make, 111
Fret-cutting, clocks for, 380
Fret-cutting, patterns for, 47, 144, 189
Fret-saw, the Holborn, 92
Fret-sawing, simple machine for, 36
Fret-work, staining, 141
Fret-work, tbe human figure in, 238
Furnaces, gas, for amateurs, 184
Furniture, ancient, characteristics of, 305
Furniture, antique, to restore, 305, 318
Furniture, strong and simple home-made,
122, 455
Book-case, 457
Chair, 456
Ebonising the furniture, 401
Spanish wash-stand, 456
Table, occasional, 455
Galleries, turned, substitute for, 51
Galvanic batteries, 192, 238
Gardeners, amateur, greenhouse for, 193
Gas fires, to fix, 295
Gas-fitting, practical, 196, 293, 4*9
Gas-fitting, tools for, 196
Gas in the amateur's workshop, use of,
183, 272
German clocks, 151
Giant Stride, to make a, 369
Gimlets, new forms of, 96
Glass, cutting, with a hot iron, 238
Glass, embossing on, 92
Glass, ground, imitation, 41, 379
Glass, liquid for etching on, 443
Gliss, metallic designs on, 379
Glass, stained, a new style of, 54
Glass, to bore, 186
Glue, liquid, 43, 92, 240
Glue, waterproof, 91
" Graph " composition, 492, 528
Greenhouse, small, for amateurs, 193
Greenhouses, heating, 195
" Grindery," meaning of term, 84
Grinding rest, Newton's, 240
Grinding, tool-holders for, 19
Ground glass, imitation, 41, 379
Guttapercha cement, 42
Gymnastic apparatus, 265, 369, 401, 473, 502
Ha5morrhage, accidental, how to stop,
160
Hall clocks, 151
Hammer, simple veneeriug with the, 218
Hanging book-shelves, with drawer, 229
Harmonium, how to build a small, 339,
512
Harness, polish for, 530
Harp, .ffiolian, to mike, 336, 528
Hinges, ornamental, substitute for, 24
Hive, bar-frame, a cheap, 111
Hive-making, hints on, 111
Hive-making, materials for, 112
Hive-making, tools for, 112
Holborn fret-saw, the, 92
Home-made furniture, sugg stions for,
122
Horologes, old patterns of, 22
Horse, clothes-, a simple, 482
Horse, clothes-, new ways of making a,
374
House-building, hints on, 240
Houses, badly -built, 337
Indian ink, to fix, 186
India-rubber, old vulcanized, 237
Ink, Indian, to fix, 186
Ink, red, for draughtsmen, 236
Insect taxidermy, 38
Instruments, bowed, origin of, 71
Iron, preservation of, 237
Iron, to keep from rusting, 43
Irons* plane, hints on grinding, 19
Japanese cabinet for china, a, 17
Japanning, imitation, 43
Jointing wood in all its branches, 305
Joints, cement for, 379
Joints, how to blow, 196
Joint, wiped, to make, 386
Key-boards, organ, fixing, 173
Key-boards, organ, how to make, 464
Key-boards, organ, notes on old, 4S5
Labels, paste for, 91
Lancets, sharpening, 140
Lists, sizes of, 28
Lathe, importance of for amateurs, 6
Lathe, plain amateur's, 5
Lathe, to form bed for, 6
Lathe-making for amateurs, 4, 63, 199, 421
Lathes, amateurs', parts of, 63
Lathes, headstocks for, 199
Lathes, mandrels for, 199
Lead pipe, how to join a, 296
Leather belts, cement for, 237
Life-boat, a home-made, 325
Light, electric, battery for, 354
Light, electric, the domestic, 355, 461
Liquid glue, 43, 92, 240
Lunadine, how to use, 11, 47
Lunadine, what suited for, 11 , 47
Machine, fret-saw, to make a, 34
Machine, fret-saw, treadle for, 35
Marble, cement for, 42
INDEX.
533
Marble, to clean, 240
Marking- tools, 42
Measure, spring- tape, 189
, Medals, coins and, reproduction of, 89
L — Medal, hand -turning' tools for, 250
Metal, plated, substitute for, 186
Metal surfaces, varnish for, 41
Metals, to clean, 91
Mirror, " Lily" over-mantel, 453
Fret-cutting, design for, 453
Painting, design for, 453
"Wood suitable for, 454
Mitre-box, handy small, 333
Model engines, nuts for, 510
Modelling, clay suited for, 13
Modelling in clay, 12, 59, 107, 155 t X\ i
Modelling, shadows in, 155
Modelling, tools needed for, 13
Modelling, use of as a means of learning to
carve, 12
Models, .plastic materials for, 42
Mordants for staining wood, 379
Mosaic, glass, 54
Nickel-plating, 41
Nippers, double compound cutting, 47
Novelties, notes on, 46, 94, 142, 187, 233, 332,
380, 476, 525
Nuts for model engines, 510
Occasional table, a three-legged, 127
Organ, chief parts of an, 15
Organ, definition of an, 15
Organ, finishing an, 173
Organ, how to build a small, 15, 51, 115, 173,
218
Organ keyboard, how to make an, 464
Organ, pipes for a small, 15
Organ, sound-board of an, 115
Organ, wind-chest of an, 115
OTgan-building, correspondence on, 190, 2 il,
287, 335, 384, 431, 480
Paint, old, to remove, 91, 94
Painting on china, hints on, 134
Paper, carbon tracing, 43
Paper-hangings, to varnish, 379
Paraifin, eggs preserved by, 186
Pass3 g&3, painting, 383
Paste, rice, 42
Pendants, gas, how to fix, 199
Perambulator, how to build a, 442
Perambulator, design for, 444
Perambulator, handle for, 445
Perambulator, hood for, 445
Perambulator, paint for, 444
Perambulator, wheels for, 445
Perambulator, wood for, 445
Photographic apparatus, to make, 302
Photographic image, painting on the, 392
Photographs, coloured, 91
Photographs, finishing, 490
Photographs, fixing, 493
Photographs, mounting, 490
Photographs, printing, 488
Photographs, toning, 4S9
Photographs, varnisbing, 489
Phot graphy, dark room for, 118
Photography, dark tent for, 119
Photography, lens for, 383
Photography, principles, and practice of 30,
56, US, 239, 418, 488
Pianos, a few words about, 406
Picture-frames, gilding, 337
Pipe-clay, for modelling, 335
Pipes, clarabella, 15
Pipes, organ, to make, 15
Pipes, setting out scale for, 52
Pipes, stopped diapason, 15'
Plaster of Paris, casting in, 371
Plating, electro, sec Electro -plating
Plating, nickel, 41
Plating, solutions for, 239
Plants, colours of, to preserve, 43
Polish, French, recipe for, 141
Polish, harness, 530
Polishing, French, and spirit varnishing,
248
Polygons, a scale for, 234. 333
Portable theatre, amateurs', 523
Press, cheap printing, 381
Press, the bookbinder's, 469
Printing, cheap press for, 381
Printing, handbooks on, 3S1
Putty, old, to soften, 91
Queen Anne timepiece, a, 4£7
Rain-water, filtering cisterns for, 34
Eain-water, practical collection of, 446
Eats, to get rid of, 236
Eats, how to keep out, 378
Eed ink, brilliant, 236
Red stain for wood, 379
Refrigerator, home-made, 338
Reproduction of coins and medals, 89
Rests, grinding, 20
Rice paste, or cement, 42
Rubber type, metal bodied, 526
Rusting, to keep iron from, 43
Satin painting in oils, 268
Saw, fret, the Holborn, 92
Saws, scroll and fret, 02
Saws, various handpower, 212
Scale, drawing to, 9
Scale for polygons, a, 234
Scale for polygons, another, 333
Screens, framework for, 335
Sere w-cut ting, tables needed for, j65
Screw-drivers, miniature, 47
Screw, leading, in screw-cutting lathe, to
reverse, 239
Screws, loose, to tighten, 378
Sectional, drawing-paper, 187
Self-acting fountain, 383
Sideboard, a bachelor's, 376
Sideboard, a dining-room, 49
Silver, recipe for cleaning, 336
Silver, tarnished, to clean, 43
Silvering, simple, 9
Silvering, materials for, 10
Silvering, mixtures for, 10
Silvering, outline of process of, 11
Silvering, tools for, 10
Silvering, scratch-brush for, 10
Siphon barometer, to make a, 148
Skeleton clocks, 151
Skiving, how performed, 85
Slide-rests, amateur's, €3
Slippers, how to make, 472
Soap and its manufacture, 110, 364
Soap, lye for, 111
Soap, simple recipe for, 365
Soap-making, notes on, 383
Soda, borate of, uses and properties of,
378
Solders, soft, fusibility of, 236
Soling, principal methods of, 29
Spherical aberration, 32
Spirit levels, new form of, 189
Stains, Stephens' wood, 188
Starrett's combination square, 48, 95
Steel and iron, decoration of, 237
Stencilling, 318
Stencilling, brushes for, 319
Stencilling, colours for, 319
Stencilling, designs for, 319
Stencilling, plates for, 318
Stereotyping, hints on, 89
Stone, cement for fixing wood to, 379
Storm-glass, to make a, 481
Stove-pipes, to clean, 91
Strings, violin, 438
Summer-house, a small, 270
Surgical instruments, sharpening, 241
Swan lamp, low-power, 461
Swings, portable frames for, 473
T-square, use of the, 7
Table, " Albambra" five o'clock tea, 158
Table, three legged occasional, 127
Tables, manual of mechanic's, 525
Taxidermy, insect, 38
Tea-table, " Alhambra" five o'clock, 158
Telephones, how I made my, 341, 492
Tent, dark, for photographers, 119
Theatre, amateur's portable, 523
Three-legged occasional table, a, 127
Timepiece, a Queen Anne, 487
Time, ancient measures of, 22
Timepieces, French, 328
Tins, old, new uses for, 277
Tins, milk, empty, 379
Tool-case, amateur's, 96, 257
Tool-holder, wooden, 242
Tool-holders for grinding, 19
Tools, clockmaker's, 152
Tools, grinding, hints for, 19
Tools, home-made, for bookbinding, 515
Tools, marking, 42
Tools, purchase of, 192
Tools, rolls containing, 477
Tools, sharpening, 41
Touch, gas-fitter's, 196
Tracing-paper, carbon, 43
Tricycles, varieties of, 435
Tubes, iron gas, 293
Tubs, to put hoops on, 44, 192
Turret clocks, 151
Turning, wood, tools for, 63
Type, metal-bodied rubber, 526
Uppers, shapes and sizes of, 28
Varnish, Cremonese, 309
Varnish for metal surfaces, 41
Varnish, compound stain and, 337
Vats for electro-plating, 98
Velocipedes, origiu and history of, 353
534
INDEX.
Velocipedes, their construction and use, 352,
Violins, varnishes for, 311
Wood, preservation of, 90
435
Voicing pipes, method of, 15
Wood , red staining for, 379
Veneering, simple, with the hammer, 218
Wall-brackets for corners, 136
Wood, snme enigmas in, 39
Veneers, how to lay, 218
"Wall-cabinet, a useful banging, 24
Wood, Stephens' stains for, 188
Vice, picture frame, 143
Wall-cabinet, skeleton hanging, 177
Wood, thinking in, 12
Violin-makers, celebrated, 100
Walls, damp, to cure, 379
Wood, violet stain for, 379
Violin-making, as it was and is, 71, 100, 165,
Walls, damp, whitewash for, 43
Wood-carving for amateurs, 274, 358
206, 253, 309, 345, 393, 438 504
Ways and means, 41, 90, 186, 236, 377, 475
Wood-carving, tools for, 358
Violins, backs and bellies of, 207
Wheels, change, for lathes, 65
Wood-work, coating for, 43
Violins, bars and sound-bars in, 211
Whitewash for damp walls, 43
Wood-working machinery for amateurs, 212,
Violins, cost of materials and tools for, 211
Wiped joint, to make a, 386
313, 413, 499
Violins, how to copy, 169
Wire, how to straighten, 93
Woods best suited for carving, 359
Violins, origin of, 71
Wood, bleaching, 378
Working drawings, how to prepare and pro-
Violins, strings for, 438
Wood, a new filling for, 41
duce them, 7
Violins, use of sound-post in, 210
Wood, filling for, 141
Working drawings, use of, 7
Violins, variations in, 505
Wood, jointing, in all its branches, 365
Violins, varieties of, 71
Wood, mordants for staining, 379
Zinc, effect of, on hot coals, 91
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